chapter 4 socio-cultural, economic and environmental...
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Chapter 4
SOCIO-CULTURAL, ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA
Hills of Kerala are rich in natural resources that include water, timber,
minerals, and biodiversity and equally important is the rich cultural heritage of
the local community. As the desired destination of many tourists, migrants and
pilgrims, hills of Kerala offer a place of rest, solitude, adventure, recreation and
scenic beauty. For centuries, the relative remoteness and isolation of hills has
resulted in less human impact and higher resource sustainability than in many
lowland regions. With the combined advances in extractive resource
technology and increase in leisure time, however, the impacts of human
activity in hills have increased significantly since the invention of good
transport vehicles. Once sheltered areas, are now, open to the tourism industry
and an external population that can rapidly deplete or alter the resource base.
The extraction of hill resources has advanced with little or no reinvestment into
either the ecology or the local communities that are the traditional stewards of
the ecosystems. Many of the primary issues in sustainability – including
biodiversity, traditional production systems, and social change are either
directly or indirectly associated with the increased use of hills as tourist
destinations. While controlled tourism can bring benefits to the local
community, in normal practice, usually the bulk of economic benefits go
elsewhere, leaving local people with depleted resources and inflated local
prices.
A sustained tourism industry is predicated on a number of factors; in
particular, consideration should be given to the impact that tourism has on the
community as a whole and the individuals who make up that community. The
impacts of tourism require some monitoring in order to protect the well-being
of the community, and to ensure the long term viability of the tourism product.
The community, as hosts to the tourists, is vital in the visitor experience and
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may affect tourism development by its willingness, or otherwise. Tourism
impacts come in many shapes and forms. These are often discussed in terms of
the socio-cultural, economic and physical environment of the destination areas.
Socio-cultural relates to the issues of culture, lifestyle and human interaction;
economic aspects concern issues of employment, foreign exchange,
improvement in infrastructure, overall growth of the region; the physical
environment concerns issues of landscape and land-use in both built-up and
natural settings.
Because of the rich wildlife diversity and scenic beauty, the hills of
Kerala have in the past four decades attracted domestic and foreign tourists
from various countries. The growth of tourism in the region also resulted in the
establishment of tourist facilities in the area. Tourism in the hill destinations of
Kerala is characterized by both consumptive and non-consumptive wildlife
uses. As a result, significant tourist activities in the region include elephant
safari, walking trails, motoring through woods and several other photographic
tourist activities.
The present chapter investigates the socio-cultural, economic and
environmental impacts of hill tourism in Kerala. The assessment has been
done by taking the perception of host communities in the selected hill
destinations in Kerala based on some well refined variables (given in Chapter
1). For ease of analysis the chapter has been divided into three sections – A, B
and C. Section A is given for assessing the socio-cultural impact, Section B is
devoted to assess the economic impact and Section C is given for assessing the
environmental impact.
Section A
SOCIO - CULTURAL IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA
The Socio-cultural aspects are one of the chief consumables of tourism,
and experiencing unusual cultures can be educational for the visitor and highly
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profitable for the community. But the influxes of tourists bring diverse values
to the community and influence behaviours and family life. Interactions
between residents and tourists can have an impact on creative expression either
by providing new opportunities or by stifling individuality with new
restrictions. Tourism is necessarily an invasive process that thrusts traditional
communities into the modern world, threatening their distinct lifestyles and
cultural products. Tourism employment brings new streams of income into a
community but also inhibits individuals from performing traditional tasks,
making families dependent on cash income from tourism and therefore less
likely to participate in time-honoured work and social activities. It is possible
to emphasize the recovery and conservation of cultural values that, but for the
attractiveness which it offers to the visitors, would be forgotten. Many of the
local customs have been revitalized like part of the plans for the tourist supply.
In many places traditional customs have been found to be appearing again and
assuming the charm that they had once lost viz folklore, crafts, festivals,
gastronomy, etc. Further, one of the most important positive factors in the
social aspect is the improvement in the facilities and services viz, sanitary
attention, means of transport, parks etc. Tourism can improve the quality of life
in an area by increasing the number of attractions, recreational opportunities,
and services. Tourism offers the resident opportunities to meet interesting
people, make friendships, learn about the world, and expose themselves to new
perspectives. Experiencing different cultural practices enriches experiences,
broadens horizons, and increases insight and appreciation for different
approaches to living.
But in spite of the undeniable socio–cultural impulse that these positive
aspects represent, it has got some negative impact also. The most remarkable
negative aspect is the social differences between the host community and the
tourists which create in the local populations certain resentment towards the
tourists and which appear in the form of social tension. Again, another
negative impact of tourism can be the social evils like the increase of
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prostitution, drug abuse, criminal acts which might not have arisen without the
appearance of tourists. Tourism also can cause a des-culturization of the
destiny. The host community may consider the culture of the tourists as
superior. Sometimes the indigenous cultures may try to adapt to the customs of
the visitors and they will possible end up destroying the very elements that hold
attractiveness for the tourist. Thus, hill tourism has both positive and negative
socio-cultural impacts. The perception of the host community about the
positive and negative impacts of hill tourism is assessed as under:
Table 4.1: Tourism Promotes Social Interaction
Perception Destination Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 44 (88) 49(98) 50(100) 50(100) 48(96) 241(96.4)
Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4)
No opinion - 1(2) - - 2(4) 3(1.2)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 29.848; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
Tourism promotes social interaction between different communities –
host and tourist, which will ultimately help to improve the social status of the
region and also to get educated about the differences in the views and to
improve the attitude towards each other. It also helps sharing of culture
between host and tourists. While analysing this aspect, majority of the
respondents (96.4%) agrees that the tourism promotes social interaction but 2.4
percent disagrees with the majority view and 1.2 percent does not respond
(Table 4.1). The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation. But
the chi-square finds a significant variation in the opinion among the
respondents at 5 per cent level (p<0.05).
4.1 Positive Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Socio-Cultural Aspects
(a) Tourism Promotes Social Interaction
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(b) Tourism Promotes Cultural Exchange and Education
Tourism promotes cultural exchange between the host community and
the tourists which contributes to mutual understanding between societies and
people. The understanding of other cultures can prevent prejudice and hatred.
Cultural exchange also enriches our own lives by inspiring new forms of
artistic expression and providing fresh insights that broaden our horizons.
While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (88%) agree that tourism
promotes cultural exchange and education, but 10 per cent disagrees with the
statement and the rest does not respond. The destination wise analysis also
shows no wide variation except Wayanad (Table 4.2). But, the chi-square test
finds a significant variation in the opinion among respondents (p<0.05).
Table 4.2: Tourism Promotes Cultural Exchange and Education
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 49(98) 49(98) 42(84) 50(100) 30(60) 220(88)
Disagree - 1(2) 5(10) - 19(38) 25(10)
No opinion 1(2) - 3(6) - 1(2) 5(2)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 64.900; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(c) Tourism Promotes Cultural Advancement
Tourism induces cultural exchange. Cultural exchange enriches our
own lives by inspiring new forms of artistic expression and providing fresh
insights that broaden our horizons. Cultural exchange and activities can
exercise a more powerful influence than military task forces or political
delegations, ultimately resulting in the cultural advancement of the community.
While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (82.4%) agree that tourism
promotes cultural advancement among the local community, but 15.2 per cent
disagrees with the statement and the remaining 2.4 per cent does not respond.
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The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.3). But,
the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion among
respondents (p<0.05).
Table 4.3: Tourism Promotes Cultural Advancement
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 37(74) 41(82) 47(94) 50(100) 31(62) 206(82.4)
Disagree 11(22) 8(16) 2(4) - 17(34) 38(15.2)
No opinion 2(4) 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 32.879; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(d) Tourism Preserves the Cultural Identity of the Area
Cultural identity is the identity of a group or culture of an individual as
far as one is influenced by one's belonging to a group or culture. Cultural
identity is similar to and has overlaps with, but is not synonymous with,
identity politics. Various cultural studies and social theories investigate the
cultural identity. In recent decades, a new form of identification has emerged.
This new form of identification breaks down the understanding of the
individual as a coherent whole subject to a collection of various cultural
identifiers. These cultural identifiers examine the condition of the subject from
a variety of aspects including: place, gender, race, history, nationality,
language, sexual orientation, religious beliefs, ethnicity and aesthetics. The
division lines between diverse cultures are very fine in some parts of the world,
especially in those places where there are people who are ethnically diverse
with completely different ancestry but similar upbringings. Preserving one’s
cultural identity is very difficult since the new generation is least bothered
about these factors and they like to live in a mixed culturization way. The
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perception of the host community of the selected hill destinations on this is
assessed as under:
Table 4.4: Tourism Preserves the Cultural Identity of the Destination
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 40(80) 49(98) 48(96) 50(100) 40(80) 227(90.8)
Disagree 9(18) 1(2) 1(2) - 10(20) 21(8.4)
No opinion 1(2) - 1(2) - - 2(0.8)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 27.756; p value = .001*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
Majority of the respondents (90.8%) agrees that the tourism helps to
preserve the cultural identity of the destination since the tourists are coming for
experiencing the varied culture, but 8.4per cent disagrees with the statement
whereas 0.8 per cent did not response. The destination wise analysis also shows
no wide variation (Table 4.4). But, the chi-square test finds a significant
variation in the opinion among the host community (p<0.05).
(e) Tourism Supports Revival of Traditional Art, Craft and Culture
Experiencing different cultural practices enriches our experience,
broadens horizons and increases insight and appreciation for different
approaches to living. Increased interest in host cultures as a part of tourism,
increases demand for historical and cultural exhibits. This interest by tourists
in local art, craft and culture provides opportunities to support the revival of
such historical artefacts and architecture. While assessing this aspect most of
the respondents (96.4%) agree that tourism supports the revival of traditional
art, craft and culture, but 2.4 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.2 per
cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide
variation (Table 4.5). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation
in the opinion among the host community (p<0.05).
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Table 4.5: Tourism Supports Revival of Traditional Art, Craft and Culture
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 41(82) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 241(96.4)
Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4)
No opinion 3(6) - - - - 3(1.2)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 37.344; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(f) Tourism Ensures Restoration of Historical Sites
Traditional architecture and historical infrastructure can be an important
primary or secondary tourist attraction. Tourists can be housed in restored or
traditional buildings and led along ancient trails. Infrastructure restoration can
also revitalise other forms of economic activity. The restoration of traditional
infrastructure, particularly if the original construction techniques and design are
employed, is an excellent example of the link between conservation and
enterprise in community based tourism.
Table 4.6: Tourism Ensures Restoration of Historical Sites
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 15(30) 13(26) 49(98) 50(100) 47(94) 174(69.6)
Disagree 33(66) 36(72) - - 1(2) 70(28)
No opinion 2(4) 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 144.394; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
As a result of their relative isolation, some hill cultures retain traditional
building skills which have been lost in more developed areas. The revenue
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generated from tourism activity can be utilised to restore historical sites. While
assessing this aspect majority of the respondents (69.6%) agree that tourism
ensures restoration of historical sites, but 28 per cent disagree with the
statement and 2.4 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis
shows no wide variation from the general opinion except Ponmudi and
Thekkady where majority of the respondents disagree with the statement (Table
4.6). The chi-square test also finds significant variation in the opinion of the
host community (p<0.05).
In order to satisfy the traditional needs at the mass tourists visiting
destinations, local cultural values have been used as a commodity and
marketing tool and have been over-commercialised as a result of using them at
the wrong place, at the wrong time, and with the wrong standards.
Consequently, a false and dubious image has emerged, deliberately or not,
about the local community. The perception of the host community at selected
destinations on this impact is assessed as under
Table 4.7: Tourism Commodifies Culture and Traditional Way of Life
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 42(84) 49(98) 42(84) 37(74) 46(92) 216(86.4)
Disagree 5(10) - 5(10) 10(20) 3(6) 23(9.2)
No opinion 3(6) 1(2) 3(6) 3(6) 1(2) 11(4.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 15.664; p value = .047*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
Majority of the respondents (86.4%) agree that tourism commodifies
culture and traditional way of life, but 9.2 per cent respondents disagree with
the statement and 4.4 did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows
4.2 Negative Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Socio-Cultural Aspects
(a) Tourism Commodifies Culture and Traditional Way of Life
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no wide variation. But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the
opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
(b) Tourism Causes Changes in the Art, Craft and Festival
Tourism sometimes leads to the destruction of the social fabric of a
community. The more the number of tourists comes to a place, the more is the
perceived risk of that place losing its cultural identity. It leads to changes in
the art, craft and festivals of the region. While assessing this aspect most of the
respondents (55.2%) disagree with the statement that tourism causes changes in
art, craft and festivals, but 39.6 per cent respondents agree that tourism causes
changes in art, craft and festival and 5.2 per cent did not respond to the
question. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from
general opinion except Thekkady and Wayanad where majority agree with the
statement (Table 4.8). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation
in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.8: Tourism Causes Changes in the Art, Craft and Festival
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 11(22) 50(100) 8(16) - 30(60) 99(39.6)
Disagree 36(72) - 40(80) 46(92) 16(32) 138(55.2)
No opinion 3(6) - 2(4) 4(8) 4(8) 13(5.2)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 139.538; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(c) Tourism Leads to Demonstration Effect
One of the most detrimental impacts of tourism on the culture of the host
community is the demonstration effect. Influxes of tourists bring diverse values
to the community and influence behaviours and family life. Individuals and the
collective community might try to please tourists or adopt the tourist behaviour
and the adoption of tourist’s way of life may alter existing customs and usher in
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unhealthy practices such as dating habits( especially those of a more structured
or traditional culture). This demonstration effect may create family stress
among the host community. While assessing this aspect, majority of the
respondents (88.4%) agree that tourism leads to a demonstration effect in the
local community, but 10.4 disagree with the statement and 1.2 per cent did not
respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table
4.9). But, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the
host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.9: Tourism Leads to Demonstration Effect
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 50(100) 38(76) 50(100) 33(66) 221(88.4)
Disagree - - 10(20) - 16(32) 26(10.4)
No opinion - - 2(4) - 1(2) 3(1.2)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 53.786; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(d) Tourism Increases the Number of Crimes
Crime rates typically increase with the growth and urbanization of an
area, and growth of mass tourism is often accompanied by increased crime. The
presence of a large number of tourists with a lot of money to spend, and often
carrying valuables, increases the attraction for criminals and brings with it
activities like robbery and drug dealing. While analysing this aspect majority of
the respondents (67.6%) agree that tourism activities increase the number of
crimes in the destination, but 30.8 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.6
per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide
variation from general opinion except Neliampathy and Wayanad where
majority of the respondents disagree with the statement (Table 4.10).
However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the
host community (p<0.05).
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Table 4.10: Tourism Increases the Number of Crimes
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad Agree 50(100) 49(98) 38(76) 9(18) 23(46) 169(67.6)
Disagree - 1(2) 11(22) 41(82) 24(48) 77(30.8)
No opinion - - 1(2) - 3(6) 4(1.6)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 122.750; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(e) Tourism Results in More Vandalism
Mass tourism leads to vandalism. Vandalism is the behaviour of
ruthless destruction or spoiling of anything beautiful or venerable and also
includes criminal damage to cultural monuments and things such as paintings,
buildings, and places etc., which will adversely affect the image of the
historically important place.
Table 4.11: Tourism Results in More Vandalism
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 17(34) 32(64) 44(88) 39(78) 34(68) 166(66.4)
Disagree 32(64) 16(32) - 9(18) 12(24) 69(27.6)
No opinion 1(2) 2(4) 6(12) 2(4) 4(8) 15(6)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 57.885; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
While assessing this aspect among the host community of selected
destination majority of the respondents (66.4%) agree that tourism activities
results in more vandalism in the area, but 27.6 per cent respondents disagree
with the statement and 6 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis
shows no variations from general opinion except in Ponmudi where majority
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disagrees with the statement (Table 4.11). However, the chi-square test finds a
significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
(f) Tourism Exploits Host Community
What began long ago as a practice of travellers visiting and engaging
their hosts by residing with them and abiding by the customs and practices of
the place, tourism has transferred into an impersonal experience where intimate
contact and relationships with the host community are almost non-existent and
managed by a wall of commerce where the traveller no longer subscribes to the
customs of the place but has become “accustomed” to “customized”
experiences. This has turned a once welcoming hosting culture into a reluctant
service-oriented community where the host is treated like a servant – who in
turn is expected to deliver well-choreographed experiences that are more
contrived than genuine, and where sense-of-place is valued less than the
mechanics and standard operating procedures associated with brand
recognition. In short, the prevailing customer-focused paradigm has not only
fostered a dynamic tourism that compromises the identity of the place, but the
local communities are being exploited and their resources are taken over by
outside interests for tourism.
Table 4.12: Tourism Exploits Host Community
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 42(84) 33(66) 40(80) 50(100) 15(30) 180(72)
Disagree 8(16) 17(34) 9(18) - 35(70) 69(27.6)
No opinion - - 1(2) - - 1(0.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 74.606; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
While analyzing this aspect most of the respondents (72%) agree that
tourism exploits the host community, but 27.6 per cent disagree with the
statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation, except
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Wayanad, where majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.12). However,
the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host
community (p<0.05).
(g) Tourism Leads to Drug Use and Alcoholism
Increased tourism can push a community to adopt a different moral
conduct such as increased underage drinking especially in the areas with
festivals involving alcohol, increased illicit drug use etc. While analysing this
aspect among the host community of the selected hill destinations, majority of
the respondents (74.4%) agree that increased tourism activities leads to drug
use and alcoholism, 25.6 per cent disagree with the statement. The destination
wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table 4.13).
However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the
host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.13: Tourism Leads to Drug Use and Alcoholism
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 29(58) 42(84) 35(70) 49(98) 31(62) 186(74.4)
Disagree 21(42) 8(16) 15(30) 1(2) 19(38) 64(25.6)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 28.646; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(h) Tourism Leads to Sexual Abuse and Prostitution
The commercial sexual exploitation of children and young women has
paralleled the growth of tourism in many parts of the world. Though tourism is
not the cause of sexual exploitation, it provides easy access to it. Tourism also
brings consumerism to many parts of the world previously denied access to
luxury commodities and services. The lure of this easy money has caused many
young people, including children, to trade their bodies in exchange for T-shirts,
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personal stereos, bikes and even air tickets out of the country. While analysing
this aspect among the respondents most of them (56.8%) disagree that mass
tourism leads to sexual abuse and prostitution, but 42.8per cent respondents
agree with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide
variation except Ponmudi and Wayanad, where majority agrees with the
statement (Table 4.14). However, the chi-square test finds a significant
variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.14: Tourism Leads to Sexual Abuse and Prostitution
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 27(54) 16(32) 11(22) 25(50) 28(56) 107(42.8)
Disagree 23(46) 34(68) 39(78) 24(48) 22(44) 142(56.8)
No opinion - - - 1(2) - 1(0.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 22.735; p value = .004*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(i) Tourism Spreads the Intensity of Disease
Because of our global interconnectedness through transportation,
tourism and trade, infectious diseases emerge more frequently; spread greater
distances; pass more easily between humans and animals; and evolve into new
and more virulent strains. International travel is often cited as a major factor in
the global spread of disease. From the annoying common cold to more serious
SARS infections, travellers are exposed to more germs and disease than ever
before. While analysing this aspect majority of the respondents (72%) disagree
on the statement that tourism spreads the intensity of diseases, but 26.8 per cent
agrees with the statement and 1.2 per cent did not response. The destination
wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.15). The chi-square test
also shows no significant variation in the opinion of the respondents (p>0.05).
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Table 4.15: Tourism Spreads the Intensity of Disease
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 18(36) 11(22) 17(34) 14(28) 7(14) 67(26.8)
Disagree 32(64) 39(78) 31(62) 36(72) 42(84) 180(72)
No opinion - - 2(4) - 1(2) 3(1.2)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 13.782; p value = .088**. **Not Significant at 5% level
(j) Tourism Leads to the Degradation of Local Language
Tourism means more transportation networks and links, which can
blight the hill environment, disrupt traditional ways of life and threaten the
existence of local languages. If the hill regions become the world’s
playgrounds, there is a risk that mountain people will lose their own cultural
identity.
Table 4.16: Tourism Leads to the Degradation of Local Language
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 21(42) 2(4) 21(42) - 16(32) 60(24)
Disagree 29(58) 47(94) 28(56) 50(100) 30(60) 184(73.6)
No opinion - 1(2) 1(2) - 4(8) 6(2.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 56.743; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
While analyzing this aspect among the selected respondents most of
them (73.6%) disagrees with the statement that tourism leads to degradation of
local language, but 24per cent agrees with the statement and 2.4 per cent did
not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table
4.16). However, the chi-square test reveals a significant variation in the opinion
of the host community (p<0.05).
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(k) Tourism Leads to Friction between Host Community and Tourists
Tourism can increase tension, hostility, and suspicion between the
tourists and the local communities when there is no respect and understanding
for each other’s culture and way of life. This may further lead to violence and
other crimes committed against the tourists. While analysing this aspect
majority of the respondents (77.2%) agrees that increased tourism activities
create a friction between the host community and the tourists on the utilisation
of resources, but 21.2 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.6 per cent did
not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation (Table
4.17). However, the chi-square test reveals significant variation in the opinion
of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.17: Tourism Leads to Friction between Host Community and Tourists
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 35(70) 49(98) 27(54) 50(100) 32(64) 193(77.2)
Disagree 15(30) - 22(44) - 16(32) 53(21.2)
No opinion - 1(2) 1(2) - 2(4) 4(1.6)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 52.657; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
(l) Tourism Adversely Affect on the Community’s Way of Life
Tourism development projects propagated as eco-friendly and
employment generating often adversely affect the local community's rights,
livelihood and access to resource and thus adversely affect the host community
as a whole. While analysing this aspect among the selected respondents most
of them (70.4 %) agree that increased tourism had adverse effect on the
community’s way of life but, 26.4 per cent disagrees with the statement and 3.2
per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide
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variation from general opinion (Table 4.18). However, the chi-square test
reveals significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.18: Tourism Adversely Affect on the Community’s Way of Life
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 26(52) 48(96) 36(72) 34(68) 32(64) 176(70.4)
Disagree 24(48) 2(4) 12(24) 13(26) 15(30) 66(26.4)
No opinion - - 2(4) 3(6) 3(6) 8(3.2)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 31.856; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
(m) Tourism Leads to Displacement of Community
Displaced communities are groups of people who have literally been
uprooted and forced to migrate from their homelands in search of new
livelihoods. This can be the result of any number of factors, which affect
different groups in different ways. One of the undesirable impacts of tourism is
that of the extent of land lost from the local community. Despite loss of their
land, employment favours only better educated workers. Furthermore, the
investors in this area are not local and do not put profits back into local
economy. In some cases new projects are launched without informing or
consulting local people, who come to know about the situation only when an
eviction notice is delivered.
Table 4.19: Tourism Leads to Displacement of Community
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 48(96) 38(76) 29(58) 28(56) 193(77.2)
Disagree - 2(4) 11(22) 21(42) 18(36) 52(20.8)
No opinion - - 1(2) - 4(8) 5(2)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 56.541; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
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While analysing this majority of the respondents (77.2%) agree that
increased tourism activity leads to the displacement of community, but 20.8 per
cent respondents disagree with the statement and 2 per cent did not respond.
The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from general
opinion (Table 4.19). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation
in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
For assessing the overall opinion of host community as regards socio-
cultural impacts of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, the opinion of the
hosts on all the 19 variables are consolidated. The response was recorded on a
three-point scale with a maximum value of three for ‘agree’ two for ‘no
opinion’ and a minimum value of one for ‘disagree’, for the positive variables
and a reverse ranking was applied for the negative variables. The compiled data
is depicted in Table 4.20.
Table 4.20: Socio-Cultural Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Opinion of Host Community)
Opinion Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadPositive impact
25(50) 14(28) 26(52) 42(84) 35(70) 142(56.8)
No impact 1(2) - 4(8) 1(2) 1(2) 7(2.8)
Negative impact
24(48) 36(72) 20(40) 7(14) 14(28) 101(40.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Compiled data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.
Regarding socio-cultural impact of tourism at the hill destinations of
Kerala, majority (56.8) of the respondents viewed that tourism has positive
socio-cultural impact at the hill destinations of Kerala, but 40.4 per cent stated
that tourism has negative socio-cultural impact at the hill destinations of
Kerala.
4.3 Socio-Cultural Impacts of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala-
Consolidated Opinion of the Host Community
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TESTING THE FIFTH HYPOTHESIS
The opinion of host community regarding the socio-cultural impact of
tourism on the hill destinations of Kerala is also put to hypothesis testing.
Binomial test is used for testing the hypothesis with hypothetical mean value as
cut off point (38.00). While applying the test, respondents having the
perception of ≤ mean value are grouped as ‘no positive impact’ and the rest are
grouped as ‘positive impact’. The binomial test result (given in Table 4.21)
depicts the observed proportion as 0.57, which is more than the test proportion
of 0.50, and the p-value is significant at 5 per cent level of significance. Hence,
the null hypothesis stating that not more than one half of the host community
observed that tourism has positive socio-cultural impact on the hill
destinations of Kerala stands rejected.
Table 4.21: Socio Cultural Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Binomial Test)
Category Observed Proportion Test Proportion p Value
Group 1(≤ 38.00) 0.43 0.50 0.037*
Group 2 (>38.00) 0.57 Source: Compiled data.
The distribution of host community on the basis of socio-cultural factors
(19 variables consolidated) by their socio-economic and demographic
characteristics is depicted in Table 4.22.
H0: Not more than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has
positive socio-cultural impact on the hill destinations of Kerala
(P≤0.50).
H1: More than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has
positive socio-cultural impact on the hill destinations of Kerala
(P>0.50).
4.4 Relationship between Socio Cultural Impact and Personal Traits of
Host Community
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Table 4.22: Relationship between Socio Cultural Factors and Personal Traits of the Host Community
Variables Category N Mean S.D F Sign. Total 250 39.1320 4.63037
Sex Male 192 39.4375 4.86426 3.641 0.058**Female 58 38.1207 3.60836
Age
≤25 48 39.4375 4.54250
0.117 0.950**26-35 101 39.0396 4.7873236-45 66 39.1818 4.30709>45 35 38.8857 5.03967
Educational Qualification
SSLC 53 39.6891 4.77004
0.446 0.720**Plus Two 106 38.8019 4.06007Graduate 84 39.1786 5.19768Post Graduate 7 39.2857 5.05682
Occupation
Salaried 152 39.2829 4.40412
0.459 0.711**Business 46 38.7391 4.77230Agriculture 13 38.0000 6.12372Others 39 39.3846 4.88076
Monthly Salary
Upto Rs.5,000 66 39.2424 4.35735
0.865 0.505**
5,001 – 10,000 99 39.3636 4.5679810,001 – 15,000 37 38.0000 5.1607415,001 – 25,000 34 39.8235 4.6284425,001 – 40,000 6 37.1667 4.21505Above Rs.40,000 8 39.1250 5.96268
Place of birth Born 209 39.2057 4.40943
0.322 0.571**Migrated 41 38.7561 5.67354
Relation with tourism
Employed 73 39.7260 4.66744
1.329 0.266**
Family member employed
57 38.1404 3.89798
Tourism Entrepreneur
37 39.0541 4.87024
No relation 83 39.3253 4.91416Source: Compiled data. **Not Significant.
ANOVA was applied to find out whether there is any significant
variation in the perception of host community on socio-cultural impact. No
significant variation is seen in any of the seven variables viz. sex, age,
educational qualification, occupation, monthly income, place of birth and
relation with tourism.
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Section B
ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA
Tourism is a major social phenomenon of the modern society with
enormous economic consequences. Its importance as an instrument for
economic development and employment generation particularly in remote and
backward areas and a positive step for poverty elimination has been accepted
all over the world. One of the chief reasons that governments support and
promote tourism is that it has a positive impact upon economic growth and
development. Tourism increases employment opportunities, generate income
and raise standards of living. As tourism grows, additional opportunities are
created for investment, development and infrastructure spending. Tourism
often induces improvements in public utilities such as water, sewer, sidewalks,
lighting, parking, public restrooms, litter control and landscaping and such
improvements benefit tourists and residents alike. Tourism also stimulates the
supplying sectors of tourism, and lead to a generally increased level of
economic activities in the country. Thus tourism should have an impact on the
frequently used quantitative measure of the economic development and GDP.
On the other side the tourism has negatives also - it will increase the price level
of products; increase the price of land, lead to increased tax burden to the host
community and will also indirectly prevent the development of other industries.
Thus, hill tourism has both positive and negative economic impacts. The
perception of the host community about the positive and negative impacts of
hill tourism in Kerala is assessed as under:
The rapid expansion of tourism has led to significant employment
creation. Tourism generates jobs directly through hotels, restaurants, taxis,
souvenir sales, and indirectly through the supply of goods and services needed
by tourism-related businesses. While analysing this factor among the selected
4.5 Positive Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Economic
Aspects (a) Tourism Provides Job Opportunities
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respondents all of them agree that tourism provides job opportunities to the
local people (Table 4.23).
Table 4.23: Tourism Provides Job Opportunities
Perception Destination Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)
Disagree - - - - - -
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.
(b) Tourism Motivates New Business Units and Expansion of Existing
Units
Tourism businesses and tourists purchase goods and services directly
from the enterprises situated in the tourism spots. This creates opportunities for
the setting up of new micro, small and medium-sized enterprises and the
expansion of existing enterprises especially those situated in the tourism
destinations by which they can satisfy the demand of tourism industry.
Table 4.24: Tourism Motivates New Business Units and Expansion of Existing Units
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 49(98) 249(99.6)
Disagree - - - - - -
No opinion - - - - 1(2) 1(0.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 4.016; p value = .404**. ** Not Significant at 5 per cent level.
While analysing this aspect majority (99.6%) of the host community
agree that tourism motivates new business units and motivates the expansion of
existing units, 0.4 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis also
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shows no wide variation (Table 4.24). The chi-square test also shows no
significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p>0.05).
(c) Tourism Increases Income of the Local Economy
Tourism can be a significant, even essential, part of the local economy.
There are revenues that are not easily quantified, as not all tourist expenditures
are formally registered in the macro-economic statistics. Money is earned from
tourism through formal employment like shops, hotels, taxis, registered guides
etc., and informal employment such as street vendors, informal guides,
rickshaw drivers, etc., and the income of the local bodies also increases from
additional revenues in the form of taxes, license fees etc. In addition to this,
revenue is also collected from tourists visiting protected areas in the form of
user fees. The economic contribution of the tourism sector to the local
economy shows that the sector provides the potential for diversifying the local
economy and also reduces its dependence in other sectors. The perception of
the host community regarding this is depicted as under (Table 4.25).
Table 4.25: Tourism Increases Income of the Local Economy
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)
Disagree - - - - - -
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.
All respondents are of the opinion that tourism increases the income of
the community.
(d) Tourism Improves Educational Infrastructure
The construction of roads and tracks to remote areas for tourists also
improves access for school-age children and for teachers. Tourism also help
local resource mobilisation, part of which can be spent on improvement of
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education facilities in the region. While assessing this among the selected
respondents, majority of them (87.6%) agree that tourism induces the authority
and other agencies to set new and advanced educational institutions where the
locals can provide better education to their children, but 11.6 per cent disagrees
with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation
from the general opinion (Table 4.26). However, the chi-square test finds a
significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.26: Tourism Improves Educational Infrastructure
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 33(66) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 36(72) 219(87.6)
Disagree 17(34) - - - 12(24) 29(11.6)
No opinion - - - - 2(4) 2(0.8)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 60.340; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
(e) Tourism Improves the Standard of Living
As tourism supports the creation of community facilities and services
that otherwise might not have been developed, it can bring higher living
standards to a destination. Benefits can include upgraded infrastructure, health
and transport improvements, new sport and recreational facilities, restaurants,
and public spaces as well as an influx of better-quality commodities and food,
which can also be assessed by the local community. While assessing this
majority of the respondents (99.6%) agrees that tourism development provides
better opportunity to the locals there by increasing the standard of living of the
host community. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation
(table 4.27). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in the
opinion of the host community (p>0.05).
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Table 4.27: Tourism Improves the Standard of Living
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 49(98) 249(99.6)
Disagree - - - - - -
No opinion - - - - 1(2) 1(0.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 4.016; p value = .404**. **Not Significant at 5 per cent level.
(f) Tourism Promotes Gender Equality and Empower Women
The tourism industry employs a high proportion of women and creates
micro enterprise opportunities for them. It promotes women’s mobility and
provides opportunities for social networking thus helping to reduce inequality
in gender.
Table 4.28: Tourism Promotes Gender Equality and Empower Women
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 39(78) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 239(95.6)
Disagree 11(22) - - - - 11(4.4)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 46.025; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
While assessing this among the selected respondents most of them
(95.6%) agree that tourism promotes gender equality and empower the women
in the area. The destination wise analysis also shows no wide variation from
general opinion (Table 4.28). However, the chi-square test finds a significant
variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
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(g) Tourism Improves the Infrastructure
Tourism provides funds and, can induce the local government to make
infrastructure improvements such as better water and sewage systems, roads,
electricity, telephone and public transport networks, all of which can improve
the quality of life of the local community as well as facilitate tourism. The
perception of the host community regarding this aspect is depicted as under
(Table 4.29).
Table 4.29: Tourism Improves the Infrastructure
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)
Disagree - - - - - -
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.
All the respondents agree that the tourism provides funds for the
improvement of the infrastructure in the region.
(h) Tourism Leads to Increased Shopping Opportunities
The increased demand for various products from the tourists and tourism
related business organisations leads to the setup of new shops and even super
stores in the area. This will ultimately help the local community by providing
them with new and developed shopping opportunities in the area. While
assessing this majority of the respondents (99.6%) agrees that tourism
development provides better opportunity to the locals there by increasing the
standard of living of the host community. The destination wise analysis also
shows no wide variation (table 4.27). The chi-square test also shows no
significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p>0.05).
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Table 4.30: Tourism Leads to Increased Shopping Opportunities
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 43(86) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 243(97.2)
Disagree 6(12) - - - - 6(2.4)
No opinion 1(2) - - - - 1(0.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 28.807; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
(i) Tourism Leads to the Development of Nearby Areas
The increased demand for the accommodation facilities and tourism
related goods forced the entrepreneurs to set up new lodges, resorts and other
business units producing tourism related goods. But because of the lack of
enough space for the setting up of such structures in the spots due to congestion
or some other reason; they are forced to set up such units related to tourism in
the nearby areas. This ultimately helps the nearby areas of a destination to
develop. The perception of the host community on the selected destination is
depicted as under (Table 4.31).
Table 4.31: Tourism Leads to the Development of Nearby Areas
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)
Disagree - - - - - -
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.
All the respondents are of the opinion that tourism also leads to the
development of nearby areas.
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(j) Tourism Leads to an Increase in Foreign Exchange
Tourism expenditures, the export and import of tourism related goods
and services generate income to the host economy. The increased flow of
international tourists to the region helps the economy to improve the foreign
exchange earnings. While assessing this aspect among the selected
respondents, majority of the respondents (72.8%) agrees that tourism increases
the foreign exchange earnings in the region, but 25.6 per cent disagrees with
the statement and 1.6 per cent did not respond. The destination wise analysis
also shows no wide variation from general opinion except Neliampathy, where
the majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.32). However, the chi-
square test finds a significant variation in the opinion of the host community
(p<0.05).
Table 4.32: Tourism Leads to an Increase in Foreign Exchange
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad Agree 39(78) 42(84) 39(78) 14(28) 48(96) 182(72.8)
Disagree 11(22) 7(14) 9(18) 36(72) 1(2) 64(25.6)
No opinion - 1(2) 2(4) - 1(2) 4(1.6)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 79.152; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
Essential Commodities
Increasing demand for basic services and goods from tourists will often
cause price hikes that negatively affect local residents whose income does not
increase proportionately. Tourism development and the related rise in real
estate demand may dramatically increase building costs and land values. Not
only does this make it more difficult for local people to meet their basic daily
needs, it can also result in dominance by outsiders in land markets and in
4.6 Negative Impact of Hill Tourism on the Economic Aspects
(a) Tourism Leads to an Increase in the Price of Land, Houses and
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migration that erodes economic opportunities for the locals, eventually
disempowering residents. While analysing this among the host community all
of them agree that tourism leads to increase in price of land, houses and
essential commodities (Table 4.33).
Table 4.33: Tourism Leads to an Increase in the Price of Land, Houses and Essential Commodities
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)
Disagree - - - - - -
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.
(b) Tourism leads to Shortage of Consumables
Increased tourism activity in the area leads to an increased demand for
the consumables from the hotels and other tourism related industries in the
region. This will ultimately lead to increase in the price of the products and
shortage of products in the market and make it difficult for the host community
to get the essential products from the market.
Table 4.34: Tourism Leads to Shortage of Consumables
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 33(66) 29(58) 33(66) 42(84) 34(68) 171(68.4)
Disagree 17(34) 21(42) 17(34) 7(14) 16(32) 78(31.2)
No opinion - - - 1(2) - 1(0.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 13.527; p value = .095**. ** Not Significant at 5 per cent level.
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While assessing this aspect among the selected respondents, majority of
them (68.4 %) agrees that tourism leads to shortage of consumables in the local
market, but 31.2 per cent disagrees with the statement. The destination wise
analysis also shows no wide variation (Table 4.34). The chi-square test also
confirms the findings at 5 per cent lever (p>0.05).
(c) Tourism Prevents Set-up of Other Productive Industry
Due to increased pressure from the tourism related industries for the
setting up of new units and also due to the attraction and quantity of income
generated by the tourism industry, the local community as well as the local
authorities think in favour of tourism industry. This will discourage those who
are basically interested in setting up other industries, and force them to set up
some tourism related industry. This will ultimately prevent other industries to
function in the tourism destination.
Table 4.35: Tourism Prevents Set-up of Other Productive Industry
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 36(72) 11(22) 41(82) 29(58) 21(42) 138(55.2)
Disagree 14(28) 36(72) 8(16) 21(42) 27(54) 106(42.4)
No opinion - 3(6) 1(2) - 2(4) 6(2.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 48.947; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (68.4%) agree that
tourism prevents setting up of other productive industries in the region, but
42.4 per cent disagrees with the statement. The destination wise analysis also
shows no wide variation except Thekkady and Wayanad where the majority
disagrees with the statement (Table 4.35). The chi-square test finds a
significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
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(d) Tourism Leads to Increased Tax Burden
One of the negative effects of tourism is an increased tax burden on
the local taxpayers to finance tourism. To the extent that local governments
are financed predominantly by property taxes, increased real estate values
induced by the development of tourism related properties, and other costs
associated with tourism development will be borne, at least in part, by local
residents. While assessing this aspect most of the respondents (64.4%) agree
that increased tourism activity in the region has led to increased tax burden for
the host community since the local bodies increase the tax rates in order to find
funds to provide better infrastructure in the region, but 32.8 per cent disagrees
with the statement and 2.8 per cent did not respond. The destination wise
analysis shows wide variation among the destinations from general opinion
(Table 4.36). The chi-square test also reveals significant variation in the
opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.36: Tourism Leads to Increased Tax Burden
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad Agree 21(42) 44(88) 42(84) 22(44) 32(64) 161(64.4)
Disagree 28(56) 4(8) 5(10) 27(54) 18(36) 82(32.8)
No opinion 1(2) 2(4) 3(6) 1(2) - 7(2.8)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 50.661; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(e) Tourism Leads to Increased Cost of Living
Diversion of people's essential needs like agricultural land and access
to natural and common resources like forests, water bodies etc. as well as
diversion of water and electricity to hotels, lodges and amusement parks in the
tourism sector ultimately leads to an increase in the cost of living for the entire
community. While assessing this aspect, majority of the respondents (92.4%)
agree that tourism leads to increased cost of living in the region, but 7.6 per
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cent disagree with the statement. The destination wise analysis also shows no
wide variation from general opinion (Table 4.37). However, the chi-square test
finds a significant variation on the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.37: Tourism Leads to Increased Cost of Living
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad Agree 50(100) 49(98) 50(100) 50(100) 32(64) 231(92.4)
Disagree - 1(2) - - 18(36) 19(7.6)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary Data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 71.998; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
For assessing the overall opinion of host community as regards
economic impacts of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, the opinion of
the hosts on all the 15 variables are consolidated. The response was recorded
on a three-point scale with a maximum value of three for ‘agree’ two for ‘no
opinion’ and a minimum value of one for ‘disagree’, for the positive variables
and a reverse ranking was applied for the negative variables.
Table 4.38: Economic Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Opinion of Host Community)
Opinion Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadPositive impact
45(90) 49(98) 44(88) 35(70) 42(84) 215(86)
No impact - - - - - -
Negative impact
5(10) 1(2) 6(12) 15(30) 8(16) 35(14)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Compiled data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.
4.7. Economic Impacts of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala – Consolidated Opinion of the Host Community
Hill Tourism in Kerala
176
While analysing the compiled data regarding economic impact of
tourism at the hill destinations in Kerala, most (86%) of the respondents
viewed that tourism has positive economic impact at the hill destinations of
Kerala, but 14 per cent stated that tourism has negative economic impact at the
hill destinations of Kerala.
TESTING THE SIXTH HYPOTHESIS
The opinion of host community regarding the economic impact of
tourism on the hill destinations of Kerala is also put to hypothesis testing.
Binomial test is used for testing the hypothesis with hypothetical mean value as
cut off point (30.00). While applying the test, respondents having the
perception of ≤ mean value are grouped as ‘no positive impact’ and the rest are
grouped as ‘positive impact’. The binomial test result (given in Table 4.39)
depicts the observed proportion as 0.57, which is more than the test proportion
of 0.50, and the p value is significant at 5 per cent level of significance. Hence,
the null hypothesis stating that not more than one half of the host community
observed that tourism has positive economic impact on the hill destinations of
Kerala stands rejected.
Table 4.39: Economic Impacts of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Binomial Test)
Category Observed Proportion Test Proportion p Value
Group 1(≤ 30.00) 0.14 0.50 0.000*
Group 2 (>30.00) 0.86 Source: Compiled Data.
H0: Not more than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has
positive economic impact on the hill destinations of Kerala (P≤0.50).
H1: More than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has
positive economic impact on the hill destinations of Kerala (P>0.50).
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The distribution of host community on the basis of economic factors (15
variables consolidated) by their socio-economic and demographic
characteristics is depicted in table 4.40.
Table 4.40: Relationship between Economic Factors and Personal Traits of the Host Community
Variables Category N Mean S.D F Sign. Total 250 35.8160 3.28776
Sex Male 192 35.7500 3.32687
0.333 0.565**Female 58 36.0345 3.17316
Age
≤25 48 34.9583 3.32597
1.441 0.231**26-35 101 36.0099 2.9376736-45 66 35.9091 3.30839>45 35 36.2571 4.02450
Educational Qualification
SSLC 53 36.1509 3.25456
0.467 0.706**Plus Two 106 35.5472 3.17170Graduate 84 35.9524 3.31446Post Graduate 7 35.7143 5.12231
Occupation
Salaried 152 35.8882 3.30672
1.499 0.215**Business 46 36.4348 2.91092Agriculture 13 35.0769 3.68469Others 39 35.0513 3.43319
Monthly Income
Upto Rs.5,000 66 35.2424 3.26313
2.326 0.043*
5,001 – 10,000 99 35.4242 3.1105210,001 – 15,000 37 36.7297 2.8347915,001 – 25,000 34 36.3529 3.8915825,001 – 40,000 6 37.1667 1.83485Above Rs.40,000 8 37.8750 4.18970
Place of birth Born 209 35.7129 3.36467
1.254 0.264**Migrated 41 36.3415 2.84262
Relation with tourism
Employed 73 35.9178 2.94747
2.258 0.082**
Family member employed
57 35.9649 2.87827
Tourism Entrepreneur
37 36.8108 2.60169
No relation 83 35.1807 3.96061Source: Compiled data **Not Significant
ANOVA was applied to find out whether there is any significant
variation in the perception of host community on economic impact. Out of
4.8 Relationship between Economic Impact and the Personal Traits of
Host Community
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seven variables, significant variation is seen only in respect of one variable viz
monthly income. However, no significant variation is seen in other six
variables viz. sex, age, educational qualification, occupation, place of birth and
relation with tourism.
Section C
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF HILL TOURISM IN KERALA
The hills of Kerala are among the leading tourism destinations, mainly
because of the rich wildlife resources they sustain and their mesmerizing scenic
beauty. Flora and Fauna of Kerala are notable for their diversity and high rates
of endemism, with 900 species of highly sought medicinal plants. The quality
of the environment, both natural and man-made, is essential to tourism.
However, the relationship of tourism with the environment is complex. It
involves many activities that can have adverse environmental effects. Many of
these impacts are linked with the construction of general infrastructure such as
roads, tourism facilities including resorts, hotels, restaurants, shops, golf
courses etc. The negative impacts of tourism development can gradually
destroy the environmental resources on which it depends. On the other hand,
tourism has the potential to create beneficial effects on the environment by
contributing to environmental protection and conservation. It is a way to raise
awareness about environmental values and it can also serve as a tool to finance
protection of natural areas and to increase their economic importance.
Uncontrolled conventional tourism poses potential threats to many natural
areas as it puts enormous pressure on an area and leads to soil erosion,
increased pollution, natural habitat loss, pressure on endangered species and
heightened vulnerability to forest fires. It often puts a strain on some of the
resources like water, and it can force local populations to compete for the use
of critical resources. The present study makes an attempt to analyse the opinion
of the host community on various positive and negative environmental impacts
of tourism in the hills of Kerala.
Hill Tourism in Kerala
179
Tourism has the potential to increase public appreciation of the
environment and to spread awareness about environmental problems by
bringing people into closer contact with nature and the environment. This
consciousness heightens awareness about the value of nature among the
community and leads to environmentally conscious behaviour and activities to
preserve the environment. While assessing this aspect among the selected
respondents, majority of the respondents (95.6%) agrees that tourism activities
increase environmental consciousness among the host community. The
destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table
4.41). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion
of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.41: Tourism Creates Increased Environmental Consciousness
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad Agree 44(88) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 45(90) 239(95.6)
Disagree 6(12) - - - 5(10) 11(4.4)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 17.497; p value = .002*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
(b) Tourism Leads to Improved Quality of Public Services
Tourism often induces improvements in public utilities such as water,
sewer, sidewalks, lighting, parking, public restrooms, litter control, and
landscaping. Such improvements benefit tourists and residents alike. While
assessing this aspect majority of the respondents (96%) agrees that the
increased tourism activities in the region improve the quality of public services
available at the destination. The destination wise analysis shows no wide
4.9 Positive Impact of Hill Tourism on the Environmental Aspects
(a) Tourism Leads to Increased Environmental Consciousness
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variation from general opinion (Table 4.42). However, the chi-square test finds
a significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.42: Tourism Leads to Improved Quality of Public Services
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 43(86) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 47(94) 240(96)
Disagree 7(14) - - - 3(6) 10(4)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 19.792; p value = .001*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(c) Tourism Leads to Improved Waste Management
Waste management is a critical aspect of tourist management that affects
health and the aesthetic value of a destination. Cooperative action and
appropriate infrastructure are helpful in waste management efforts. Waste
deteriorates very slowly at high altitudes, and therefore much of the waste
generated in the hills should simply be carried out. Waste management can
range from information distribution on litter and waste, to litter removal
projects, to the construction of local incinerators and dumping pits, along with
septic, pit or composting toilets. These methods have proven useful in almost
all mountains. Since the Kerala hills, treated as one of most sensitive biosphere,
waste management is a challenge to the authorities. While analysing this
aspect among the selected respondents most of them (91.6%) agree that the
tourism leads to an improvement in the waste management in the region, but 8
per cent disagrees with the statement and 0.4 per cent did not respond (Table
4.43). The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general
opinion. However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the
opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
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Table 4.43: Tourism Leads to Improved Waste Management
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 45(90) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 34(68) 229(91.6)
Disagree 5(10) - - - 15(30) 20(8)
No opinion - - - - 1(2) 1(0.4)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)
Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 50.710; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
(d) Tourism Generates Income for the Preservation of Nature
Tourism can contribute directly to the conservation of sensitive areas
and habitat. Revenue from park entrance fees and similar sources can be
allocated specifically to pay for the protection and management of
environmentally sensitive areas. Special fees for park operation or
conservation activities can be collected from tourists or tour operators. Such
funds can be used for the overall preservation programs and activities.
Table 4.44: Tourism Generates Income for the Preservation of Nature
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 15(30) 40(80) 44(88) 50(100) 39(78) 188(75.2)
Disagree 35(70) 8(16) 6(12) - 9(18) 58(23.2)
No opinion - 2(4) - - 2(4) 4(1.6)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =8) = 88.175; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
While analysing this aspect majority of the respondents (75.2%) agree
that the major share of the income generated from tourism activity is spent on
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182
the preservation of nature, but 23.2 per cent disagree with the statement and 1.6
per cent respondents did not respond. The destination wise analysis shows no
wide variation from general opinion except Ponmudi, where majority disagrees
with the statement (Table 4.44). However, the chi-square test finds a significant
variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Tourism can cause the same forms of pollution as any other industry: air
emissions, noise, solid waste and littering, releases of sewage, oil and
chemicals, even architectural/visual pollution. In the serene hill areas,
increased influx of tourists and the increased tourism related activities can
pollute the entire environment. While analysing this most of the respondents
(99.2%) agree that increased tourism activities in the region leads to increased
pollution. The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general
opinion (Table 4.45). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in
the opinion of the host community (p>0.05).
Table 4.45: Tourism Leads to Increased Pollution
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 48(100) 248(99.2)
Disagree - - - - 2(4) 2(0.8)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 8.065; p value = .089**. ** Not Significant at 5 per cent level.
(b) Tourism Leads to Scarcity of Water and Electricity
Increased demand from hotels and resorts for water and electricity leads
to the shortage of the already scarce resources in the locality. This will
4.10 Negative Impacts of Hill Tourism on the Environmental Aspects
(a) Tourism Leads to Increased Pollution
Hill Tourism in Kerala
183
ultimately affect the host community, who will protest against this with the
local authority and this may lead to tension in the region.
Table 4.46: Tourism Leads to Scarcity of Water and Electricity
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 35(70) 23(46) 47(94) 50(100) 45(90) 200(80)
Disagree 15(30) 27(54) 3(6) - 5(10) 50(20)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)
Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 61.000; p value = .000*. * Significant at 5 per cent level.
While analysing this among the selected respondents most of them
(80%) agree that increased inflow of tourism leads to increased investment in
tourism and this ultimately leads to scarcity of resources like water and
electricity to the local community, but 20 per cent disagrees with the statement.
The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from the general opinion
except Thekkady where majority disagrees with the statement (Table 4.46).
However, chi-square test also finds a significant variation in the opinion of the
host community (p<0.05).
(c) Tourism Leads to Drainage and Sanitation Problem
Construction of hotels, recreation and other facilities often leads to
increased pressure on sewage disposal facilities, in particular because many
destinations have several times more inhabitants in the high season than in the
low season. Waste water treatment facilities are often not built to cope with the
dramatic rise in the volume of waste water during the peak. Waste water has
polluted the water bodies surrounding tourist attractions, damaging the flora
and fauna. This drainage and sanitation problem can also threaten the health of
human beings and animals become unpleasant for local residents and can harm
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184
local tourism. While analysing this among the selected respondents most of
them (92%) agrees that the tourism activities create drainage and sanitation
problems in the area. The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation
from general opinion (Table 4.47). However, the chi-square test finds a
significant variation in the opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Table 4.47: Tourism Leads to Drainage and Sanitation Problem
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadAgree 50(100) 37(74) 50(100) 50(100) 43(86) 230(92)
Disagree - 13(26) - - 7(14) 20(8)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 37.500; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(d) Tourism Leads to Climate Change
Vehicles are the major contributor of the so called greenhouse gases to
the atmosphere, which are the major reason for the climate change. Tourism
involves the movement of people from their homes to other destinations and
accounts for about 50 per cent of traffic movements. Tourism is thus a
significant contributor to the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. In addition to these, increased clearing of forest for the
development of infrastructure also induces climate change in a destination.
While assessing this among the selected respondents most of them (92.8%)
agree that the increased tourism activities is one of the major reason for climate
change in the region, but 7.2 per cent disagrees with the statement. The
destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table
4.48). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the opinion
of the host community (p<0.05).
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185
Table 4.48: Tourism Leads to Climate Change
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 50(100) 37(74) 50(100) 50(100) 45(90) 232(92.8)
Disagree - 13(26) - - 5(10) 18(7.2)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 38.673; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
(e) Tourism Leads to Degradation of Natural Resources
Tourism development can put pressure on the natural resources when it
increases consumption in areas where resources are already scarce. Though a
bare minimum disturbance to nature is inevitable and justifiable for the
promotion of tourism considering its socio-economic benefits, the increased
and blindfolded construction of facilities has caused damage to these resources
and on scenic landscapes. Direct impact on natural resources, both renewable
and non-renewable, is often caused by the acquisition of land and the excessive
use of building materials necessitated by tourism infrastructure development.
Table 4.49: Tourism Leads to Degradation of Natural Resources
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 43(86) 243(97.2)
Disagree - - - - 7(14) 7(2.8)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 28.807; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
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186
While assessing this factor majority of the respondents (97.2%) agree
that increased tourist traffic lead to degradation of forest in the region. The
destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion (Table
4.49). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation on the opinion
of the host community (p<0.05).
(f) Tourism Leads to Deforestation
Kerala hills are home to rare and magnificent species of flora and fauna,
which attracts thousands of tourists. The paths constructed for the jungle trails,
construction of watch towers etc. leads to the felling. In addition the tourists
themselves often pose significant problems with regard to conservation and
sustainability. In their desire for familiar but unrealistic luxuries, tourists will
place a demand on the host community to improve local conditions at the
expense of the environment. For example, tourists who desire multiple-course
meals or hot bathing water while trekking in fragile hills increase the need for
fuel and water, and may contribute directly to deforestation.
Table 4.50: Tourism Leads to Deforestation
Perception Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 42(84) 49(98) 50(100) 50(100) 43(86) 234(93.6)
Disagree 8(16) 1(2) - - 7(14) 16(6.4)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 20.967; p value = .000*. *Significant at 5 per cent level.
While assessing this factor majority of the respondents (93.6%) agree
that tourism development in the region is the major reason for deforestation.
The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion
(Table 4.50). However, the chi-square test finds a significant variation in the
opinion of the host community (p<0.05).
Hill Tourism in Kerala
187
(g) Tourism Damages Bio-diversity and Quality of Landscape
Kerala hills are considered as one of the 34 biodiversity hot spots in the
world. Tourism, especially nature tourism, is closely linked to bio-diversity and
the attractions created by a rich and varied environment. It can also cause loss
of biodiversity and result in the depletion of the quality of landscape when land
and resources are strained by excessive use, and when impacts on vegetation,
wildlife, hill environments and water resources exceed the carrying capacity.
This loss of bio diversity in fact means loss of resources of the locality and
ultimately affects the tourism potential of that region. While assessing this
factor among the selected respondents most of them (99.2%) agree that
increased tourism activities damage bio-diversity and quality of the landscape.
The destination wise analysis shows no wide variation from general opinion
(Table 4.51). The chi-square test also shows no significant variation in the
opinion of the host community (p>0.05).
Table 4.51: Tourism Damages Bio-diversity and Quality of Landscape
Perception Destination Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy Wayanad
Agree 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 48(96) 248(99.2)
Disagree - - - - 2(4) 2(0.8)
No opinion - - - - - -
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100) Source: Primary data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals. χ2 (df =4) = 8.065; p value = .089**. ** Not Significant at 5 per cent level.
For assessing the overall opinion of host community as regards
environmental impacts of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, the opinion
of the host community on all the 11 variables are consolidated. The response
was recorded on a three-point scale with a maximum value of three for ‘agree’
4.11 Environmental Impacts of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala – Consolidated Opinion of the Host Community
Hill Tourism in Kerala
188
two for ‘no opinion’ and a minimum value of one for ‘disagree’, for the
positive variables and a reverse ranking was applied for the negative variables.
The compiled data is depicted in Table 4.52. Regarding environmental impact
of tourism at the hill destinations of Kerala, most (91.6%) of the respondents
viewed that tourism has negative environmental impact at the hill destinations
of Kerala, only 8.4 per cent stated that tourism has positive environmental
impact at the hill destinations of Kerala.
Table 4.52: Environmental Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Opinion of Host Community)
Opinion Destinations Total Ponmudi Thekkady Munnar Neliampathy WayanadPositive impact
3(6) 14(28) 4(100) 21(8.4)
No impact - - - - - -
Negative impact
47(94) 36(72) 50(100) 50(100) 46(100) 229(91.6)
Total 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 50(100) 250(100)
Source: Compiled data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages to respective totals.
TESTING THE FIFTH HYPOTHESIS
The opinion of host community regarding the environmental impact of
tourism on the hill destinations of Kerala is also put to hypothesis testing.
Binomial test is used for testing the hypothesis with hypothetical mean value as
cut off point (22.00). While applying the test, respondents having the
perception of ≤ mean value are grouped as ‘no positive impact’ and the rest are
H0: Not more than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has
positive environmental impact on the hill destinations of Kerala
(P≤0.50).
H1: More than one half of the host community viewed that tourism has
positive environmental impact on the hill destinations of Kerala
(P>0.50).
Hill Tourism in Kerala
189
grouped as ‘positive impact’. The binomial test result (given in Table 4.53)
depicts the observed proportion as 0.08, which is less than the test proportion
of 0.50, and the p-value is significant at 5 per cent level of significance. Hence,
the null hypothesis stating that not more than one half of the host community
observed that tourism has positive environmental impact on the hill
destinations of Kerala stands accepted.
Table 4.53: Environmental Impact of Tourism at the Hill Destinations of Kerala (Binomial Test)
Category Observed Proportion Test Proportion p Value
Group 1(≤ 22.00) 0.92 0.50 0.000*
Group 2 (>22.00) 0.08
Source: Compiled data.
The distribution of host community on the basis of environmental
factors (11 variables consolidated) by their socio-economic and demographic
characteristics is depicted in Table 4.54.
ANOVA was applied to find out whether there is any significant
variation in the perception of host community by their socio-economic and
demographic characteristics on environmental factors. No significant variation
is seen in any of the seven variables viz. sex, age, educational qualification,
occupation, monthly income, place of birth and relation with tourism.
4.12 Relationship between Environmental Impact and Personal Traits of
Host Community
Hill Tourism in Kerala
190
Table 4.54: Relationship between Environmental Factors and Personal Traits of the Host Community
Variables Category N Mean S.D F Sign. Total 250 19.1080 2.34571
Sex Male 192 19.1458 2.43869 0.215 0.644**Female 58 18.9828 2.02174
Age
≤25 48 18.6458 1.95143
1.739 0.160**26-35 101 19.4059 2.5344836-45 66 19.2424 2.54232>45 35 18.6286 1.71646
Educational Qualification
SSLC 53 18.6981 2.72866
2.334 0.075**Plus Two 106 19.3302 1.92587Graduate 84 18.9405 2.12473Post Graduate 7 20.8571 5.49025
Occupation
Salaried 152 19.1842 2.57193
0.215 0.886**Business 46 19.0435 1.99952Agriculture 13 18.6923 1.60128Others 39 19.0256 2.03246
Monthly Salary
Upto Rs.5,000 66 18.6818 2.05433
0.730 0.620**
5,001 – 10,000 99 19.1313 1.8162910,001 – 15,000 37 19.4595 3.0055015,001 – 25,000 34 19.3529 3.4190425,001 – 40,000 6 19.3333 2.33809Above Rs.40,000 8 19.5000 1.41421
Place of birth Born 209 19.0622 2.50403
0.485 0.487**Migrated 41 19.3415 1.25717
Relation with tourism
Employed 73 18.8767 2.05443
0.482 0.695**
Family member employed
57 19.3333 1.70434
Tourism Entrepreneur
37 19.0000 2.05480
No relation 83 19.2048 3.01119Source: Compiled data. **Not Significant.