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CHAPTER - 3

RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY OF THE UPPER BEAS BASIN: A LAND

SYSTEM APPROACH

3.1 Reconnaissance Survey: Concept and Purpose

A Reconnaissance Survey has been carried out in the Upper Beas Basin in order to

present a detail analysis and understanding of the geology, morphology, hydrology and resources

that exist and propose a plan for future sustainable development. The purpose of Reconnaissance

Survey is to conduct survey of all aspects of physical environment, its types, location, extent,

category, etc to an extent so that it helps to understand their effects on land use potential. The

evaluation of resources is done through the consecutive stages of general description of natural

attributes like structure, relief, slope, drainage, soil, vegetation, vegetation, groundwater potential

and man induced attributes like agriculture, horticulture, industries etc; their methodological and

scientific investigation, their interdependence and interrelationship, temporal change detection

among certain attributes and last of all mapping of the attributes for future land development

(Dent, D. and Young, A. 1981).

Land Evaluation is the process of estimating the potential of land for various types of

productive use like farming, forestry along with services like watershed management, wildlife

conservation etc.. As different kind of land use has different kind of resource requirement, the

basic feature of land evaluation is to bring out a comparison between the two and establish an

interrelationship and interdependence among them. Land evaluation is based on information

from two sources: Land (its natural attributes) and Land use (the anthropogenic use of the natural

resources). To be of value in land planning and management these two information sources

should be related. The stage when the requirements of land use are compared with the qualities

of land, thereby assessing the value of each type of land presents for each kind of use; is when

the necessity of land evaluation arises. This evaluation of land is properly executed by

Reconnaissance Resource Survey.

Reconnaissance Resource Survey can be carried out by a number of approaches like Land

System Approach, Ecological Survey, Agro-Ecological Survey, Soil Landscape Survey, Terrain

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Classification Analysis etc (Dent, D. and Young, A. 1981). In the present research work on the

Upper Beas Basin, Land System Approach has been chosen for survey and analysis of

geographical parameters.

3.2 Land System Approach – A Method of Reconnaissance Survey

Land System Approach or Integrated Survey is one of the methods for conducting

Reconnaissance Survey, where all the factors or attributes of physical environment are mapped

simultaneously and correlated with the air photo or satellite imagery. The land system approach

helps establish integration among different factors of the environment and rapid communication

of results through clear style of presentation. Two principal units are employed in the research

work. Their differentiation is based on the scale of the region or area to be studied as shown in

the table below. They are Land System approach and Land Facet approach.

Table 3.1: Approaches to study Reconnaissance survey on Land

Approach of Study

Environmental Conditions

Objective of Study

Methods of Study Types of base maps required

Land System

Approach

Area with recurring pattern of topographic features upon varied topographic forms

Mapping of all factors of physical

environment

Identification of each macro and micro landform

features

Satellite imageries in conjunction with toposheets

(1:50,000) supported by ground truth verification with

GPS Land Facet

Approach

Area with uniform environmental /

topographic conditions

Mapping of physical

conditions

Identification of topographic

forms

ground truth verification with GPS and local maps, toposheets (1:50,000)

Land System is a comparatively larger region with minute variations in the pattern of

topography, soil, water bodies and natural vegetation under relatively varying climatic

conditions. These small scale variations in the study area lead to zonal change pattern of all the

attributes. The detail analysis of general geographical parameters is done in Chapter 3.3 and the

landuse attributes in Chapter 10 are based on the land system approach. The description of the

land system as a whole is given in the table below.

Table 3.2: The parameters of land system analysis of the Upper Beas Basin in Kullu Valley

General Geographical Parameters Landuse Attributes Geology and structure Agriculture Relief Horticulture Slope Industries

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Climatic conditions Drainage network system Soil and Regolith Natural Vegetation and forestry Wildlife Geothermal energy resources Groundwater Resource

b) Land Facet is the smallest areas that can be uniquely identified or delineated within a

system; here the environmental conditions are more uniform in nature than the previous. The

facets within a system are not a random collection of contiguous areas but are often linked by

similar geomorphological processes or origin. In this work the land facet approach has been

undertaken for the land suitability and capability evaluation of 3 chosen villages (land units)

named Old Manali Village, Jagatsukh village and Bhekli village as case study in Chapter 10.8

Description of the individual land facets is presented in the following format:

Table 3.3: The parameters adapted for land facet approach of studying small land units in the study area.

Land facet

Form Soil Hydrology Land Cover

1 Ride crest and Hill slopes 2 Rocky slopes or free face 3 Footslope terraces 4 Tributary river valleys 5 Main river valley

3.3 Geographical Parameters of Land System Approach:

i) Geology and structure

Tectonic zones of the Himachal Himalayan Region

Geological setting of the area around the Upper Beas Basin manifests some unique features

which in turn have given rise to typical geomorphological characteristics of the area under study.

Hence a thorough examination of geology and structure of this part of the Himachal Himalaya is

considered prerequisite for the understanding of its geomorphological evolution. A generalised

map of Kullu District showing the major geological formations is shown in Fig. 3.1

Fig 3.1: A generalised map of Kullu District showing major geological formations (modified from

Pirazizy, 1992)

Geologists (e.g. Molnar & Tapponier, 1975) refer from the Palaeomagnetic data that

India, after the separation from other parts of Gondwana super-continent some 130 million years

ago, moved northeastwards at a velocity of 18-19 cm per year and additionally rotated counter

clockwise more than 300 times. During this movement, oceanic crust of the Tethys Ocean was

subducted beneath the Asian southern continental margin, melted at depth and the ascending

melts formed the granites of the Trans-Himalaya plutonic belt. The actual collision of India and

Asia started between 65-55 Ma ago (Klootwijk et al., 1992; Klootwijk et al., 1994). Based on

isotope dating and sedimentological constraints Guillot et al. (2003) estimated the beginning of

the collision at 55 +2 Ma. After the collision, Indian continental crust started to subduct below

Asia and the northward movement of India slowed down to some 5 cm per year, a velocity that

continues up to present. The still ongoing collision causes deformation, crustal thickening and

surface uplift. The upper continental crust of India is sheared off and thrust in south-westward

direction along major, several hundreds of meters thick thrust zones propagating in-sequence

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from north to south, thus becoming increasingly younger towards the south. According to

Gansser (1964), these tectonic zones divide the orogen into five tectonic units which overall

correspond with the geomorphological divisions (Srikantia and Bhargava, 1998). The tectonic

units from south to north are (i) Sub-Himalaya, (ii) Lesser Himalaya (LH), (iii) Higher Himalaya

(HH), (iv) Indus Yarlung Suture Zone (IYSZ), (v) Transhimalaya.

Sub-Himalaya represents the outermost zone of the mountain belt that rises up just north of

the recent Indus-Ganges plains constituting of densely vegetated low-altitude foothills with an

average altitude of 900-1500 m. Its southernmost part is known as Siwalik Range. The Sub-

Himalaya tectonic unit comprises Tertiary molasse - type sediments, which are overthrusted by

the Lesser Himalaya (LH) along the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and subsequently the unit

itself is thrust southwards at the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) above Holocene sediments of the

Indus-Ganges plains. The sedimentary successions are folded and imbricated (Srikantia and

Bhargava, 1998).

Lesser Himalaya shows alpine-type mountain ranges with altitudes ranging between some

1500 to 5000 m. Due to the position directly south of the main range, this densely vegetated zone

benefits from much rain during monsoon. At the northern boundary the Lesser Himalaya tectonic

unit is overthrusted by the Higher Himalaya (HH) at the Main Central Thrust (MCT); (Heim and

Gansser, 1939) and at the southern boundary the LH is thrust above the Sub-Himalaya at the

MBT. Additionally, Lesser Himalaya lithologies can be found in large tectonic windows below

the Higher Himalaya, the Kishtwar Window (Fuchs, 1975; Guhtli, 1993) and the Larji-

KulluRampur Window (Auden, 1934; Frank et al., 1973) indicating a minimum thrusting

distance of 100 km on the km-thick MCT-Zone. The ages of the lithologies range from

Precambrian to Eocene with a major depositional break between middle Cambrian and Eocene.

Within the LH several tectonic units can be distinguished; several nappes are thrust above nearly

unmetamorphosed, imbricated, para-autochthonous sedimentary series (Frank et al., 1995;

Srikantia and Bhargava, 1998; Vannay and Grasemann, 1998). The Proterozoic sedimentary

series of the LH represent thick and uniform successions that can be traced for long distances in

the Himalaya.

Higher Himalaya forms the northernmost tectonic unit of Indian continental crust in the

Himalayan orogen. The Main Central Thrust marks the southern limit, where the HR is thrust

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above the LH tectonic unit. The ophiolithic melange of the Indus-Yarlung Suture Zone, which

represents remnants of the subducted Neo-Tethys Ocean, forms the northern limit. In principal

the Higher Himalaya is divided into 2 subunits:

(i) Higher Himalaya Crystalline (HHC) and (ii) Tethyan Himalaya (TH), i.e. “Tethys

Himalaya” of Auden (1935) “Tibetan Himalaya” of Gansser (1964).

i) The Higher Himalaya Crystalline is located north of the MCT, where it is thrust above

the LH tectonic unit. The unit comprises amphibolite grade metasediments of the Vaikrita Group

in lower levels with gradually decreasing metamorphic grade towards higher levels into hardly

metamorphosed sediments towards the north, the Raimanta Group (Griesbach, 1891; Frank et al.,

1995). The boundary between the HHC and the TH is formed by the large normal fault systems

of the South Tibetan Detachment Zone (STDZ) and similar other faults (Burg et al., 1984;

Burchfield et al., 1992). Abundant Early Ordovician high-level intrusions consisting of

peraluminous granites with minor associated basic intrusions are restricted to the HHC; they are

not found in the LH (Frank et al., 1995). The HH rather constitutes Neoproterozoic to Cambrian

metasediments (Vaikrita and Haimanta Groups) below the TH with continuous sedimentation

into the Palaeozoic, apart from a depositional break in upper Cambrian to lower Ordovician time.

In places where the contact between Vaikritas and Haimantas is not complicated by faults, the

gradual relationship is evident.

ii) The Tethyan Himalaya lying north of the HHC comprises nearly continuous

sedimentary sequences from Cambrian to Eocene (Hayden, 1904; Helm and Gansser, 1939;

Baud et al., 1984).

Trans-Himalayan tectonic unit is dominated by coarse-grained granite rocks that crop out

directly to the north of the Indus-Yarlung Suture Zone along the complete orogen. Geochemical

and age data indicate that these igneous rocks originate from melts related to Andean-type

subduction of oceanic Tethyan crust beneath Asia, before the actual collision of India and Asia.

The granitic intrusions terminated with the complete closure of the oceanic crust between India

and Asia.

Indus-Yarlung Suture Zone defines the zone of collision between Indian and Asian crust

and consist of suites of various rocks, very characteristic of such sutures. Deep-sea sediments

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like turbitites and radiolarites, rocks from volcanic arcs, oceanic basalts and even mantel rocks,

all together in chaotic, highly deformed way delineate a colourful “ophiolithic mélange”.

Geology and structure of the Upper Beas Basin

The rocks of the study area are subject to intense deformation which at many places has

disrupted the original statigraphic position of the various formations. The detailed structure of

the same tectonic belt differs from area to area. As suggested by Srikantia (1987, 1988)

Himachal Pradesh can be broadly divided into 2 major geotectonic zones which are juxtaposed

with each other along a major tectonic break i.e. Main Central Thrust (MCT). They are:

• Lesser Himalayan Tectogen is exposed to the south of MCT and north of Main Boundary

Fault (MBT) and as window zones beneath the crystalline Allocthons. Statigraphically the

litho-units belong dominantly to Proterozoic with Proterozoic granitoids in the window

zones. Structurally the northern segment of the Lesser Himalayan Tectogen lies below the

sole of the crystalline Nappes translated along the MCT. It represents paraautochthonous

structural belts; severely folded compressed and imbricated thrust over the foothill Paleogene

Belt. The Lesser Himalayan Tectogen is classified into 3 major geotectonic units. Here, is

enlisted only 1 major geotectonic units which comply with the study area and form the

principal Proterozoic crystalline belts of The Lesser Himalayan Tectogen, namely

LarjiRampur- Wantu- Window Zone or Larji Belt.

• Tethys Himalayan Tectogen Is mainly exposed in the north of MCT and south of Indus

Suture Zone; is also an Allochthonous unit over the Lesser Himalaya. It is the geotectonic

terrane northeast of the Panjal-Suketi-Jutogh Thrust, considered equivalent to the Main

Central Thrust (Srikantia, 1988). It occupies an area north east of the lesser Himalayan

Tectogen at a distinctly higher Tectogen level. Statigraphically it represents Proterozoic

Crystalline basement and granitoids of variable age, like the Central Crystalline Zone has

Neogene Leucoranite. Structurally the study area in this zone represents the Central

Crystalline Zone followed further by a sprawling Salkhala Metasedimentary Nappe, followed

by crystalline thrust sheets of Kullu and Jutogh, tectonically moved over the Lesser

Himalayan Tectogen as Nappes and Klippen with direction of movement from northeast to

southwest. This Tethys Himalayan Tectogen has two major geological components:

Proterozoic Crystalline rocks on the south west (which encompasses the study area) and

Phanerozoic sedimentary sequence to the north east.

The Tethys Himalayan Tectogen is classified into 5 major geotectonic units. Here, is enlisted

only those 4 major geotectonic units which comply with the study area and form the principal

Proterozoic crystalline belts of the Tethys Himalayan Tectogen. They are - The Central

Crystalline Zone comprising the Vaikrita group i.e. the Rohtang Crystalline Complex, The

Salkhala Nappe, The Kullu Nappe and The Jutogh Nappe. The Table 3.4 below shows the

Tectono-Statigraphic sequence of Proterozoic crystalline belts of Vaikrita, Salkhala, Kullu and

Jutogh and the Phanerozoic sedimentary belts of the Tethys Himalayan Tectogen.

Table 3.4: The Tectono-Statigraphic sequence of Proterozoic crystalline belts of Vaikrita, Salkhala, Kullu and Jutogh and the Phanerozoic sedimentary belts of the Tethys Himalayan Tectogen of Himachal

Pradesh NORTHEAST

Terminal Proterozoic to Cretaceous

Lahaul-Spiti-Kinnaur Tethyan Sedimentary Belt (Granitoid Intrusives)

Paraconformable Neoproterozoic Salkhala group (Impersistent)

Welded Contact Proterozoic Vaikrita group (Central Crystalline Zone)

(Granitoid and Leucogranite Intrusives) VAIKRITA PARAAUTOCHTHON

Dislocation Permian- Triassic (Chamba)

Kalhel Formation Salooni Formation

(South Lahaul) Tandi Group

Unconformity Terminal Proterozoic Batal

Manjir Batal

Unconformity Neoproterozoic Salkhala Group

(Granitoid Intrusives) Chamba Formation Bhalai Formation

SALKHALA NAPPE Thrust

Neoproterozoic Kullu group Khokan Proterozoic: Jutogh group Garh-Manjot (Granitoid Intrusives) Khamarada

KULLU NAPPE Thrust Thrust

LESSER HIMALAYAN TECTOGEN SOUTH WEST

Source: Modified from Srikantia and Bharava, 1998.

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Fig 3.2: Detail Geological Map of Upper Beas Basin – the study area.

Fig 3.3: Seismotectonic Map of Upper Beas Basin – The study area.

The structural belts and units that are found in the upper Beas basin, Kullu valley is

shown in Fig 3.2 and 3.3 and is discussed in detail as follows:

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Lesser Himalayan Tectogen and the gateway to Kullu Valley

1. The highly folded Larji belt of rocks forms the gateway to the Kullu valley. The existence of a

tectonic window in the Beas gorge of Larji was first recorded by Auden (1948).It is known as

Larji-Rampur-Wantu-Window Zone which is framed by crystalline nappes of Kullu, Jutogh and

Vaikrita emanating from Central Crystalline Zone of the Tethys Himalayan Tectogen. It consists

of a complex of sedimentary and igneous rock completely framed by Kullu Thrust Sheet. The

Larji-Rampur-Wantu-Window is an arcuate broad structural zone, 120 Km long extending from

Malana in the north wet to Karcham in the south west. It is an unique window within a window

with four tier tectonic units of Larji group, Rampur group with an inner frame of Kullu group

thrust sheet and an outer frame of the Salkhala group Nappe on the west side and Vaikrita on the

east side.

Tethys Himalayan Tectogen and the Kullu Valley

2. The Kullu Group and Crystalline Thrust Sheet of Kullu occurs in between the Jaunsar group

and Inner Krol belt of Superficial Nappe and Jutogh Thrust Sheet. The term Kullu was first

adopted by Sharma (1977a) for a sequence of metasediments framing the Larji- Rampur window

zone. Statigraphically they belong to the Middle Proterozoic group of rocks. The Kullu

Crystalline area is divided in ascending order into:

• Khamrada Formation made up of carbonaceous, locally graphitic phyllite/ schist,

quartzite and limestone.

• Gahr Formation consisting of Augen and streaky Biotite Gneiss.

• Kullu Formation which mainly comprises the study area. It encloses a monotonous

sequence of Schist, Phyllite and Quartzite.

3. The Central Crystalline Zone comprising the Vaikrita group i.e. the Rohtang Crystalline

Complex Zone in Himachal Himalaya represents a geanticline roughly along the axis of the

Great Himalayan range from Giambal-Suru Crystalline complex in the extreme northwest to

Rohtang Pass-Kalpa crystalline complex from northwest to southeast along the Central

Crystalline Zone. The term Vaikrita was first proposed by Griesbach (1891) for the schistose

series overlying Gneisses and underlying the Haimantas in Central Himalaya. The Vaikrita group

comprising the Giambal and Rohtang Crystalline Complexes constitute a thick succession of

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crystalline rocks of Proterozoic age, which have undergone high grade regional metamorphism,

deformation, migmatisation and intrusion of remobilized granite.

The Rohtang Crystalline Complex (RCC) is a major crystalline massif comprising a

series of Psammitic gneisses and schist of great thickness. The Vaikrita Group in Rohtang- Kalpa

Sector comprises a sequence of a variety of layered gneisses, garnetiferous biotite gneiss,

muscovite gneiss, augen gneiss, calc gneiss with interfoiled schist and quartzites containing

kyanite, sillimanite, staurolite and garnet. The RCC is characterized by extensive occurrence of

granitoids particularly along the north east margin, showing great variation in composition

ranging from biotite granites, porphyritic granites and leucogranites which are several phases of

granitic intrusion. The RCC in most of the cases have yielded well defined isochron age of 581+

9 Ma (Mehta 1977). RCC exhibits a normal decrease in the grade of metamorphism towards

statigraphic top.

4. The Salkhala Nappe The entire metasedimentary belt, excluding the Jutogh Group Belt,

resting over the lesser Himalayan Tectogen as a major thrust sheet was earlier referred as

Salkhala group (Srikantia and Bhargava, 1974b).With the identification of Kullu Nappe as

separate thrust sheet in the basal part of Salkhala Nappe, as the Central Crystalline Zone rocks

have an identity of their own and as the term Salkhala according to literature is considered

adjoining to Jammu and Kashmir, therefore the term Salkhala is restricted to the metasediments.

An important feature of the Salkhala group is the presence of a linear belt of concordant

granitoids plutons ranging in age between 450 to 550 Ma.

5. The Jutogh (Nappe) Thrust Sheet rest along the Folded Jutogh Thrust over the Kullu

Formation. The Jutogh Group is defined as a succession of metamorphosed sediments with a

definite lithostatigraphic order within two well demarcated structural belts. The Jutogh belt

forms the highest allochthon in the lesser Himalaya and is distinguishable from other

metasedimentary belts by its lithostatigraphy.

Quaternary (Sub-recent to Recent)

The unconsolidated glacial, lacustrine and alluvial deposits represent this period. The glacial

deposits mostly in the form of terminal and lateral moraines are extensively present in the higher

reaches of the Kullu valley. These alluvial deposits are mainly preserved as multilevel terraces

along the lower reaches of the Beas River.

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Granitoids

In the study area both foliated and non-foliated granitic rock types are found to be widely

exposed. In the Kullu valley they are associated with the Kullu crystalline, thereby occurring

along the thrust sheets overlying the granitoids occurring as window and forming the basement.

Mineral resources

From the systematic geological mapping of the entire Kullu District, it is evident that the

district is endowed with a number of non-metallic, metallic and other minerals. In the lesser

Himalayan Tectogen zone mineral occurrences are known from the rocks ranging in age from

Proterozoic to Neogene, while in the Tethys Himalayan Tectogen mineralization is seen in

Proterozoic and Phanerozoic rocks. The available minerals in the study area are Slate, Beryl,

Clay, Copper, Garnet, Glass, Sand, Gold, Iron Ore, Kyanite, Galena, Limestone & Dolomite,

Mineral Water, Nickel & Cobalt, Quartz, Radioactive Minerals, Silver and Tourmaline. The

Upper Beas basin mainly comprises of the Tethys Himalayan Zone where large scale mineral

extraction for economic purpose is a severe problem due to poor logistics, inaccessibility and

limited period of working owing to adverse climatic condition.

3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

ii) Relief

The Upper Beas basin is located in the northern part of Kullu Valley in the Kullu district

of western Himalayas between the Pir Panjal range in the north and Dhauladhar range in the

south. The Kullu District is situated in the transitional zone between the Lesser Himalayas in the

central portion and the Greater Himalayas in the north. On a whole the terrain characteristics

depicts a promiscuous distribution of complex rugged topography dominantly made up of hills,

mountains, river valleys and some micro physiographic features. The complexity of the relief is

mainly due to convergence and divergence of connecting ranges which either terminates or gets

dissected by drainage network, thereby endowing the zone with numerous deeps, narrow and

wide valleys and no extensive flat plain.

Fig 3.4: Map of Relief zones of Kullu District showing altitudinal variations (modified from Pirazizy,

1992) The relief map shown in Fig 3.4 shows the variation in relief zones of the entire Kullu

District. It can be seen from the consecutive relief zones that a huge variation of altitude exists,

the lowest relief of below 1300m is seen in the south west corner which slowly increases up to an

altitude of above 6500 towards the north, specifically in the zone of the study area- Upper Beas

Basin and also towards the north east. In general the relief pattern has an increasing trend from

south to north and west to east (Joshi, 1984 and Pirazizy, 1992). The heterogeneity of the relief

pattern creates an impact on the physio-cultural landscape of the entire district.

In the study area – Upper Beas Basin, the altitude varies from 1160m at the Beas river

bank to 5,280m in the glaciated zone, near the north western part of the study area & 5,289m is

the highest triangulated height at Hanuman Tibba from mean sea level. The altitudinal zones

below 2000m are usually simple depositional landforms like river terraces, low river valleys,

interfluvial plains etc. with higher concentration of population and their activities. The zone of

2000m to 4000m is usually complex rugged erosional landforms and above 4000m are the huge

Greater Himalayan ranges that form the abode of glacial, periglacial and paraglacial activities.

The Digital Elevation Model (DEM) generated in the study area, as shown in Fig 3.5

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depicts the distribution and gradual increase of altitude, from the Beas river valley that flows in a

north- south direction within the study area along with other tributaries of Beas to the lofty,

majestic hoary peaks and snow clad mountain ranges, locally termed ‘dhar’ meaning massive

wall, that mark the watershed of the catchment area of river Beas. The higher reaches in the

peripheral zones to the north, north-east and parts of north-west of the study area are rugged

ranges, while the inner parts are comparatively lower broken hills dissected by ‘cho’ meaning

fast moving streams, all of which drain in the arterial river Beas, that marks the valley region of

low relief.

Fig 3.5: Digital Elevation Model of the study area – Upper Beas Basin

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Thus, in accordance with the description of relief by Joshi (1984) and Pirazizy (1992) the

study area can be divided into mountains and valleys in various levels of outer and inner zones.

• The mountains are marked by convexity of form and two important ranges comprise the

study area – the Dhauladhar Range and the Pir Panjal Range. Dhauladhar Range meaning

‘Grayish White Mountain’ is the outer most portion of Lesser Himalayan Range, which is

bifurcated from the Greater Himalayas in the east stretching westward, marking the southern

boundary of the study area. It has a mean altitude of 3000m to 4500m. The undulating slopes

and greater frequency of rock exposure creates a physio-cultural barrier disconnecting the

Kullu valley from its neighboring regions. Pir Panjal Range, marks the northern boundary of

the study area, acts as prominent water divide separating the Beas and Chenab basins. It has a

mean altitude of 4000m to 4500m and merges with Sri Kandh, a mid Himalayan range to the

east of Kullu.

• The most important valley in the study area is the Beas River Valley and the rest are the

valleys of other tributaries. In general the valleys are the lowest relief regions with an

average width of 1 to 4 kms. The general relief pattern of the Beas River valley is, glaciated

U-Shaped valley in the upstream, Fluvio-glacial valleys up to the middle section of the study

area and near Kullu proper or the lower limit of the study area they are river valleys.

Relative Relief also known as Amplitude of Relief is a morphometric technique to

measure the difference or variation of maximum and minimum height of a unit area in respect of

the local base level. The calculation of relative relief is done by Smith’s (c.f. Sen, 1993) method

below:

Relative Relief = Maximum Altitude – Minimum Altitude.

The Relative Relief map as shown in Fig 3.6 of the study area is prepared by Krigging

Method through Arc Info software. The relative relief map shows 10 consecutive zones, from

which the altitudinal variation can be derived gradually. The Relative Relief map of the study

area shows that in general, the difference between maximum and minimum altitude is very low

in the central part of the study area in the Beas river valley while the difference maximizes from

the valley towards the catchment area of the river network. To be more specific the highest

relative relief of above 826m is seen in the north-west, west-central part and north-east-central

55 

 

part of the Upper Beas basin due to the co-existence of high peaks and deep valleys. Rest of the

regions are categorised in the medium relative relief category between 404m to 826m category.

The zone of lowest relative relief below 404m is mainly restricted to the river valleys. From the

relative relief map it is quite clear that the structural control is dominant and plays a decisive role

in the development of variations in the relative relief, especially along the line of geological

contact zones and regions made of harder rocks like Hanuman Tibba made of biotite granite.

The glacial, periglacial and fluvio-glacial erosional and depositional processes modified the

landscape superficially. In the study area, this technique is applied as it helps to portray the zonal

altitudinal variation pattern, providing a clue to the ruggedness of the relief. It also helps to

understand the consequent impact of the relief on the accessibility of people in these regions.

Dissection Index is an important parameter used for assessing the amplitude of relief in

terms of the maximum relief. It is important in terms of litho-tectonic, structural, exogenetic

processes and climatic control. The value of Dissection Index ranges from the value of 0 in case

of surface where minimum altitude is equal to maximum i.e., where no dissection has taken place

to the value of 1 as maximum where the entire altitude is dissected. Thus greater the value,

greater is the degree of dissection and vice versa. It is calculated by the method stated below (c.f.

Sen, 1993):

Maximum Altitude – Minimum Altitude Dissection Index = ---------------------------------------------------- Maximum Altitude The map of Dissection Index of the Upper Beas basin as shown in the Fig 3.7 shows a

low to moderate dissection, as the range is from 0.2 to 0.52. Within the range, the entire upper

part of the study area depicts a low to moderate dissection value, while the lower part, mainly the

lower section of the Beas river valley shows a dissection above 0.31. Thus it can be clearly

deduced that the upper section on an average has a higher altitude but the lower section is very

much reworked by the erosional processes of glacial, periglacial and fluvio-glacial activities,

thereby sculpturing the relief into dissected topography with many consequent higher hills and

deep valleys along with gullies and ravines. This implies that though relief is structurally

controlled, amplitude of relief is formed by the downcutting or dissecting processes of the

erosional agents, those are dominant in this region since from Holocene.

Fig 3.6: Relative Relief Map of Upper Beas Basin prepared by Krigging Method.

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Fig 3.7: Dissection Index map of Upper Beas Basin prepared by Krigging Method.

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3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

iii) Slope

In order to study the topography of a region in geomorphological perspective, analysis of

the slope is very important because together the geomorphic, climatic and other physical forces

maintain the slope in a state of equilibrium. The relief components of Kullu District as a whole

are composed of highlands, lowlands and slope in between them. These slopes are under

continuous modification by the erosional and depositional processes of the geomorphic agents

like glacial, periglacial and fluvio-glacial and also some mass movements like landslides,

avalanches, creeps or rockfalls that are occasional. At the foremost an analysis of the general

slope patterns of Kullu valley in Kullu District is discussed as shown in Fig 3.8.

Fig 3.8: Slope map of Kullu District.

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The slope zones of the Kullu District very distinctly confer to the geology of the area.

They are broadly divided into 4 slope zones. At first, the Moderate Slope (Below 150) that hardly

covers 5% of the study area and is seen in comparatively flatter portions in Manali, beside the

river Beas. They are dominantly host to a large concentration of human habitation and built up

areas. Moderate to Steep Slope (150 – 200) is confined to the north-west – central part and south

and east central parts where mainly agriculture and horticulture is practiced and they cover an

area of about 45 % of the entire district. Steep Slope (200 – 300) and the Very Steep Slope (Above

300) are consecutively located in the central parts, northern and north eastern parts where

difference between the highlands and lower valleys exist markedly. Together they form more

than 50% of the slope zones of the entire district. Steep Slope (200 – 300) belt of higher elevation

comprises the richest meadow utilized by transhumants for grazing of herds. In the central part of

the district the slope is high due to the existence of a part of Dhauladhar range and the highly

folded Larji Belt often known as Larji-Rampur-Wantu-Window. The Very Steep Slope (Above

300) is confined to the highest parts of the Lesser Himalayan belts in the middle and in the

extreme north and north east they mark the boundary of the Kull valley, catchment of river Beas

and is endowed with high snow clad mountain peaks, escarpments and highly folded bedrocks,

where the glacial, periglacial and paraglacial processes are dominant.

The Upper Beas basin is formed under polycyclic processes operating through time along

with structural features; they have a significant imprint on the slope forms of various parts of the

study area. Fig 3.9 shows the 3 dimensional map of Upper Beas basin along with pictorial

evidences of various types of slope forms, ranging from gentle slopes in river terraces to steep

slopes of snow clad mountain peaks. The study of slopes includes many aspects like gradient,

alignment, aspect and composite features, here in case of the study area an average slope analysis

is done by C.K. Wentworth’s formula (1930) (c.f. Sen, 1993). Average slope is a morphometric

technique that expresses the gradient of a region, i.e. the ratio of Vertical Interval to Horizontal

Equivalent, expressed in metric units and is calculated by the formula:

Number of Contour Crossing per Km X Contour Interval in Meter Tan θ = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 636.6

Fig 3.9: 3 – D map of Upper Beas Basin showing various forms of Slopes

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The Average Slope Map of the Upper Beas Basin is calculated by the above formula and

is drawn by Krigging method with the help of Arc Info Software as shown in Fig 3.10. It is very

much evident from the 10 consecutive zones of Average Slope Map that in accordance with the

altitudinal variation that is seen in the Relative Relief map of the previous chapter the average

slope also varies gradually. In general, the average slope is very low in the central part of the

study area in the Beas river valley while the difference maximizes from the valley towards the

higher reaches of the catchment area of the river network. To be more specific the highest value

of average slope of above 22.280 is seen in the north-west, west-central, south western part and a

very small portion in north-east-central part of the Upper Beas basin due to the co-existence of

very high peaks and deep valleys. Rest of the regions are categorised in the medium slope zone

categories of 14.920 to 22.280. The zone of lowest average slope below 14.920 is mainly

restricted to the river valleys. From the average slope map it is quite evident that the structural

control dominantly influences variations in slope; though the glacial, periglacial and fluvio-

glacial erosional and depositional processes modifies the gradient superficially. In the study area,

the technique of average slope helps to portray the zonal variation of slope pattern, providing a

clue to the impact of slope on the accessibility of people in these regions. For instance the steeper

slopes, cliffs and escarpments in the high mountainous regions locally called ‘dhar’ are

categorised into alpine grasslands, locally called ‘thatch’ above tree line, and the rest are snow

clad peaks above snow line. These regions of are unsuitable for human residence and activities.

On the contrary the medium slope regions of 11.930 to 18.180 are the terrace regions along both

sides of the much flatter Beas river valley that are dominated by human habitation and economic

activities like agriculture, industry etc.

Fig 3.10: Average slope map of Upper Beas Basin by Krigging Method.

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3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

iv) Climatic Conditions

Repeated climatic changes were the characteristic climatological phenomena of the

Quaternary period. The climate of Upper Beas Basin in the Himachal Himalaya is an ideal

example of this truth. It is considered that in mountainous terrains the climatic pattern entirely

depends on the local relief, aspect of the slope, altitudinal variations, etc. Generally, the Kullu

valley in Himachal Pradesh exhibits five seasons (Joshi, 1984, Negi, & Jreat, 2006). They are as

follows:

Summer season (middle of April to mid of June) begins with 28 to 320C temperatures only in

areas below 3000 m altitude. Summer ends with the pre monsoon showers in the mid of June

which lasts for 7 to 10 days before the onset of south west monsoon.

Monsoon season (mid of June to end of September) is relatively short in the mountains of

Himachal. Heavy rains continue to occur for several days in the south facing slopes without a

break causing the windward side of the mountain get covered by thick mist for long period.

Autumn season (early October to mid November) evidences clear skies and bright sunshine

throughout the day. Little or no frost occurs during the season, but in higher elevations

snowfall may occur.

Winter season (late November to mid March) is the longest and severest season. In the higher

parts of the Himalayas above 4000m the temperature remains below freezing point

throughout the winter. Snowfall is very common in areas above an elevation of 2400m,

lowest limit being 1800m. Fairly widespread rains occur due to western disturbances in

winter.

Spring season (mid March to mid April) marks the short transition from winter to summer.

During this season local wind storms and rainfall may occur, but snowfall is infrequent.

But according to the traditional calendar, the climatic conditions of Kullu valley can be

more ideally and vividly analysed as per the month wise division of a year (Vedwan and Rhodes,

2001). Table 3.5 below shows the comparative study of how the climatic pattern slowly changes

from one season to another as it used to occur in the past as well as in the present.

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Table 3.5: Traditional climatic calendar of Kullu valley

Local name of the seasons Approximate period

Description of the pattern of climate ideally in the

past

Description of the pattern of climate at

present

Magh 15January -15February Cold with snowfall Some rainfall and

snowfall Falgun 15February-5March Less cold with snowfall Rainfall

Chaitra 15March -15April Mainly rainfall, rarely snowfall

Some rainfall, often snowfall

Baisakh 15April -15May No rain, clear skies Dry with some rainfall

Jeth 15May -15June Hot (Paddy, Cereals, Maize are sown) Dry

Asad 15June -15July Hot, Pre-monsoon rainfall Hot and Dry Sawan 15July -15August Rainfall Hot and Rainy

Bhadra 15August -15September

Rain (Apple harvest), Dry period begins

Predominantly Rainy (Drying grass for fodder)

Aswin 15September - 15October

Clear weather (Apple and other Crops Harvest, Wheat

is sown)

First half rainy and second half dry

Kartik 15October -15November

Mostly clear weather (Paddy Harvest)

Mostly clear weather (Paddy Harvest)

Mangsir 15November - 15December Snowfall Snowfall

Paush 15December -15Jaanuary

Maximum cold with intense snowfall Very little snowfall

Source: modified from Vedwan and Rhodes, 2001 & Jreat, 2006

The relief and topographic conditions have a direct bearing on the climatic zonation and

prevailing geomorphological processes of this terrain. Considering the climatic conditions

through the Upper Beas Basin this area can be divided into the following climatic zones.

a) Alpine zone (above 4,000 m)

The zone above 4,000m enjoys alpine climatic conditions, characterized by long winter and short

summer. This zone occurs in the northern reaches of the Kullu Valley and the higher reaches of

its tributary valleys. For the greater part of the year temperature remains below 0°C. This region

comprises some small glaciers, seasonal as well as semi-permanent snow patches, morainic

debris, high altitude alpine meadows (thatch) and recently de-glaciated areas. The perpetual

snow-line in this terrain exists at about 4,500m. Frost wedges and frost riving under periglacial

conditions are predominant processes. Rock fall as well as snow and debris avalanches are very

common. This alpine zone is generally limited to the northern part of the area. Hence they do not

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exercise direct impacts upon the human activity. However, it has a profound impact on the

hydrological regime of the area as a whole.

b) Temperate zone (1200 -4000m)

Below the alpine zone lies the temperate zone, where climatic condition is milder with winter

snowfall and summer rains. The three broad altitudinal sub-zones as identified in this zone are as

follows:

• Cold (4000 ~ 3200 m)

• Cool (3200 ~ 1700 m)

• Warm (1700 ~ 1200 m)

This zone is mostly vulnerable to cloudburst at the time of onset of the monsoon period because

of the fact that the maximum stretch of the main valley and its tributary valleys in their upper

reaches are funnel-shaped and covered with thick forest. This orographic profile provides ideal

environment for heavy precipitation. This climatic condition is proved to be very ideal for human

habitation with horticultural and agricultural activities.

Presently, Kullu Valley observes temperate to alpine type of climate. The uppermost part

of the valley near Beas Kund and Rohtang Pass (above 3,500m altitude) experiences cold alpine

conditions, whereas temperate conditions prevail in the lower parts of the Kullu valley (below

3,500m), the lowest altitudinal limit in the study area. Monsoon rains set in June and last to the

end of August. Occasional high intensity sleet, mixed with rainfall, occurs in September and

October in the higher reaches and inner parts of the tributary basins. The mountainous tracts

above 4000m receive the greater part of precipitation in the form of snowfall. The rainfall pattern

clearly indicates the orographic influence because it is situated at the wind-ward slope of the Pir

Panjal Range, which acts as a barrier for the monsoon winds. The upper reaches and the higher

ranges of the tributary valleys experience greater amounts of rainfall as compared to the lower

parts because they are covered with thick forest. The July rainfall ranges from 200 to 300mm

indicating the orographic impact. The figure shows a map of the study area depicting the rainfall

zones on the basis of annual rainfall data. The upper reaches of the Kullu Valley record lower

mean maximum and minimum temperatures as compared to the lower reaches where range

between the maximum and minimum temperatures is higher. The winter condition is much

harsher in the upper parts of the mountains, but the summer condition is generally pleasant there

as compared to the valley bottom areas. The map of the study area as shown in Fig 3.11

represents the rainfall zones. Three isohyets of value 1000mm, 1200mm and 1400mm divides

the upper Beas basin into four major rainfall zones. As the pattern suggest, that on an average

amount of rainfall increases from northeast hilly terrain of the study area to the south west hilly

terrain correspondingly. The inner central part of Beas river valley dominantly enjoys rainfall of

1200-1400mm, this aid in flourishing agricultural and horticultural activities. the north eastern

part with lowest rainfall of below 1000mm is mainly the alpine dry zone with little precipitation,

mainly as snowfall.

Fig 3.11: Rainfall zones on the basis of annual rainfall data of upper Beas basin (Modified from District

Planning Map Series, NATMO).

An account of 27-years of total and average temperature and precipitation at an interval of 5

years is made available from the IARI (Katrain) in Kullu Valley. The data base is analysed in

Table 3.6 and 3.7 as follows: 66 

 

Table 3.6: Annual Temperature and precipitation of Upper Beas Basin,Kullu

Year Total Rainfall (mm)

Total Snowfall (mm)

Max Temperature °C

Min Temperature °C

1980 921.8 213 255.65 114.91 1985 1082.3 904 203.12 116.75 1990 1126.9 607 204.6 118.1 1995 1136.2 385 259.03 94.91 2000 934.6 91.5 258.9 141.04 2005 1640.83 670 243.71 112.9 2006 1986.06 240 253.22 150.54 2007 1662.7 610 253.93 146.92

Source: IARI Regional Weather Station: Katrain, Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh

Fig 3.12: Annual Temperature and precipitation of Upper Beas Basin,Kullu

The total annual rainfall varies between 921mm and 1986mm and annual snowfall varies

between 91.5mm to 670mm. The figure below represents that in the period of 27 years the

summation of whole year’s minimum temperature drops as low as 94.910C to 150.540C during

winter, while the maximum temperature range rises from 203.12 0C to 258.90C during summer.

Table 3.7: Annual Average Temperature and precipitation of Upper Beas Basin, Kullu

YEAR Avg Rain in mm Avg Snowfall in mm

Max. Avg Temp in°C Min. Avg temp in°C

1980 76.82 106.50 21.30 9.58 1985 90.19 452.00 16.93 9.73 1990 93.91 202.33 17.05 9.84 1995 94.68 192.50 21.59 7.91 2000 77.88 45.75 21.58 11.75 2005 136.74 335.00 20.31 9.41 2006 165.51 240.00 21.10 12.55 2007 138.56 30.00 21.16 12.24

Source: IARI Regional Weather Station: Katrain, Kullu Valley, Himachal Pradesh 67 

 

Fig 3.13: Annual average temperature and precipitation of Upper Beas Basin

The average annual rainfall varies between 94.68mm and 165.51mm and annual average

snowfall varies between 45.75mm to 305.00mm. As shown in the figure below that, on an

average, the minimum temperature ranges from 7.910C to 12.550C during winter, while the

maximum temperature ranges from 16.930C to 21.590C during summer as observed from Katrain

weather station of Indian Agriculture Research Institute.

Present change in climatic condition

The rising temperature, warmer winters, changes in the timing of snowfall (infrequent

and reduced) is being the mainstay of the changing climatic condition of Kullu valley in the

present decades. Various study reveals that warmer winter (December – January) is causing

melting of snow and glaciers in the higher reaches of the valley area above 5000m. Data

compiled from the climatological table of Indian Meteorological Department for the year 1977 -

2001 shows that at Manali station the mean annual maximum temperature is 200 C and minimum

is 6.1 0C, along with high winter time temperature leading to an unusual melting and retreat of

snow and glaciers in the middle of winter. From the table 3.6 and 3.7 and Fig 3.12 and 3.13

discussed above, early snowfall during December and January has become infrequent over time

and the period of snowfall now extends up to February and March. Remarkably the temperature

distribution is undergoing a northward shifting in addition to overall increase. Hottest month is

no longer the month of May to June and the spring season is colder than usual. Along with rise of

temperature rainfall is becoming more erratic and extreme climate events like drought, flood,

cloudburst etc will increase. Data compiled from the climatological table of Indian

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69 

 

Meteorological Department for the year 1977 - 2001 shows the mean annual total number of

rainy days is 95, highest in July i.e. 16.2 and lowest in November i.e. 2.5 respectively. This

collective change in weather pattern is adversely affecting agricultural and horticultural

productivity by altering important interaction between horticultural plants and pollinators,

intensification of plant diseases and pest attacks.

3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

v) Drainage Network System

In the Study area Upper Beas Basin, the main arterial river is the glacier fed Beas River

along with its well knitted network of tributaries all of which together forms the well developed

river system. The Beas River is mentioned in the ancient history of India in Rig Veda (2500

B.C.) where it is known as Arji Kiya and Greek historians called it Hyphasis (300 B.C. to 140

A.D.). The present name Beas is derived from the Sanskrit name Vipasa, according to the legend

Sage Ved Viyas (author of the famous epic Mahabharata) have performed penance in the source

of river Beas known as Beas Kund. Even today some belief that Beas river is created by Sage

Ved Viyas (Kayastha, 1964). The Beas rises at a close affinity of the Ravi River, near Rohtang

Pass in the Pir Panjal range of central Himachal Pradesh, about 51 Km away from Manali town,

at an altitude of about 40000m. After flowing 121 Km from the source along with its tributaries,

the river cuts through the Dhauladhar range at Larji, with an average fall of 24 Km/Km. After

Larji the gradient becomes more gentler about 3 Km/Km. After Larji in Kullu District the course

of Beas River is through a steep defile after entering into Mandi District, from where it

debouches into the Kangra Valley (Pirazizy, 1992).

The higher reaches cover 1500.27 Km2 of the total Beas catchment and flows north to

south or transversely through Himalayan ranges to form the Kullu Valley. It is a small river at

the source fed by a small spring Beas Rikhi, till it reaches Marhi a seasonal settlement, from

where onwards large quantities of water are added by melting snow and glaciers. Further ahead

at Rahala another seasonal settlement, it plunges into a deep gorge and then rushing in between

gentle sloped convex mountains covered with Pine trees it crosses Palchan village and with a

decrease in gradient it reaches Manali. South of Manali the Beas River becomes more wide and

gentler in gradient. The primary source of water for the perennial Beas River is glacial melt

water and spring snow melt water along with the monsoon rainfall during the summer season.

During the winter months the Upper Beas watershed receives heavy snowfall of more than 1 foot

snow cover around Manali to 50 feet deep at higher reaches around Rohtang Pass area. The

water regime of river Beas is lowest during the winter months of December, January and

February and highest during June, July and August. Fig 3.14 shows the network of River Beas in

the Upper Beas Basin along with its major tributaries.

Fig 3.14: River Beas and its tributaries in Upper Beas Basin

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The morphometric analysis of the River Beas basin in the study area has been done in

two main aspects – Aerial and Linear. The magnitude of the Upper Beas Basin can be analysed

by both Aerial and Relief aspect (the relief aspect is already discussed in previous chapter).

Considering the aerial aspect the Beas River has a medium size of catchment area above 20,000

Km2, as has been described by K.L. Rao’s classification(c.f. Sen, 1993), though only 1500.27

Km2 is considered for study. Moreover on the basis of classification of catchment area based on

stream order it is a 7th order stream, i.e. between the ranges of 5-15 which again denotes it to be

of medium magnitude. Length wise it is a long river, of which only 53.40 Km is taken into

consideration. From the quantitative and qualitative nomenclature in the Table 3.8 below it can

be deduced that the overall value of Area, Perimeter, Length and Breadth of the River Beas in

Upper Beas Basin proves it to be of moderate magnitude. The Drainage Density and Stream

Density value also confirms a medium value categorization of the study area. Drainage Texture

is a measure of the spacing of the drainage network as devised by Smith (1950) (c.f. Sen, 1993),

which is of medium texture type as the value 7.07 ranges from 4 to 10. Structure, lithology,

geology, relief and geomorphic erosional agents together control the form and shape of Upper

Beas Basin. The value of Elongation ratio 0.41 depicts a narrow elongated nature of the basin,

while the Circularity ratio value of 0.46 shows the basin to have a bidirectional nature. The Index

of Form and the Index of Shape together represents the Upper Beas basin to be of Oval shape.

Table 3.8: Morphometric Technique showing Aerial Aspects of Upper Beas Basin Area (A) in Sq. Km 1500.27Perimeter in Kms 201.48

Length in Kms 53.40 Breadth in Kms 38.39

Drainage Density (Dd) 2.33 Stream Density (Ds) 3.04 Drainage texture (Dt) 7.07

Constant of Channel Maintenance (C) 0.43 Elongation ratio (Re) 0.41 Circularity ratio (Rc) 0.46

Index of Form (F) 0.53 Index of Shape (S) 1.39

Besides the aerial and relief properties of drainage basin, the spacing, branching, inter

related growth pattern and lineaments of drainage network is very important for proper analysis

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of drainage network development. The network pattern of drainage is the composition of a

system formed by the confluence of smaller tributaries of lower order with the main trunk

stream, thereby giving it a tree like structure with a branching system. There are various pattern

of the drainage network depending upon the nature of structural and lithological adjustments of

the river and other geomorphological processes. As the drainage system is composed of streams

of different magnitude both in terms of length and discharge volume, naturally the drainage

network is hierarchical i.e. smaller streams or tributaries successively join the bigger ultimately

debouching into the biggest trunk river. This concept of ordering of streams or order in

succession by Strahler’s method (1952) (c.f. Sen, 1993) is applied here as a morphometric

technique to analyse the development of network of streams. The Upper Beas basin in the study

area is a 7 order stream which shows that the network has developed through a long period of

time and is well knitted. It also brings out the strong relationship of lithological control on

drainage network development. Higher order trunk stream has greater ramification and larger

aerial extent of the drainage basin. The Bifurcation Ratio serves a very useful purpose in

enumerating the stream order. The decreasing value of Bifurcation Ratio and length of the stream

with increasing order is shown in Table 3.9 which represents a well developed mature drainage

network system.

Table 3.9: Morphometric Technique showing Stream Order-wise Linear Aspects of Beas River Stream

Order (u) No. of Stream in

an Order (Nu) Bifurcation Ratio (Rb)

Length of the stream (Lu) Kms

Mean Length (Lu)

Length Ratio (Rl)

1st 3432 3.93 2365.696 0.689305361 0 2nd 874 4.65 577.73 0.661018307 0.958962963rd 188 3.92 274.463 1.459909574 2.208576624th 48 3.2 134.565 2.8034375 1.9202816 5th 15 2.14 55.919 3.727933333 1.329772236th 7 7 57.011 8.144428571 2.184703387th 1 0 22.762 22.762 2.79479399

Total 4565 3488.15

Fig 3.15: Stream Ordering Map of Upper Beas Basin by Strahler’s method.

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The overall Drainage Pattern of the Upper Beas basin is mainly parallel to sub-parallel in

nature, though differences of physiographic and geological configuration on a micro scale leads

to diverse drainage pattern. The Channel Pattern of the Beas River is quite diverse ranging from

narrow V-shaped valleys, deep gorges to braided channels with huge boulder deposition thereby

forming various types of bars in the lower course.

Drainage Density is a morphometric technique formulated by Horton (1932) (c.f. Sen,

1993) to analyse the drainage network in a catchment area and to measure the average length of

stream channel per unit area. Drainage Density is determined by rock type, topography, rainfall,

infiltration, resistivity of the terrain to erosion and gradient. The calculation of drainage density

is done by the method below:

Summation of the length of the channel Drainage Density = -----------------------------------------------------------

Area The Drainage Density map of the study area as shown in Fig 3.16 is prepared by

Krigging Method through Arc Info software. It shows 10 consecutive zones, from which it can

be clearly deduced that the drainage density variation is directly proportional to the altitudinal

variation. Higher the relative relief, higher is the drainage density. The Drainage Density map of

the study area shows that in general, the number and length of river is very low in the central part

of the Beas river valley because it is traversed by the main trunk stream only, while the density

value increases from the valley towards the catchment area of the river network. To be more

specific the highest Drainage Density of above 2.459 Km/Km2 is seen in the north-west, south

west, west-central part and north-east-central part of the Upper Beas basin due to the co-

existence of high peaks, cliffs, ridges, escarpments, deep valleys, gorges, rills, ravines and

numerous first order streams. The medium Drainage Density category between 0.679 to 2.459

Km/Km2 is usually found in the higher terraces and hills and mountain ranges of lower relief.

The zone of lowest Drainage Density below 0.679 Km/Km2 is mainly restricted to the lower

terraces of the Beas river valley mainly in the south-central part of the study area where the river

bed is of very low gradient. The structural control dominantly plays a decisive role in the

development of variations in the Drainage Density. The glacial, periglacial and fluvio-glacial

erosional processes also modify the landscape and the stream order. The study area as a whole

portrays a low to medium Drainage Density due to the presence of hard granitic, gneissic and

quartzitic rocks.

Fig 3.16: Drainage Density Map of Upper Beas Basin prepared by Krigging Method

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3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

vi) Soil

Soil is a complex substance that provides base for sustenance of all living organisms on

land surface. It is composed of inorganic and organic substances and physical, chemical and

biological changes within the soil are continuous, and its nature changes with changing

environmental conditions. The varied types of soil in Kullu district is endowed by the varied geo-

lithological and environmental aspects like altitude, slope, micro climate, vegetation cover etc.

The soils in the Kullu valley often does not match the parent rock of the area, thereby indicating

a long geomorphic history interrupted by alternative fluvial and glacial phases that are

responsible for the evolution of the soil. On the basis of physiochemical properties the soils of

the Kullu valley can be broadly divided into 8 groups as shown in Fig 3.17.

Fig 3.17: Soil map of Kullu District (modified from Pirazizy, 1992)

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From the above soil map of Kullu District, it can be deduced that of the 8

different types of soil, Upper Beas Basin has a very little portion of the Mid- Hill soil and Humus

and Iron Podzol, the rest are quite dominant in coverage. On an average the soils are young and

thin and the general depth of the soil vary from shallow to moderately deep, depending on their

occurrence on the hill slopes or valleys. The thickness of soil cover and fertility status

deteriorates with altitude. In the higher reaches with steep slopes soil forming process is slow

due to low temperature and therefore often rock beds are devoid of soil cover. Due to the rugged

topography, the soil profiles have diffused boundaries between genetic horizons. In general, the

soils of the hillsides 2000m to 3000m are made of glistening particles of micaceous rocks while

the forest soils contain much more vegetable mould. They are shallower in depth except on the

alluvial slopes bordering the river beds and are slightly acidic in nature, with an average organic

matter content of 2.5 to 3.5 and the nutrient status is medium to high. The alluvial slopes near the

river and its tributaries are favourable for crop growth. In the Upper Beas valley the alluvial

terraces are quite extensive, with occurrence of granitic boulders. On the contrary the soils below

2000m are well developed with good depth and drainage with a higher organic matter. Lower

down where water supply is less is locally called ‘balh’, the mid zone is called ‘manjhat’, the

higher zone above it is called ‘gahar’ and ‘kutal’ is steep unterraced hillside which remains

under snow cover for a considerable period of time. The detail nutrient status of the soil in the

agricultural and horticultural zones of the study area - Upper Beas Basin is discussed in detail in

Chapter 10.2 (Agriculture).

3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

vii) Natural Vegetation and Forestry

With diverse relief, climate and soil conditions the extensive terrain of the Himachal

Himalaya exhibits a wide variety of natural vegetation. As one progresses from the southern foothills

in the Outer and Lesser Himalaya through the Greater Himalaya to the Trans-Himalaya in the

northern part, vegetation pattern shows remarkable changes within short distances because of

altitudinal variations along with distinguished vegetation strata. All types of forest regions ranging

from tropical, sub-tropical, temperate and alpine occurs in abundance here. The types of flora found

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in Himachal Pradesh can be categorized into 4 types. They are 13 species of Conifers like Pinus

wallichina, Pinus roxburgi, Pinus gerardiana, Picea smithiana, Abies pindrow, Abies spectablis,

Cupressus torulosa, Cedrus deodara, Juniperus macroponda, Juniperus excels, Juiperus Sequamata,

Ephedra Gerardiana and Taxus baccata. Others are 3,120 species of Flowering Plants, 124 species

of Pteriophytes and 38 species of Orchids. In terms of relief conditions the successive ranges of the

Himachal Himalaya from south to north are discussed in the table below.

Table 3.10: Classification of flora in Himachal Pradesh according to altitudinal zones.

Classification based on altitudinal Zones

Categorical names of Flora found in Himachal Pradesh

1. Lower Montane Zone in Outer Himalaya (up to 1,000metres above m. s. l)

A. Trees B. Shrubs C. Grasses

Khair, Siris, Kachnar, Semal, Tun, Mango, Behul, Shisham, Ritha, Tut, Behera & Chil. Vitex, Munj, Ber, Ipomea, Dodonea, Bamboo. Vetiver, Sanchrus, Munjh.

2. Middle Montane Zone in Lesser Himalaya (From 1,000metres to 2,000metres above m. s. l.)

A. Trees B. Shrubs C. Grasses

Kunish, Poplar, Willow, Ohi, robinia, Drek, Kail, Chil Toon, Behmi, Chulli, walnut, Khirik. Vitex, Berberis, Carrisa. Lolium, Dactylis, Phleum, Phylaris.

3. Temperate Zone in Greater Himalaya (From 2,000metres to 3,000metres above m. s. l.)

A. Trees B. Shrubs C. Grasses

Deodar, Fir Spruce, Maple, Ash, BhojPatra, Horse Chestnut,Alder, Robinia, poplar, Walnut. Berberis. Festuca, Dactylis, Bromus, Lucerne, white Clover, Red Clover, dioscorea.

4. Alpine Zone in Trans Himalaya (Above 3,000metres above m.s.l.)

A. Trees B. Shrubs C. Grasses

Birch, Juniper, Cypress, Willow. Saussurea lappa, Cotoneaster microphylla, Artemesia. Festuca arundinacea, Dectylis glomerata.

In the upper Beas basin of Kullu valley the Principal Forest Regions are enlisted here

along with the flora that grows in those regions. They are as follows:

Montane or Temperate Region: includes the upper hills of lower Himalaya, the middle

Himalaya and lower tracts of higher Himalaya; an elevation ranging from 1,500m to 3,500m.

The main forest types occurring in this region are: Oak forest – Ban, Kharsu and Moru oak,

Deodar forest, Blue Pine Forest, Fir and Spruce forest, Mixed Broad- Leaved forest and Chir

Pine forest.

Sub-Alpine and Alpine Region: represents the uppermost limit of tree growth which eventually

extends from an elevation of about 3,500m to the local snow line. This zone includes the upper

slopes of the lower and middle Himalayan ranges, the higher Himalayan ranges and the south

facing slopes of the trans-Himalayas which marks the boundary of the study area. The main

forest types occurring in this region are: High level Blue Pine Forest, Fir and Spruce forest,

Alder forest, Birch forest, Rhododendron Forest and Moist Alpine forest.

Trans-Himalayan Region: has a sparse and poor vegetative growth. It is found in the rain-

shadow areas and inner dry valleys of the main Himalayan ranges and some parts of trans-

Himalayan ranges where tree grows in the moist strips of land occurring along channels formed

by snow melt waters. The main forest types are: Chilgoza or Neoza Pine forest, Dry Deodar

Forest, Dry Juniper Scrub, Deciduous Alpine Scrub. The change in vegetation according to the altitudinal variation of the Kullu valley is well

represented by the Fig 3.18.

Fig 3.18: Changing profile of vegetation according to altitude in meters

In Kullu District the study area in Upper Beas Basin falls under the Kullu Forest Circle - Kullu

and Parbati Forest Division. The entire Kullu Forest Division is divided in to altitudinal zones as

shown in Table 3.11 below. Out of the total area under forest (1266 sq. km.) the altitudinal zone of

3000m to 4000m and above 4000m has more than half of the total forest area, which suggests that

the study area is dominantly under the temperate to sub-Alpine forest zone, about 50% , second

highest coverage being in the category of 1500m to 2500m, with about 26% coverage. The rest

categories are quite low.

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Table 3.11: Land division under forest according to Altitudinal Zones of Beas Basin in Kullu Forest Circle

Altitudinal Zones Area in Sq. Kms. Area in % Below 1500 mts 54 4.27 1500-2500 mts 326 25.75 2500-3000 mts 253 19.98 3000-4000 mts 454 35.86

Above 4000 mts 179 14.14 Geographical Area of the Kullu Forest Division 1266 100 Source: H.P. Forest Statistics, 2005, Dept. of Forest, H.P.

Table 3.12: Classified Total Area under Forests Kullu District from 1969-70 to 2000-01. (in Hectares)

Year Reserve Forest Protected forest Un-classed Forest Total 1969-70 16,052 299,928 178,082 494,0621970-71 16,052 299,928 178,082 494,0621971-72 16,052 299,928 178,082 494,0621972-73 16,052 299,928 178,082 494,0621973-74 16,052 299,928 178,082 493,9861974-75 16,052 299,928 178,011 493,9911975-76 16,052 299,928 177,397 493,3771976-77 15,027 290,191 169,256 474,4741977-78 12,324 139,276 151,688 303,2881978-79 12,324 139,276 151,683 303,2831979-80 16,052 299,928 176,609 492,5891980-81 16,052 299,928 176,609 492,5891981-82 16,052 299,928 176,609 492,5891982-83 16,052 299,928 176,609 492,5891983-84 16,052 299,928 176,609 492,5891984-85 13,977 276,716 161,969 452,6621985-86 13,977 276,716 158,926 449,6191986-87 13,977 276,716 167,448 458,0981987-88 10,592 263,132 145,115 418,7761988-89 9,486 250,132 150,362 409,9801989-90 8,380 240,518 164,636 413,5341990-91 9,924 241,196 163,739 414,8591991-92 8,630 241,196 154,481 404,3071992-93 8,630 241,196 154,481 404,3071993-94 8,610 241,196 150,169 399,8931994-95 8,013 226,282 120,157 354,4521995-96 10,513 287,556 140,123 438,1921996-97 16,053 321,184 158,315 495,5521997-98 16,053 321,184 158,315 495,5521998-99 16,053 321,184 158,315 495,5521999-00 16,053 321,184 158,315 495,5522000-01 16,092 275,923 132,153 424,168

Source: Statistical Abstract of Kullu District, 1975 - 2005, Dept. of Forest, H.P.

The dataset above in Table 3.12 shows the total area under forest in Kullu District for a

period of about 30 years i.e. from 1969-70 to 2000-01. The total area is sub-divided categorically

into Reserve Forest, Protected Forest and Un-classed Forest. Fig. 3.19 below shows that in the

case of Reserve forest the area remains almost same for the stretch of 30 years starting from

16,052 hectares in 1969-70 to 16,092 in 2000-01, rather depicting a slight increase. From 1884-

85 to 1995-96 the area under Reserve Forest had considerably decreased from 13,977 to about

8,013 hectares, but later on the area increased due to proper afforestation measures. Among the

total forest area Reserve Forest occupies comparitively less area than the Protected Forest and

Un-classed Forest each. The general trend of the Protected Forest shows that the area has

decreased slightly from 299,928 to 275,923 hectares. But for the 1977 to 1979 the area had

drastically dropped to 139,276 hectares and for the period of 1996 to 2000 the area increased to

321,184 hectares. In the case of Un-classed Forest the area too had decreased from 178,082 to

132,153 hectares. There has been almost a gradual decrease area under the total forest as well as

Un-classed Forest, in spite of various conservation measures adapted by government, because

most of the area is subjected to large scale deforestation mainly for agricultural and horticultural

(mainly plantation of apple trees) purposes; as evident from forest reports and field analysis.

Fig 3.19: Classified Total Area under Forests Kullu District from 1969-70 to 2000-01. (Hectares)

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The table below shows more specifically the year-wise classification of forest division of

specifically WL Kullu and Kullu division. The dataset of five year interval is considered from

1975-76 to 2005-06. The four categories of Total forest area, Reserve forest area, Demarcated

and Un-demarcated Protected forest area shown by line graph in Fig. 3.20 below.

Table 3.13: Year-wise & Division wise Forest Classification of WL Kullu & Kullu Division

Forest Classification 1975 - 76 1980 - 81 1985 - 86 1990 - 91 1995 - 96 2000 - 01 2005-06 Reserve Forest 7,695 7695 268 4,077 3703 3694 3,574 Demarcated Protected Forest 93,265 93265 42693 55,600 69119 61312 44,037 Undemarcated Protected Forest 74,028 73673 67,777 77,155 80845 91082 114,157 Total 174,988 174,633 110,738 136,762 153,667 156,088 126,330

Source: Compiled from Himachal Pradesh Forest Statistics, 1975 to 2005, Dept. of Forest, H.P.

From the database in the Table 3.13 and the Fig. 3.20 it is evident that for the period of

30 years (1975-76 to 2005-06) there has been a general trend of decrease in forest area for all the

three forest categories - Total forest area, Reserve forest area and Demarcated Protected Forest

area except for Un-Demarcated Protected Forest area which has increased in due course of time

from 74,028 to 114,157 hectares. The Reserve Forest area has decreased from 7,695 to 3,574

hectares. Similarly the Demarcated Protected forest area has decreased from 93,265 to 44,037

hectares and the total forest area has decreased from 174,988 to 126,330 hectares. The cause of

this overall decrease in forest area can be acclaimed to the process of

• Unauthorized felling of trees in spite of governmental monitoring,

• Lack of proper implementation of conservation and plantation measures

• Conversion of forest land into cultivation land. Mainly due to favourable climatic

conditions the upper reaches of the slope even above 3500m apple cultivation is now

being practiced by farmers by clearing the sub-Alpine forest areas.

Fig. 3.20: Year-wise & Division wise Forest Classification of WL Kullu & Kullu Division

Various Awareness Programs and Conservation Techniques has been initiated by the

government and also adapted by the local people to conserve the forest resource of the region.

Among them most important are the plantation schemes undertaken by the Forest Department of

Himachal Pradesh. Numerous trees are planted under the plantation schemes undertaken by the

forest division of Kullu in respect of Kullu Circle & Wildlife (WL) Kullu Circle. They are:

Development of Pasture & Grazing, Tree Cover Plantation Scheme, Enrichment Plantation

Scheme, Reforestation of Scrub Area, Sanjhi Van Yozna Plantation Scheme, Soil Conservation

State Plan, Backward Area Sub Plan, Micro Management Plantation Scheme and Plantation

under Kullu Tree Cover Scheme.

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Table 3.14: Types of Forests by Kullu Working Circle - Kullu and Parbati Division Circles

(According to Sri J.S.Walia's Working Plan & Sri J.C. Sharma's Working Plan)

Year

Name of Working Circle

Total forest area occupied by conifers, broad leaved & scrubs, wastes, pastures and blanks (excluding private Forests)

Area in Hectares % Increase/Decrease from base year 1981-

82

1981

- 82

Deodar, Kail 10,205 0 Fir / Spruce 20,818 0 Protection 74,717 0 Pasture / Grazing 56,225 0

1984

- 85

Deodar, Kail 10205 0 Fir / Spruce 20818 0 Protection 87166 16.66 Pasture / Grazing 54188 -3.62

1987

- 88

Deodar, Kail 10205 0 Fir / Spruce 20818 0 Protection 171725 129.83 Pasture / Grazing 106737 89.84

1990

- 91

Deodar, Kail 10205 0 Fir / Spruce 20818 0 Protection 171725 129.83 Pasture / Grazing 106743 89.85 Other Regulated 2037 -

1993

- 94

Deodar, Kail 10205 0 Fir / Spruce 20818 0 Protection 171725 129.83 Pasture / Grazing 106471 89.37 Other Regulated 2037 -

1996

-97

Deodar, Kail 10205 0 Fir / Spruce 20818 0 Protection 171725 129.83 Pasture / Grazing 106743 89.85 Other Regulated 2037 -

1999

- 20

00 Deodar, Kail 9200 -9.85

Fir / Spruce 18576 -10.77 Protection 167640 124.37 Pasture / Grazing 966 -98.28 Other Regulated 1749 - Un Regulated 113396 -

2002

-03

Deodar, Kail 9200 -9.85 Fir / Spruce 18576 -10.77 Protection 167640 124.37 Pasture / Grazing 966 -98.28 Other Regulated 1749 - Un Regulated 105340 -

Source: Compiled from Himachal Pradesh Forest Statistics, 1975 to 2005, Dept. of Forest, H.P.

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The above Table 3.14 shows the area occupied by various types of tree species and forest

categories by Kullu Working Circle - Kullu and Parbati Division Circles according to Sri J.S.Walia's

Working Plan & Sri J.C. Sharma's Working Plan. The forest area here is represented by species type like

Deodar-Kail, Fir / Spruce, as well as category wise like Protected, Pasture/ Grazing, Other Regulated and

Un-Regulated for the year 1981-82 to 2002-03, with a gap of two year among them. In the Table 3.14,

considering 1981-82 as base year, the area of each category of the other consecutive years is calculated as

percentage increase or decrease from the base year. The findings from the table are listed below:

It is clearly depicted that in case of Deodar – Kail forest the area initially remained same as that of the

base year i.e. 10,205 hectares, but in the last two years 1999-2000 and 2002-03 it decreased to 9,200

hectares each i.e. a decrease of 9.85 %.

In the Fir / Spruce species forest too, the area initially remained same as that of the base year i.e.

20,818 hectares, but in the last two years 1999-2000 and 2002-03 it decreased to 18,576 hectares each

i.e. a decrease of 10.77 %.

In both the categories of Protected Forest and Pasture / Grazing, the area under coverage initially

increased from the base year by approximately 129% and 89%; later on in the year 1999-2000 and

2002-03 the Protection category remained almost same by an increase of 124% but Pasture / Grazing

category decreased by 98.28% respectively.

No remarkable percentage change could be depicted in the Other Regulated and Un-Regulated

category of forest as these two categories were not present in the base year. Since their categorization

from 1990-91 Other Regulated category of forest had a slight decrease from 2037 to 1749 hectares in

2002-03; while unregulated category of forest decreased from 113,396 in 1999-2000 to 105,340

hectares in 2002-03.

The Fig. 3.21 below represents the dataset with the help of bar graph which shows an overall

trend of decrease in forest area in each category.

Fig. 3.21: Types of Forests by Kullu Working Circle - Kullu and Parbati Division Circles according to J.S.Walia's Working Plan & J.C. Sharma's Working Plan

Forest Products:

Forest products are a source of earning for the government as well as the villagers and

tribes who dwell at the forest fringes. Timber is considered to be the Major Forest Products in

the forest circles of Kullu District. For instance, according to the Forest Report of H.P. in 2005

the value of forest products in Kullu District is 1479.33 lakh rupees from timber and 6,128,936

rupees from minor forest products in 2003-04. The Minor Forest Products that are found from

the forest regions are: Fuel, Animal Products, Bamboos and Canes, Drugs, Grass and other types

Fodder, Gums and Resin.

Medicinal Plants:

The Kullu District has a good network of wildlife protected areas which act as secure

repositories of floral components including medicinal plants. Atis, Patis, Balch, Vaub, Bhoj Pata,

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Dhania, Hazar Dana, Bankakri, Kashmiri Pata, Chireta, Banjowan, Banafshah, Muskwala,

Kuth, Karru and Maniori are the local names of the medicinal plants found in different parts of

Kullu valley. Several conservation schemes of state (Sanjhi Van Yojana) as well as central

government (Vanaspati Van Scheme, NMPB) are in operation here. The Medicinal Plant Species

being grown here are Desmodium gangeticum, Abrus precartorious, Valeriana wallichii,

Rauwolfa serpentina, Taxus baccata, Centella asiatica, Aconitum spp., Angelica glauca,

Asparagus spp., Berberis aristata, Poluygonatum verticillatum etc. Sanjhi Van Yojana, 2001 is a

State Government scheme to involve grass root level institutions in conservation. State

Medicinal Plant Board under the Chairmanship of CM, has been constituted. Three Universities

in the State (Simla University, Simla, H.P. Krishi Vishva Vidyalaya, Kangra and Dr. Y.S.

Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Solan) provide the necessary research back-up

for the development of medicinal plants.

3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

viii) Wildlife

The district Kullu is home to a large spectrum of wildlife, some of them are even endangered.

The study area can be divided into the following two broad zoo-geographic regions (Joshi, 1984;

Negi 1993; Jreat, 2006). They are discussed below:

Temperate regions comprise the areas lying above an elevation of about 2000m. The animals

found here are Leopard, Barking Deer, Himalayan Black Deer, Sambhar, Ghoral and Cheer

Pheasants. Some of the animals, both herbivores and carnivores are altitudinal migrants and they

move to higher alpine pastures during summers when snow melts and come back at lower

elevations during winters.

Alpine regions consist of areas lying just below and above the snow line. Among the animals

found in this region are Himalayan Brown Bear, Himalayan Tahr, Snow Leopard, Red Fox,

Himalayan Palm Civet, Yellow Throated Marten, Western Tragopan, Monal and the vulnerable

Musk Deer.

Two hundred and three bird species have been recorded; spectacular among them are the

Pheasants. 6 types of Pheasants are found in Kullu. They are:

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1. Himalayan Monal (Lophophorous Impeyanus)

2. Western Tragopan (Tragopan Melanocephalas)

3. Koklas Pheasants (Pucrasia Macrolophor)

4. Cheer Pheasants (Catreus Wallichii)

5. Kalij Pheasants (Lophura Leucomelana)

6. Indian Peafowl (Pavo Cristatus)

The district Kullu has the largest protected wildlife region, namely Great Himalayan National

Park, The table below enlists the wildlife sanctuaries in Kullu Forest Division in Himalayan Bio-

Geographic Zone in North-West Himalayan Province. The Table 3.15 is an account of the area

of wildlife sanctuaries in Kullu District and Kullu Forest Division.

Table 3.15: Area of wildlife sanctuaries of Kullu District & Kullu Forest Division

Name of National parks and Wildlife Sanctuary

Nearest Important

Town Important Animals Office

Great Himalayan National Park Shamshi Leopard, Brown and Black Bear, Deers, Tahr,

Ghoral, Monal Pheasants, Snow Cock etc. DFO WL

Kullu

Khokhan Bhuntar Black Bear, Musk Deer, Snow Partridges, Monal, Koklas

DFO WL Kullu

Kias Kullu Black Bear, Musk Deer, Tragopan, Goral DFO WL Kullu

Manali Manali Black Bear, Brown Bear, Musk Deer, Ghoral Monal

DFO WL Kullu

Source: H.P. Forest Dept., Wildlife wing, A Guide to National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries of Himachal Pradesh, October 2004

3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

ix) Geothermal Energy Resources

In Himachal Pradesh prominent geothermal fields are found in Beas, Parbati, Sutlej-Spiti

and Ravi river valleys. Various investigations are being made to assess the potential of the

geothermal energy sources in these regions because they are characterized by major structural

features, areas of elevated ground water temperature, high heat flow and other conducive factors

for generation of geothermal energy.

The Upper Beas Basin is endowed with a 45 Km linear stretch of geothermal area

extending from Vashist near Manali in the north to Kullu in the south. The thermal springs in the

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study area are located at Vashist, Mujuri Bihal, Kharal Bihal and Kalath within the Salkhala

group of rocks and Rampur, Raisonbagh, Akhara (Kullu) and Ramshila (Kullu) are located

within the Kullu group of rocks. The table below shows the physical and chemical properties of

Thermal Spring waters in the upper Beas basin (modified from Gupta, 1996).

Table 3.16: Physical and Chemical properties of Thermal Spring waters in the Upper Beas basin.

Location of

Thermal Springs

Temp. 0C pH

T.H. as CaCo3 mg/l

HCO3mg/l

Cl mg/l

SO4 mg/l

Ca++

mg/l Mg++

mg/l Na+

mg/l K

mg/l SiO2 mg/l

B mg/l

Vashist 50 7.3 31 258 148 85 11 1 190 13 100 Trace Vashist 53 7.1 33 247 138 75 10 2 180 14 80 Trace Mujuri Bihal 25 7.9 ND 137 48 15 19 14 48 7 28 Trace

Rampur 38 7 104 302 163 14 34 4 172 14 52 Trace Kalath 38 7.8 81 362 271 21 26 4 290 20 60 Trace Raison Bagh 25.5 7.4 110 165 16 17 35 5 22 5 15 ND

Kullu 27 6.5 ND 466 170 53 116 15 120 16 20 Trace ND: Not Detected Source: (Gupta, 1996 modified).

Audio Frequency Manetotelluric surveys in Beas Valley have located 3 major zones of

electrically conductive rocks which indicate the presence of geothermal reservoirs (Mishra et al.,

1996). They are Bhang – Vashist Zone, Aleo - Mujuri Bihal Zone and Rampur – Batahar Zone.

Due to the tectonism of the Beas valley, the geothermal system is of low enthalpy and therefore

is not suitable for generating electricity. For this reason the geothermal energy in the upper Beas

basin is used for development of tourism and Balneology i.e. therapeutic use of bathing.

3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

x) Ground Water Resource

The upper Beas basin is an inner intermontane valley about 60 Km long and width

varying from 1.5 to 3 Kms. Geomorphologically the study area has a glacial origin and the

resultant moraines and debris are rearranged on the valley floor by the fluvial action of the

arterial Beas river and its numerous tributaries like Solan Nala, Manalsu Nala, Sarwari Nala,

Hamta Nala, Aleo Nala etc. into broad river terraces with fertile soil, supporting agriculture. The

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highland mountainous regions have sustainable groundwater resources which are recharged

every year by the glaciers, perennial and non-perennial rivers, precipitation, springs and nalas in

the woodland areas. Plate 3.1 shows excavation in middle terrace for groundwater by the

villagers of Old Manali Village. Thus, Ground water occurs both in the terraces and along the

river banks. Studies based on results obtained from bore wells drilled in the highland mountain

regions show that Kullu valley is endowed with sufficient potential of groundwater resources

(Arya, 1977).

Kullu valley represents a picture of scarcity amidst plenty. Though the valley is endowed

with numerous sources of water, yet during the drought period most of the springs and small

streamlets dry up leading to severe problem of water supply, both for household and agriculture

purposes. Therefore, groundwater availability in the mountainous region needs to be dealt with

more scientifically and proficiently. Villages should be supplied with drinking water throughout

the year by drilling bore wells along favorable slopes. But groundwater exploitation should be

done with certain preservation measures like – total elimination of grazing and plantation of trees

in the catchment areas, i.e. maintenance of forest which will consciously act as recharge zone by

initiating precipitation and snowmelt water infiltration. Otherwise the bore wells will dry up after

certain years.

During the dry periods digging contour channels, linking mountain streams and pumping

water from rivers in the valley to water storage tanks built on the nooks of the mountain rides

and gentle slopes can suffice the scarcity. These storage tanks can also be used for rain water

harvesting. The Fig 3.22 is a schematic representation of how rain water harvesting can help in

regeneration of ground water by proper infiltration which will also help to maintain steady water

table in the well and the river Beas.

Figure 3.22: Schematic diagram of proper management of Ground water resource.

Plate 3.1: Excavation for Groundwater which is used for both household and agricultural purposes

An irrigation project in Old Manali Village to entrap groundwater for irrigation as well as

household purposes is under construction from 11.4.07 under the initiative of the Department of

Irrigation and Health (Himachal Pradesh Sinchai Evam Jan Swastha Vibhag), is expected to be

completed very soon. This project will supply ground water throughout the year, as shown in

Plate 3.2.

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Plate 3.2: Different forms of water storage tanks for agriculture and domestic use

3.3 Geographical parameters of Land System Approach:

xi) Hydro - Electricity

The Kullu valley is endowed with numerous glacial accumulation zones and also receives

heavy snowfall and rainfall which feeds the rivers almost throughout the year. Basin-wise river

Beas has a potential of 4,300 mw of power generation, out of which only 1,550 mw is tapped as

per Himachal Pradesh State Electricity Board (HPSEB Consultancy Cell Booklet, March 1999).

The important projects under HPSEB on the Beas river basin are Bassi, Binwa, Gaj and Baner.

Other Hydel Projects on the Beas river are:

• Larji (126 mw) on Mandi-Manali National Highway,

• Parbati (2051 mw) undertaken in three stages – Stage I, II and III on the river Parbati, a

tributary of Beas river, when completed it will be the largest hydel power project in the state.

• Malana (86 mw) on the Malana River, a tributary of Beas is under construction.

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Fig 3.23: A schematic diagram of Beas basin hydel power projects

In the recent years, development of few Large Hydel Power Projects and many Micro

Hydel Power Projects occurred in the study area. Himachal Pradesh Energy Development

Agency (HIMURJA) established in 1989, is the nodal agency of Government of Himachal

Pradesh for development of hydro projects. HIMURJA’s main objective is to promote projects

less than 5 MW in order to exploit hydro potential and to harness clean form of energy by

involving private sector participation. HIMURJA has framed elaborated guidelines for allotment

of projects to the private investors and every investor would like to set up a small hydro project

in the state has to follow meticulously the guidelines framed. The table below enlists both large

and small hydel power projects specifically in the study area.

Table 3.17: Public and private Large and Micro Hydel Power Projects in the study area.

Name Location of hydroelectric project Sector Electricity generated

Allain-Duhangan Hydropower Project

The proposed underground power house and pressure shaft sites are located in a hill on the left bank of Allain stream.

Private 192 MW (approx)

The Marhi Hydel project

This small scale project is proposed as “Renewable Energy Project for a Grid system, India” and is contemplated as Run-of-River scheme on Beas Nala in Kullu district by M/s Sai Engineering Foundation.

Private 5 MW

Kothi Hydropower Project

Near Manali, on the way to Rohtang Pass. It is established under the joint venture of United Nations Development Program - Global

Government 200 KW

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Environment Facility (UNDP-GEF) in collaboration with World Bank and 90 National Govt.

Beas Kund Hydropower Project

Near Solang Valley – on the way to Beas Kund – near the proposed site for Rohtang tunnel. This project is established under the joint venture of H.P.S.E.B. & Govt. of H.P.

Government 5 Mw

 

Plate 3.3: Site of Beas Kund Hydel Power Project.

Plate 3.4: Construction site for Marhi Hydel Power Project

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