chapter 4 organizational behavior ( dr. ahmed abdel hady)

7/31/2019 Chapter 4 Organizational Behavior ( Dr. Ahmed Abdel Hady)

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Copyright 2011 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. McGraw-Hill/I rwin

Perceptions, Attributions,

and Emotions

Chapter 4


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Learning Objectives

Explain how primary emotions can be observed or determined

Discuss the potential problems one faceswhen using stereotypes to make judgments

Describe the role perception plays in organizing stimuli

Explain why and where impression managementtactics are used

Discuss why emotional intelligence has potential for managerial use, but should be treated cautiously

Describe how attribution can be used in evaluatingindividual and group performance


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The Perceptual Process

These are not concepts a manager candirectly access or fix in others Managers should know how these factors

impact ones view of the work environment

Perception Attribution Emotion


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Perception

Perception is based on prior experience

It is the cognitive

process by which oneselects, organizes, andgives meaning to

environmental stimuli

Each person gives his

or her own meaning tostimuli, so eachperceives things

differently


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Perception

We are bombarded by environmental stimuli Which stimuli you focus on is determined by

what you choose to pay attention to Generally, people perceive stimuli that

satisfy needs, emotions, attitudes, or self-concept


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Organizing, Translating, SelectionEnvironmentStimuli

Manager style

Technology Noise Peers Reward system Compensation Career

opportunities

Response

Attitudes

Feelings Motivation

Observation

Sight Learning Taste Smell

Selection Intensity Size Impatience

Stereotyping Self-concept Emotions

Translation


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Misinterpretingstimuli can result inperceptual errors

Each person selectscues that influencethe perception of

Similar-to-me errors

Snap impressions

Objects

People

Symbols


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The Perception Gap


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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

Pygmalion effect The positive case

Golem effect The negative case

Someones expectations about another

causes the individual to behave in a manner consistent with those expectations


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The Pygmalion and Golem Effect

Expectations Support Given Experience Performance Positive Negative

Positive Negative

More Less

More Less


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Perceptual Grouping

Nearness Stimuli are near each other

Similarity Stimuli are similar in size,color, shape, or form

Closure Completing a figure so it hasa consistent overall form

Figure andGround

Grouping sensations intofigures and backgrounds


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Schemas

A framework embodying descriptions of people, situations, or objects Helps us make better sense of information Schemas are person, role, self, or event based

Managers use schemas to examine or prepare for a situation

Allows the chance to think, organize, andcompare before acting


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Perceiving, Grouping, and Creating Schemas

Schema inaccuracies anddistortions can result from

Stereotyping Halo effect

Selectiveattention

Similar-to-meerrors


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Stereotyping

A translation step in the perceptual process Helps people deal with massive information-

processing demands A useful, even essential, way to categorize

individuals, events, or other things on the basisof limited information or observation

Stereotyping is not inherently bad or wrong


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Stereotyping and Prejudice

Prejudice A stereotype that doesnt change when given

information showing the stereotype is inaccurate Often the result of direct experiences with

members of the rejected group Once formed, positive experiences with the

persons, group, or unit usually do not reverse

the prejudice Extreme form is scapegoating


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Two Sources of Prejudice

Personal

Something, or someone, is

perceived as a

threat to ones owninterest

Group

Occurs when aperson conformsto the norms of agroup to which he

or she belongs


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Stereotyping and Prejudice

Negative Consequences of Stereotyping

Social injustice

Poor decision making

Stifled innovation

Under-utilization of human resourcesIneffectiveness and inefficiency

Holding back of talented, qualified people


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Stereotyping

Pay Attention to Your Stereotyping

Stereotypesare frequentlybased on little

or inaccurateinformation

Be willing tochange or add

informationthat improves

the accuracyof your stereotypes

Stereotypesrarely

accuratelyapply to a

specificindividual


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Selective and Divided Attention

Giving some messages priorityand putting others on hold

A bottleneck or narrowing of the informationchannel linking the senses to perception

SelectiveAttention

Occurs when mental efforts aredivided among tasks

Some stimuli require more attentionDividedAttention


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Halo Effect

One important or noticeable characteristicbiases an evaluation, perception, or impression of a person Presuming someone is hard working because

they arrive early and stay late Considering that someone with piercings is

wild and unreliable

One trait or characteristic cant predict apersons performance


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Halo Effect

An individuals attractiveness can influencemanagerial decisions Attractiveness increased evaluations, pay raises,

and promotions for women in non-managerialpositions

The opposite was true for women in managerialpositions

Both outcomes stem from the halo effect


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Similar-to-Me Errors

People frequently use themselves as benchmarksin perceiving others

Those who accept themselves are morelikely to see favorable aspects of others

Knowing oneself makes it easier to see others accurately

Choosing subordinates who are similar toourselves may not be appropriate to the situation


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Situational Factors

Perceptual Accuracy Can be Affected by

The pressof time

Attitudes of subordinates

Other situational

factors


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Needs and Perceptions

Perceptions are influenced by needs and desires People see what they want to see The hungrier people were when viewing ambiguous

drawings, the more they saw them as articles of food


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Attribution Theory

Behavior is greatly influenced by our personal interpretation of reality Therefore, perceptual processes are potent

determinants of behavior

Attribution theory Attempts to explain the why of behavior Based on peoples attributions of the causes

of events that happen to them


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The Attribution Process


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Internal and External Attributions

Distinctiveness

Does this personbehave in this

same manner in

other situations?

YES

NO

Low Distinctiveness

High Distinctiveness

Consistency

Does this personbehave in this

same manner at

other times?

YES

NO

High Consistency

Low Consistency

INTERNALATTRIBUTION

EXTERNALATTRIBUTION

Consensus

Do other peoplebehave in thissame manner?

NO

YES

Low Consensus

High Consensus


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Attribution Theory

Degree to which one behaves

similarly in different situations

Distinctiveness

Degree to which one engages in thesame behaviors at different times

Consistency

Degree to which others areengaging in the same behavior

Consensus

Behavior is examined on the basis of its


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Attribution Theory

Under-estimating the importance

of external factors andover-estimating internal factorswhen making attributions about

the behavior of others

Fundamental

attribution error

Taking credit for successful workand denying responsibility

for poor work

Self-servingbias

Systematic errors or biases can distort attributions


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Attribution Theory

Managerial implications of an attributional approachto understanding work behavior

Managerscannot

assume thattheir own

attributions areerror free

To influencebehavior,managers

mustunderstand the

attributionsemployees

make

Managersmust be aware

that their attributions

may bedifferent fromemployeesattributions


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Impression Management

The attempt to influence others perceptions

of ourselves How we talk Our overall style Office locations and furniture


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Impression management is interpersonal Resources, style, and creativity are mobilized in

order to create a positive impression in thepresence of others

Reasons to use impression management Allows one to convey a desired identity After the identity is established, it allows

congruence with the impression A particular situation requires a significantly

different behavior


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Impression Management Tactics

Ingratiation

Self-promotion

Exemplification

Supplication

Intimidation

Impressionmanagementtactics


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Men and women try to create impressions indifferent ways Women use less aggressive behaviors Women are less likely to use impression

management tactics

Generating a positive or good impressionis the goal of most people


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Emotions

Changes in facialexpressions Gestures

PostureSubjective

feelings

An emotion is a state of physiologicalarousal accompanied by

Emotional expressions are visible or audible signs of what one is feeling


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Primary Emotions

Anger

Joy

Fear

Anticipation

Surprise

Acceptance

Disgust

Sadness


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Emotions

Broader emotions include Aggression Love Awe Remorse Optimism

The mildestforms of emotionare moods, alow-intensity,long-lasting

emotional state


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Expressions

Emotional expressions are innate Other facial expressions are learned and/or

unique to a national culture

Expressions of fear, anger, happiness andsadness are universal How often they are expressed varies Women are more emotionally expressive than

are men


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Body Language

Kinesics is the study of communication throughbody movement, posture, gestures, and facialexpressions


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Body Language: Mimicking

The chameleon effect Unconsciously mimicking the postures,

mannerisms, and facial expressions of others If another person copies your gestures and

postures, you are more likely to like them


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Facial Feedback

Emotional activity causes innatelyprogrammed changes in facial expressions Ekman says making faces can cause emotion A study suggests that emotions influence

expressions and expressions influence emotions


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Emotional Labor

Managing emotions for compensation Enhancing, faking, or suppressing emotions It is stressful and may cause burnout

Two ways to manage emotions Surface acting: regulating emotional expressions Deep acting: modifying feelings in order to

express a desired emotion


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Emotional Intelligence

A combination of Self-awareness Self-control Empathy toward others Sensitivity to the feelings of others

Intelligence is a goal-directed mental activitymarked by Efficient problem solving Critical thinking Abstract reasoning


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Gardners View of Intelligence

Spatial

Musical

Intra-personal

Inter-personal

Mathe-matical

Verbal

MultipleIntelligence

l h f l ll


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Golemans Theory of Emotional Intelligence

Two brains, two minds,two kinds of intelligence

rational and emotional

Balance & managementof emotions determineshow intelligently we act

and how successfulwe will be

l d h


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Salovery and Mayer Theme

Proposes that emotional intelligence (EI)emphasizes four cognitive components

The capacity toperceive emotion

The capacity tointegrate emotion

in thought

The capacity tounderstand emotion

The capacity tomanage emotioneffectively

E i l I lli


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Emotional Intelligence

Even if EI is important for career success, itworks in conjunction with other factors

IntegrityPersistence

EI increases through middle management;decreases from middle to senior management

Passion

General intelligence

Th N G i f EI


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The Next Generation of EI

Many question the notion of emotionalintelligence, so the next generation of EIwork needs to

Conceptualize EI in a manner that is concise

and meaningful Develop more precise, concise EI measures Determine if there is practical value in the EI

concept for managers

chapter 4 organizational behavior ( dr. ahmed abdel hady)

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