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CHAPTER 4: REARING AND CAPTIVE BREEDING

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

Ornamental fishes are also called ‘living jewels’ for their beautiful colours and

playful behaviour. Ornamental fishes are typically small sized; attractive and bizarre

shaped in appearance (Dey, 1996). Therefore, it is a source of attraction for fish lovers

and aquarists all over the world. With the inspiring popularity of aquarium keeping in

households in many part of the world, ornamental fish has become an important part in

international trade. World trade of ornamental fishes has reached more than one billion

dollars and is growing rapidly at around 10% per year. India currently exports only

around Rs. 30 million (US$650,000 million) of ornamental fish. However, the

northeast of India has many species of fish that have great potential in the ornamental

trade and many of which are attractive to foreign markets. There is great potential to

expand this industry. In Assam there is no organized trade at present. Only a very few

people are supplying these fishes to the exporters in places such as Kolkata and

Chennai. The rivers, hill streams, reservoirs and other freshwater bodies of the country

possess considerable wealth of indigenous ornamental fishes. Many attractive loaches,

barbs, zebra fishes, rasbora, catfishes, killifishes and glass fishes are indigenous to the

lentic and lotic water ecosystems of north east India and comprehensive information

about the availability and abundance of these varieties is yet to be documented.

Development of captive breeding and seed production techniques for the indigenous

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species is the major research requirement that needs immediate attention.

Establishment of brood stock centers and hatcheries for major varieties of indigenous

ornamental fishes has to be done on a priority basis. Periodic replenishment of the

natural stock by resorting to seed production and ranching can compensate the natural

loss by exploitation of these varieties. Since, they are not directly involved in

exporting they are always deprived of the actual price prevailing in the global market.

Considering their potential captive breeding can serve the purpose for introducing the

indigenous species in the global market generating foreign exchange (Das & Kalita

2003). Although populations of rare fishes can be restored by moving individuals from

one locality to another, many fishes most in need of conservation exist in populations

that are too small to supply individuals for reintroduction or in translocation projects.

Since most of such rare species are either not economically or recreationally important

therefore few incentives exist for developing techniques for captive their propagation.

However, during last one or two decades, several captive propagation and

reintroduction projects have been initiated and appear successful (Rakes et al., 1999).

The debate over the value of captive breeding as a means of preserving species from

extinction will probably go on for decades to come. Conservation-minded people are

divided as to the value of this approach to the long term maintenance of biodiversity

(Huntley & Langton, 1994). Captive breeding programs have become one of the

principal tools used in attempts to compensate for declining fish populations and

simultaneously to supplement and enhance yields for fisheries (Fleming, 1994). It is

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also an approach solution for fish conservation by means of restocking their natural

habitat with hatchery-reared individuals (Philippart, 1995; Poncin & Philippart, 2002),

and a viable alternative to capture fisheries in providing a sustainable source of

proteins for fishing communities and local populations. The mastery of artificial

reproduction is a key aspect as it permits intensive production of a given species in

controlled conditions. This allows continuous production of juveniles for restocking

natural water courses, artificial lakes or fish breeding ponds (Montchowui et al.,

2011). Artificial propagation of fishes is done by induced breeding technique. Induced

breeding of endemic major carps has been established as a dependable source of fish

seeds since the mid 1960’s (Ali, 1967) in hatcheries for production of fry or

fingerlings which contributes significantly to the overall aquaculture production of

Bangladesh. However despite of prolonged practice and considerable refinement,

hypophysation procedure still seems to be lacking in sufficient standardization,

basically from the dose selection and brood selection point of view (Bhuiyan et al.,

2006). The high demand for fish fingerlings in the phenomenal growing aquaculture

industry has stimulated the need for artificial propagation of cultural warm water

fishes. Statistics of global fish production shows that fish farming represents about

15% of the global fish yields and was expected to exceed 20% by the year 2000. FAO

(1995) noted that inland capture fisheries yields had continuously increased from 6.5

million tons recorded in 1984 up to 1989. Since 1990, catches appeared to have

stabilized or even declined slightly. Considering both inland and marine capture

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fisheries, in 1989 world fish production reached 100.3 million tons. Production

increased slightly from 1992 to 101.3 million tons in 1993 (FAO, 1995). Such increase

in the production of food fish was considered feasible if aquaculture production could

be doubled in the next 16 years. The extraordinary effort needed to care for and breed

fish for the purposes of conservation requires that those who make the effort be

philosophically committed to the task. Without a positive perspective and the resulting

motivation, participants in Aquatic Conservation Network programs are likely to give

their captive breeding efforts a very low priority. When this is the case, they will

probably drop out of the program after a short period of time. This is not to say there

are not many aspects of life that justifiably have a higher priority, but commitment to

the captive breeding programs must have a high enough priority to ensure long-term

participation. One will be devoted to answering some of the most often heard

objections to programs designed to keep endangered fish alive in aquariums.

One of the expectations of people involved in captive breeding is that some

fish species will eventually be reintroduced into their natural habitat. It is true that

many habitats will not be able to support aquatic life for many decades or perhaps

forever. The conservation aquarist chooses to maintain the fish even if the future of its

habitat looks bleak. Captive breeding is the first milestone for artificial propagation of

any species. Successful technology for breeding and rearing of a species in captivity is

the prerequisite for rehabilitation of natural stocks as well as for culture. The key to

further success lies in growth and survival during captive rearing especially at early

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stage. For wider acceptance of the new species technology of seed production and

culture should be commercially viable. Although the technique of induced breeding in

fishes has undergone significant transformations since it was first developed and with

the adoption of ‘second generation techniques’ involving alternate inducing agents, the

practice of brood stock selection, maintenance and management, however has not

made much head way. Brood fish care exerts considerable influence on vital processes

such as onset of sexual maturity, development of gonads and response to inducing

agents. In effect, the various processes such as ovulation, fertilization, hatching rate

and hatchling survival are all dependent on quality of brood stock. The development

and management of brood stock through nutritional, breeding, rearing, stocking etc.,

environmental and hormonal manipulation is the key for successful captive breeding.

Culture operations (breeding, rearing, stocking etc.,) by fish farmers are necessary to

supplement natural resources especially when intensive exploitations are contempted.

There are innumerable technical problems varying with the locality, kind of fish,

climate, etc., which require investigations before piscicultural practices could be

attempted (Satyanarayana, 1996). Hence, investigations are necessary on spawning

season, breeding habits, character of egg and young ones, feeding habits and growth

aspects. Organized trade in ornamental fish depends primarily on assured and adequate

supply as and when demand arises, possible only if mass breeding technology to

produce quality and popular species are available. To breed aquarium fish successfully

a breeder must have information on biology of the target species. Breeding in the

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ornamental fishes can be broadly categorized into egg layers and live bearers based on

breeding habits. Among the egg layers the method of breeding differs from family to

family. Such as in the families Cyprinidae, Anabantidae and Characidae, suggestion of

male and female prior to breeding helps for increased fecundity and higher

fertilization. Among the cyprinids (such as gold fish, koi carps, etc.) artificial breeding

techniques such as hypophysation and hand stripping method can be applied for

desirable result. The hope is that habitat reconstruction will become an important area

of research in the next few decades and that eventually many species will be placed

back into nature even if the habitat has to be engineered by humans. If the fish no

longer exist, this will not be an option. Due to its market preference, smaller size, the

species offers a good scope for aquaculture. It’s is also suitable species for culture in

shallow water bodies and paddy-cum-fish culture.

4.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Breeding of fish in captivity, using wild fish parents, is a widely used

management practice that aims to restore wild populations of endangered species.

‘Supportive breeding’ is an approach to captive breeding which uses wild parents and

returns offspring into the wild at an early stage of development (Blanchet et al.,2008).

The mastery of artificial reproduction is a key aspect as it permits intensive production

of a given species in controlled conditions. This allows continue production of

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juveniles for restocking natural water courses, artificial lakes or fish breeding ponds

(Montchowui et al., 2011). For endangered and highly threatened species, captive

breeding programme is often discouraged; although induced breeding of various

species of fish has long been successfully established (Chaudhury, 1960; Sokolowska

et al., 1984; Peter et al., 1988 and Nandeesha et al., 1990). The rearing of fry in the

aquarium conditions poses many problems, particularly when live feeds like Daphnia

spp. unavailable (Pethiyagoda, 1991). Therefore, captive breeding and rearing of the

young prior to introduction are very important tasks for conservation. However, no

successful methods are available for captive breeding (Sundarabarthy et al., 2004).

Skelton et al. (1991) suggested artificial multiplication of these species in captivity in

order to sustain natural stocks. Standardization of breeding protocol and mass

production of seed of endangered fish species are important techniques in aquaculture.

With a view to re-establish their population in the wild and to develop brood fishes for

stock enhancement and management programme, induced breeding and larval rearing

of fish are attempted. Intensive rearing practices often aim to maximize production by

selecting on preferred traits For the species of declining fishes in freshwater, breeding

programmes were the least with the above purpose although induced breeding of

various species of fish has long been successfully established (Chaudhury, 1960;

Sokolowska et al., 1984; Peter et al., 1988 and Nandeesha et al., 1990). The rearing of

fry in the aquarium conditions poses many problems, particularly when Daphnia spp.

Like live feeds are not available (Pethiyagoda, 1991). Therefore, captive breeding and

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rearing of the young prior to introduction are very important tasks for conservation.

However, no successful methods are available for captive breeding (Sundarabarthy et

al. 2004), such as enhanced growth rate, which can indirectly affect correlated traits

such as aggression (Price, 1988). Adaptation to the captive environment

(domestication) can also promote behavioural traits that are advantageous in captivity

but maladaptive in the wild, such as tameness and a reduced response to stress

(Kohane & Parsons, 1988). Furthermore, captive environments often differ

substantially from wild habitats causing behavioural differences to arise as a result of

differential experience (Price, 1999). The captive population has been allowed to

interbreed freely. Few conservation studies have specifically investigated the

relationship between rearing environment and those behaviors that are likely to be

fundamental to post-release survival (Kelley et al., 2005).

Fishes exhibit various types of spawning, which are closely related to the

development and distribution of eggs (Prabhu, 1956). Otubusin (1996) noted that the

only means of meeting up with the projected fish demand in the country was through a

pragmatic option of intensive fish farming. Rearing culturable fish species under

controlled environment has proved to be a successful method of enhancing fish

supply. However, in spite of the break through reported for its artificial propagation

(Richter & Van der Hurk, 1982; Madu et al., 1987; Madu et al., 1989), the demand for

fish seed still outstrips the supply. Richter & Van der Hurk (1982) reported that the

problem of inadequate supply of fish seed can only be solved through induced

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breeding by the application of various inducement materials. Various types of fishes

have been induced to spawn, using various hormonal materials (Nwadukwe, 1993;

Eyo, 1992, 1998, 2002; Nwuba & Aguigwo, 2002). Parameswaran & Murugesan

(1976) attempted induced breeding by carp pituitary glands while Richter & Van der

Hurk (1982) reported that the problem of inadequate supply of fish seed can only be

solved through induced breeding by the application of various inducement materials.

Skelton et al. (1991) suggested artificial multiplication of the fish species in captivity

in order to sustain natural stocks. According to Senanayake & Moyle (1982), Fleming

(1994) captive breeding programs have become one of the principal tools used in

attempts to compensate for declining fish populations, translocation of the fish species

and simultaneously to supplement and enhance yields for fisheries. A number of

studies of commercial species have demonstrated that intensive rearing practices can

result in a divergence of behavioural traits in captive and wild animals (for example a

salmonid) as suggested by Gross, (1998). Price, (1999) reported that captive

environments often differ substantially from wild habitats causing behavioural

differences to arise as a result of differential experience. Culture and breeding of

exotic Puntius species, P. gonionotus has gained large momentum in India and other

adjoining countries (Jhingran, 1985; Haroon et al., 1994; Ayyapan et al., 2000;

Bhuiyan, 2006).

Several workers have initiated researches on ornamental fish breeding in

captivity using various hormonal preparations (Horvath et al., 1997; Sen Gupta et al.,

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1992; Mukherjee & Das, 2001; Haniffa et al., 2001; Mercy, 2006; Sunita, 2006;

Marimuthu et al., 2001, 2007). Captive breeding and preparation of hormonal

doses of certain fish species were reported by Singh et al. (2002). Sundarabarthy et

al. (2004) conducted the captive breeding and rearing of fry and juveniles of

Cherry barb (Puntius titteya). Successful induced spawning has been reported

either through hypophysation or by administrating synthetic GnRH (Sarkar et al.,

2005).

As far as rearing and captive breeding of ornamental fish from N.E India

is concerned, important works on this aspect from this region include Das & Kalita

(2003) on Macrognathus aculeatus, Kharbuli et al. (2004) on Devario

aequipinnatus, Sarma (2008) on Puntius gelius, Borah et al. (2010) on

Amblypharyngodon mola and Singh (2011) on Macrognathus aral and M.

pancalus. Further, the efficacy of hormone dosage and spawning response of

Anabas testudineus using ovaprim was reported by Bhattacharyya &

Homechaudhuri (2009); Kumar et al. (2010) and Pius (2010). The biology and

rearing feasibility of spiny eel was also studied by Singh & Biswas (2010). In case

of Rasbora daniconius and Esomus danricus, scanty information is available.

Recently, Jyoti et al. (2010) conducted the possibility and efficacy of a synthetic

hormone, Ovatide, in the induced breeding of Esomus danricus.

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4.3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

Matured specimens of Esomus danricus and Parluciosoma daniconius were

collected using scoop net and mosquito nets from the Maijan beel. Collected live

specimens were at first passed through quarantine phase and subsequently treated with

4 gm of NaCl or 2 to 3 drops of KMnO4 solution mixed with 6 liters of waters kept for

4 days and then transferred in to glass aquaria (size 75 x 37 x 37 cm3 with a water

depth of 25cm) for acclimatization. Floating aquatic weed, Pistia stratiotes (in small

nos) were provides in aquaria. Plankton obtained by filtering water from nearby fish

pond using15 µm plankton net, consisting mainly Euglena, Pandorina, Microspora,

Netrium, Cosmarium were initially provided as natural food.

Rearing of brooders (P. daniconius and E. danricus) was done in separate

aquaria for about three months prior to spawning (Plate 4.1A, Fig. 4A & B).

Supplementary feeding with Tokyu floating food, Tubifex worms, dried grinded fish,

mosquito larvae and zooplankton was done twice daily throughout the rearing period

(Plate 4.1A , Fig. 4 C- F). Water of the aquarium was changed partially every fortnight

in order to maintain the water quality and water parameters were monitored.

Submerged and floating aquatic plants were also provided during breeding trial (Plate

4.2B, Fig. 4 G & H).

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Growth of brooders was recorded on a monthly basis. Further, survival rate and

mean weight gain rate were also calculated following Francis (1996) and Pillai &

Lakra (2000).

The breeding season of E. danricus and P.daniconius starts from April and lasts

till August. If the water quality undergoes deteriotion, all the fishes are required to be

transferred immediately to another tank containing water at optimal conditions. Keeping

infected fish in the aquarium can result in transmission of disease to other fish

populations. Induced breeding of the selected species was carried out using synthetic

hormone (ovaprim) following standard methods (MPEDA 2007). Initially, ripe E.

danricus and P. daniconius were injected with a low dose of ovaprim hormone (0.2- 0.5

ml kg-1 for male and female respectively) between the dorsal fin and lateral line with a 6

ml hypodermic syringe and were released in separate aquaria.

4.4 RESULTS

At the time of breeding, males and females of both the species were released in

the ratio of 1:2 (M: F). At first, a low dose (0.2 ml/kg b w) was administered to

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females of both the species, but none of the brooders spawned. Although at higher

doses of ovaprim (0.5- 0.8ml/kg b w) both the species laid eggs, but unfortunately, the

spawn did not survive during the 1st year of experiment in 2008-09 (Table 4.1A).

However, in the next year (2009-10), both males and females of E. danricus and

P.daniconius were injected with higher doses of ovaprim. The female brooder of E.

danricus having a length of 4.6 – 5.2cm and weight of 1.06 to 1.15 gm were injected

with a dose of 0.8 ml/ kg bw while males (size 3.8 to 4.7cm and weight 0.87-0.98gm)

were injected with 0.5 ml/ kg bw failed to spawn even after 6 hours of injection (Table

4.1B). Again, the same female brooders were injected by changing the dose to 1ml/

kg bw; after 12 to 14 hrs of hormone injection, females were found very active, as

stripping helps the female to release eggs in the roots of Pistia and also at some stone

chips floor of the aquarium. During this time the males too showed chasing and

pairing behaviour and took part in fertilization of eggs. The no. of eggs released was

between 220 and 300 per female (Table 4.1B), out of which 30–60 eggs were hatched

out. Incidentally, both the species were often found devouring their own eggs at the

time of first breeding trial. Therefore, the parents were promptly removed from the

aquarium soon after fertilization which generally occurred in late afternoon or at dusk

in order to avoid predation on eggs. After egg lying, the water of ‘the nursery aquaria’

was not changed but slow aeration was provided for better survival of hatchlings.An

average of 26 number of spawns survived (47% survival) for 24 days. However, the

overall survival rate was further decreased as only 16 individuals survived till they

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attained adulthood (180days). Hence, final percentage of survival rate is estimated as

35.3%. During the period, the E. danricus attained 0.82 - 1.02 gm in weight and 36-

41mm in length (Table 4.1D).

Similarly, in case of P. daniconius, female brooders having a size of 6.3 - 6.8

cm and weight between 2.28 and 3.35gm whereas males of 5.8- 6.2 cm and 1.72 - 2.67

gm were selected for breeding trial @ 1:2 (M:F) ratio. The administered dose was 0.8

ml/ kg bw for females and 0.5 ml/kg bw for males. However, both the sexes showed

negative response. Subsequently, the ovaprim dose was increased to 1 ml/ kg bw for

female, but the male brooders were injected @ 0.5 ml/ kg bw. Spawning occurred after

12 – 14 hours of hormone injection and females released about 200-350 eggs (per

female) serially of which 50 to 80 eggs were hatched. An average of 42 spawn

survived till they were 3 months old, with a survival rate of 60 %. Mean no. of

survival was only 27 till they grew to adult stage (130days). Hence, final percentage of

survival in P.daniconius was 41.4%. During this period the species attained body

weight of 2.12 - 2.34gm and a length of 48 – 58mm (Table 4.1D). Likewise, the

captive breeding conducted in 2010-11 showed almost same trend of results (Table

4.1C). The survival rate of spawn to adult was recorded as 38.7% and 45.2% for E.

danricus and P. daniconius respectively.The hatchlings were observed to feed actively

after absorption of yolk sac i.e., on 2nd day onwards. The tiny hatchlings feed on

planktonic organisms initially, and subsist on macro food particles like grinded

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Tubifex and mosquito larvae after about 10 days. The feeding preferences and

behaviour of both the species were observed almost identical.

Certain physico-chemical parameters of aquarium water were recorded during

the breeding trial. These were as follows: - water temperature 26.5 o – 31oC, pH 7.2 –

7.8, dissolved oxygen 4.8 – 5.6 ppm and free CO2 within 3.5 ppm (Table 4.1E). In

aquarium condition water temperature was found crucial for the survival of hatchlings

and fry. During winter, special arrangement for light was made to regulate water

temperature so that the temperature should not drop down below 200C.

Table 4.1A: Breeding experiment in aquaria during first year (2008-09)

Ovaprim

dose ml/kg-1

B.W

Immediate Reaction after

injection

Effect of hormone on the

species

No. of eggs laid Survival Rate %

E. danricu

s

P. daniconi

us

E. danricu

s

P. danicon

ius

E. danric

us

P. danicon

ius

E. danric

us

P. daniconi

us

0.2 No reaction at all. No behaviour changes & no

chase

No egg

No egg 0 0

0.5-0.8 Exhibition of courtship (pairing and chasing) behaviour, body colour is slightly brighter

After 12-14 hr of hormone

injection females lay eggs serially 3-4 in number, attached to the Pistia root and spread on the floor of the aquarium.

200 -280

180-300 0 0

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Table 4.1B: Breeding experiment in aquaria during second year (2009-10)

Species Length (cm)

Weight (gm)

Hormonal dose (ml kg-1B.W)

Latency period (hours)

No. of eggs

released

No. of eggs

hatched

Survival

rate %

Male

Female

E.

danr

icus

s

M

3.8-4.7

0.87-0.98

0.5 .

0.8 --- --

---

---

F

4.6 -5.2 1.06 – 1.15

1.0 12 – 14 220-300

30 – 60 35.3

P.

dani

coni

us

M 5.8-6.2

1.72-2.67

0.8 --- --- ---- ---

F 6.3 -6.8

2.28– 3.35

1.0 12 – 14 200-

350 50 – 80 41.4

Table 4.1C: Breeding experiment in aquaria during third year (2010-11)

Species Length (cm)

Weight (gm)

Hormonal dose (ml kg-1B.W)

Latency period (hours)

No. of eggs

released

No. of eggs

hatched

Survival

rate %

Male

Female

E.

danr

icus

M

3.8-4.6

0.82-0.93

0.5 .

0.8 --- --

---

---

F

4.2 -5.4 1.09 – 1.18

1.0 12 – 14 237-323 37 – 62 38.7

P.

dani

coni

us

M 5.4-6.7

1.78-2.81

0.8 --- --- ---- ---

F 6.1 -6.7

2.22– 3.15

1.0 12 – 14 220-350 55 – 90 45.2

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Table 4.1 D: Growth rate of E. danricus & P.daniconius for 2009-10

Species attain adult stage Final survival

individuals

Body weight range

(gm)

Body Length

range (mm)

E.danricus 180 days 16 0.82 - 1.02 36 -41

P.daniconius 130 days 27 2.12 - 2.34 48 - 58

Table 4.1E: Parameters of the aquarium during induced breeding experiments

4.5 DISCUSSION

Captive breeding is a means of preserving species from all kinds of extinction.

Conservation-minded people are divided as to the value of this approach to the long

term maintenance of biodiversity (Huntley & Langton, 1994). Natural breeding of

commonly available barbs in aquarium did not meet much success probably due to

lack of natural environment for spawning. Fish pituitaries in general were found to be

most effective in artificial fish breeding practice (Chaudhury, 1969). Effectiveness of

carp pituitary extract in artificial breeding of fishes was also reported by Davy &

Aquarium parameters Ranges

Temperature (o C) 26.5 o C – 31 o C pH 7.2 – 7.8 Dissolved Oxygen (mgl-1) 4.8 – 5.6 Free Carbon dioxide (mgl-1) Trace – 3.5

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PHOTO PLATE 4.1A: BREEDING AQUARIUM AND FOOD PROVIDED

Fig. 4A: E. danricus for breeding trail Fig. 4B: P. daniconius for breeding trail

Fig. 4 C: Grinded dried prawn & fish Fig.4 D: Dried tubifex worm

Fig. 4E: Grinded rice bran Fig. 4F: Grinded baby pellets

4(B) 4(A)

24(C) 4(D)

4(E) 4(F)

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PHOTO PLATE 4.2B: AQUATIC PLANT AND COURTSHIP BEHAVIOUR

Fig. 4G: Submerged plants Fig. 4H: Floating aquatic plant

Fig. 4 I & 2J: Courtship behaviour of P.daniconius

Fig.4K & 4L: Courtship behaviour of E.danricus

4(J) 4(I)

4(L) 4(K)

4(H) 4(G)

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PHOTO PLATE 4.3C: BREEDING OF E.danricus AND P.daniconius

Fig.4 (M & N): Development of embryo and 36 hours of P.daniconius

Fig.4 (O & P): 10 days old and 15 days old P.daniconius

Fig.4 (Q & R): 5days old and 15 days old E.danricus

M

R Q

P O

N

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Chouinard (1980) and Rothbard (1981). Synthetic hormones are now widely used for

breeding culturable fish species. Therefore, ovaprim was used for captive breeding of

E. danricus and P. daniconius. However, in the present case the first attempt of

captive breeding of both the specimens was not successful. It seems to be lacking of

standard protocol of the technique basically arised from the problems of dose and

selection of brooders. Although, at 0.5-0.8 ml/ kg bw dose, none of the species breed

but some bubbles were spread over the surface of the water indicating partial response

to hormonal injection. This may be due to an insufficient release of gonadotropins and

water temperature as also experienced earlier workers such as Van der Kraak et al.

(1983), Billard et al. (1984), and Sahoo et al. (2005). Marx & Kumar (2004) found

ovaprim injection at the rate of 0.5ml/kg bw to be ineffective in producing an

ovulation response in Channa striatus. In the present study also, ovaprime at a dose of

0.5 -0.8 ml/kg bw was ineffective in inducing successful ovulation also the high water

temperature. Again Sahoo et al. (2005) studied the effect of different doses of ovatide

(viz. 0.5 ml, 1.0 ml, 1.5 ml and 2.0 ml kg bw) on Clarius batrachus and reported 1 ml

kg to be optimum dose for best breeding performance of the fish. Similarly, Jyoti et al.

(2010) also reported the effect of different doses of ovatide (viz. 0.4 ml, 0.5 ml, 0.6 ml

and 1.0 ml kg BW) on spawning of Esomus danricus. The dosage of ovaprim selected

by earlier workers for induced spawning in carp and murrel ranged between 0.3 and

0.6 ml/kg mass (Nandeesha et al., 1993; Francis, 1996; Hanifa et al., 1996). According

to Chaudhuri (1976), Jhingran & Pulin (1985), Woynarovich & Horvath (1980) and

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Bhuiyan et al. (2006) slightly higher dose of hormone was required at the beginning

and latter part of the spawning season and comparatively lower dose was required at

the middle of the breeding season. The findings of the present study are thus almost in

complete contrast with the findings of the above workers. In terms of fertilisation and

hatching, ovaprim yielded better results (Nandeesha et al., 1990, 1993; Alok et al.,

1993). The highest percentage of fertilisation (95-98%) was observed in ovaprim-

injected C. striatus. In mrigal injected with ovaprim, 90% fertilisation was observed

by Azad & Shimray (1991).

However, in the next year (2009 – 10), both the species responded when higher

doses were administered by showing courtship behaviour. The brooder were very

active by chasing each other (Plate 4.2B,Fig. 4 I, J, K, L) and female released their

eggs in the roots of the Pistia and at some stone chips floor placed in the aquarium

before hand. As soon as the female release their eggs, the males also release the

spermatozoa and fertilized the eggs (Plate 4.3C, Fig. 4 M-N) and growth increased

(Plate 4.3C, Fig 4 O-R). Mild aeration during the developmental stage helps to

minimize adverse water conditions which may cause gill damage thereby reducing the

fish's ability to respire efficiently (Huntley & Langton, 1994).

The experiment conducted in the 2nd year (2009-10) may be considered as

partially successful. The breeders showed aggressiveness after 10 hours of injection

irrespective of the type of the hormone. Each female paired with only a single male

(Parameswaran & Murugesan 1976; Thakur 1976; Moitra et al., 1979) and the other

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male was rejected. Mating was preceded by an elaborate courtship. During spawning,

the male bents its body to reach close to the female and released its milt and the eggs

were fertilized externally (Yaakob & Ali 1992). Both parents particularly the males

guarded the juveniles (Devaraj, 1973).

During the experiment both the species thrived well at a pH between 7.2 and

7.8. Both the species were found comfortable in slightly alkaline water. According to

Depasse (1956), a pH range of 6.5-9.0 is ideal for fish culture. A slightly alkaline pH

of 7-8 is characteristic of good water, suitable for fish life (Hora & Pillay, 1962).

Water temperature was recorded as 26.5–310 C during the experiment. According to

Chaudhuri (1960) temperature in water between 240 to 310C plays a successful role in

spawning. The DO limits during the present experiment remained 4.8 and 5.6 ppm.

The dissolved oxygen concentration of above 5 ppm is favourable for most of the fish

species (Banerjee, 1967). FCO2 was found about 3.5 ppm. Exceedingly high

concentration of carbon dioxide (30-40 ppm) is known to kill fishes (Chow, 1958) and

therefore, this parameter had no adverse effect on the fish. Similarly, Kumar et al.

(2010) reported that Anabas testudineus accept a pH between 7.4 and 7.8, temperature

should be between 23.3and 30.60C and DO between 3.2-4.0 ppm. As in all fish tanks

nitrates and ammonia should be absent and nitrates should constantly be kept low with

regular water changes.

197

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