chapter 4[1] motivation working one

7/30/2019 Chapter 4[1] Motivation Working One

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SPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Chapter 4

Motivation

Lavallee et al. (2004) Sport Psychology: Contemporary Themes

(Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke)


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Introduction, History

and Development

There has been a longstanding concern withmotivation in both psychology and sport

Theory and practice still dont always coincide

Despite being an important topic it is a regrettablefact that motivation is a poorly understood

phenomenon in the trenches.... nowhere is theconcept of motivation more misunderstood than insport. Roberts(1992, p.4)


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In the world of sports coaches are fascinatedwith motivation

For instance they generate motivational slogans

They deliver motivational talks to their players

They become motivational speakers for a variety ofaudiences during the offseason.

According to Roberts (1992) coaches make 3notable errors about motivation

1). That motivation and arousal are synonymous So they may deliver emotional pregame speeches


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2). That positive thinking is always an answer tomotivational problems.

But clearly realistic expectations have to prevail

Some difficulties are not overcome by effort orexpectancy, resulting in frustration

3). The tendency to view motivation as an innatequality or entity; thus some people are bornwith motivation and others are not.

Hence some coaches therefore tends to give upearly on some players


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What is motivation? Motivation is commonly defined as

Psychological processes that energise theindividual and thereby influence behaviour.

According to Roberts (1992, p.5) motivationrefers to those personality factors, socialvariables, and /or cognitions that come into

play when a person undertakes a task at whichhe or she is evaluated, enters into competitionwith others or attempts to attain some

standard of excellence


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Roberts further indicated that in sports weoften hear statements such as the following as

ways of describing motivation or achievementbehaviour:

Try harder

Concentrate more Persist longer

Pay more attention

Perform better Practice longer and harder


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Theories

Over the past 50 years 2 theories of

motivation have dominated research inpsychology and sport psychology:

1). Need Achievement

2). Attribution Theory

It has many variants


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The pioneer into this area was Henry Murray inthe 1930s who posits that:

People differ in their need to overcome obstacles

People also differ in their need to exercise power People also differ in their need to strive to do

something difficult and as quickly as possible.

This striving , Murray called Need forachievement

In the 1950s Murrays efforts were furtheradvanced by Mcclleland and others

Need (for) Achievement


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In in a broader sense need achievementincludes the concept of desire, or desire to

excel.

in sports need achievement can be defined as

the athletes predisposition to approach or avoida competitive situation.

The athletic literature is full of athletes whoexcel because of internal desire other thanphysical attributes such as size, and strength


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McClelland-Atkinson theory

From the mid 1950s through to the mid 1970s the theory ofachievement motivation that received the most attention inthe psychological literature was McClelland-Atkinson theory .

Their work on motivation was based on earlier theories ofHull (1951); and Spence (1956)- the Drive theory. Theydemonstrated that animals will go to extraordinary lengthsto reduce an internal drive such as hunger, thirst, or thedesire for sexual gratification= drive reduction


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How does the McClellandAtkinson theoryexplain achievement motivation?

In its simplest form, it is based on twopsychological constructs:

1. The motive to achieve success

2. The fear of failure.The motive to achieve success is believed to

represent an athletes intrinsic motivation to

engage in an interesting and excitingactivity.

Fear of failure is a psychological construct

associated with cognitive state of anxiety.


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According to this model a persons desire to

enter into an interesting and exciting activityis a function of the relative strengths ofthese two constructs: motive to achieve

success and fear of failure.

If a person's confidence is stronger than the

fear of failure, then the person will approachand perform the task


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To sound a bit complex, this model says our need to meet the challenge

or achieve (nAch) will depend on the relative significance of two

independent psychological constructs, our motive to achieve success(Ms) and our motive to avoid failure or fear of failure (Maf).

Specifically our need to achieve (nAch) will depend on the size of thedifference between the two motives (Ms Maf) combined with our

perception of the probability of success (Ps) and the incentive value ofsuccess (Is), i.e. the value we place on rewards associated with success.Is is thought to be inversely related to Ps and hence can berepresented by the formula 1 Ps = Is.

The final component is extrinsic rewards which we believe we will

receive if successful (M.ext). Each ingredient is brought together in thefollowing formula, where Ms and Maf are scored from 1 to 10 and theremaining factors from 0 to 1:

NAch = (Ms Maf)(Ps x Is) + Mext.

By simple equation, Acht motv.=intrin moti-cog state of anxiety.


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This model represents a classic approach-avoidance conflict forthe athlete. Thus the decision to enter into an achievementsituation is a function of the strength of the athletes

intrinsic motivation (approach) and his fear of failure(avoidance).

Problems with this model.

Its complex and relies on psychological constructs and sodifficult to measure

The relationship between achievement motivation andperformance is not a reliable one.

Failure to accurately and consistently account forachievement motivation in women


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Later models have examined the interactionbetween personal and situational variables indetermining participation in sport.

Direct antecedents include the work of Spenceand Helmreich (1983) who went on to describeachievement orientation multi-dimensionally,

referencing three distinct responses ororientations to achievement situations:

striving for excellence,

emphasising hard work or

desiring to outperform others.


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Diane Gill then took up this work within sport psychology(Gill, 1993), focusing on competitiveness as a sport-specific

achievement construct that she measured in terms of threeconstructs (competitiveness, win orientation and goalorientation) using the Sport Orientation Questionnaire(SOQ; Gill, 1993).

At a more general level, the focus of all these endeavourson the importance of intrinsic motivators and specifically theneed to achieve is never far removed from the array of

constructs and perspectives that characterise thecontemporary literature.


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2. Weiners Attribution Theory

Causal attribution theory, concerned with how we explain our socialworld, rose to prominence in the 1970s and also made its mark withinsport and exercise psychology, Weiners (1979) attribution model tookcentre stage, the model providing a framework for understanding theexplanations or causal attributions which people associate with success

and failure in competitive sport.

In sporting contexts the four main attribution elements have beenlabelled ability, effort, task difficulty and luck. In turn, thesereflect on three primary constructs, whether factors are either internal

or external, stable or unstable and controllable or uncontrollable.

W i A ib i Th


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Weiners Attribution Theory (1985, 1986)

We explain success & failure with reference to ability, effort,task and luck

Basic

Attribution Categories

Stability Causality Controllability

Stable Unstable Internal External InOne

sCont

Out ofOnes

Control


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Two key questions

Why do we participate in sport?

Why do we withdraw from sport?


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1. Motivators of Participation

Fun: enjoyment, pleasure, psychological benefits

Affiliation: social experience, friendship, significant others

Competence: personal challenge, skill acquisition/improvement

Fitness: health, weight loss, strength, improve appearance

Success: competition or personal accomplishment

Motivators can often change over time


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2. De-motivators of Participation

Other interests: conflict of alternative activities

Lack of improvement in skill: lack of progress

Lack of fun: boredom, playing time

Time pressure: increased time taken up by practice andcompetition

Excessive pressure: from coach, parents and peers

Can be temporary or permanent

Can be at a particular level or total rejection

Th R l t I t M ti ti


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Three Relevant Issues to Motivationand Sport Psychology

A). Sport Self-Confidence.Since the 1970s a number of cognitive theories

have been proposed and researched based

upon the broad notion of self-confidence.

Arkes and Garske (1982) have recognized that

the discriminating factor between individualshigh and low in achievement motivation is selfconfidence.


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Those who are self confident and expecting to succeed aregenerally the same athletes who do succeed.

There are 4 major theories that attempt to explain the conceptof self confidence:

1. Self Efficacy by Bandura2. Competence motivation by Harter

3. Sport Confidence by Vealey

4. Achievement goal orientation by Nicholls


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1. Banduras Self Efficacy Theory

This is the individuals belief that he is competent and cansucceed at any task.

It proposes that self efficacy is fundamental to competentperformance. In competitive situations, the higher thelevel of S.E is the higher the performanceaccomplishments are and the lower is the emotionalarousal (Bandura 1982)


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Bandura states that S.E is enhanced by:

Successful performance (the most important of

the 4) Vicarious experience

Verbal persuasion

Emotional arousal

Successful performance raises ones expectationfor future success; failure lowers this

expectation


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Once repeated success occurs, strongfeelings of S.E develops and this makes the

consequences of occasional failures small.

The most critical part of Banduras S.E theory

is repeated success through participatorymodeling.

In sport athletes S.E is a strong predictor ofperformance.


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2. Harters competence motivation theory

According to Harter, individuals are innately motivated tobe competent in all areas of human achievement.

To satisfy the urge to be competent in an achievement

area such as sport , the person attempts mastery.

If these attempts are successful, then high competencemotivation results; which encourages the athlete to make

further mastery attempts.


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Conversely if the attempts at mastery failsthen low competence motivation will result.

Investigations in sport has found that youthswho underestimate their competence

motivation tend to be sport drop outs.

For example girls who are sport drop outs

tend to have high trait anxiety, preferunchallenging activities, and controlled byexternal forces.


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Studies by Black and Weiss (1992) reaffirmed theimportance of significant others in developing competence

motivation in young athletes.

For instance young athletes who perceive their coaches as-

givers of feedback, encouragement, are the same athleteswho perceive themselves as highly motivated.

3 S t C fid b V l (1986


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3. Sport Confidence by Vealey (1986,1988)

The majority of literature in sport psychology has focused on

sport-specific theories such as Vealeys (1986) Model of SportConfidence designed specifically to consider the role of self-confidence in determining the process of motivation insporting contexts

According to Vealey, sport confidence is the belief or degreeof certainty individuals possess about their ability to be

successful in sport.


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The perspective argues that our self-

confidence when faced with a particularcompetition or challenge (otherwise known as

state sport confidence- SC-state) reflects onboth our underlying self-confidence or traitsport confidence (SC-trait) and our

competitive orientation.


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Our performance then leads to subjective outcomes (e.g. satisfaction,perceived success) which then influence our competitive orientationand trait self-confidence on future occasions.

To support her approach, Vealey developed separate measures of thethree core constructs, known as the Trait Sport-Confidence Inventory,the State Sport-Confidence Inventory and the Competitive OrientationInventory (Vealey, 1986), although primary research based on thismodel remains scarce.


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Vealeys model is useful in explaining the relationshipbetween general sport confidence and situation-specific

sport confidence.

An athlete who is very successful at one sport transfers

much of the confidence derived from his success to othersport situations.


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4. Achievement Goal Orientation (GO) Theory(Nicholls, 1984)

Currently the most popular approach in motivation literaturewithin sport psychology

Proposes that motivational affect, behaviour and cognitioncan be understood in terms of two goal perspectives egoand task

Goal Orientations are thought to be influenced by both

situational and dispositional factors Both goal orientations are independent e.g. High Task, Low Ego - Low Task, High Ego

High Task, High Ego - Low Task, Low Ego


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Ego Orientation

Normative referenced reasons for participation Recognition, competition, social status

Typical behaviours

perception of high ability careful selection of activities avoid failure

little effort during practice

NB Both orientations find competition meaningful it is themeaning attached to competition that distinguishes them


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Task Orientation

Self-referenced reasons for participation skill development, skill mastery, affiliation, fitness.

Typical behaviours persistence, optimal effort

work hard

choose challenging activities

seek feedback


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Differences in Achievement GO(Nicholls, 1978; Roberts & Treasure, 1995; White & Duda), 1994)

Children tend to be more task oriented

Children of 10 years could be ego oriented

Adolescents tend to be more ego oriented

Boys and men are more ego oriented than girls and women

In the more competitive levels of sport, participants have a

higher ego orientation

Task orientation does not vary with level of participation


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Significant Others and Achievement GO(White et al., 98)

Parents emphasise different aspects of participation to their

children depending on own orientation (team playing/ winning)

Children with a dominant orientation tend to view theirparents in the same light

Both parents and children are poor at judging the othersactual orientation

The perceived orientation of the parent will influence thechilds attitude to participation

Similarly a coach or teacher can exert influence over thechilds enjoyment and beliefs about sport


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Is a Task GO favourable?(Fox et al., 1994; Hardy et al., 1996)

The literature tends to favour task orientation

This is limited as a person can have a certain degree of both

orientations simultaneously

People with a high ego and task orientation are highlymotivated in sport

A win attitude is needed in sport - an ego orientation can be

used to sustain long-term motivation


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Effects of external rewards on intrinsic

motivation

Intrinsic motivation is the kind that comes from within.

It is not determined by external rewards

This kind of motivation is influenced or enhanced by:

Feelings of self-competence 9 also strengthened by positivefeedback associated with successful mastery attempts

Perceived competence

In the McCllelandAtkinson model this intrinsic motivation is the

same as the motive to achieve success This model proposed that extrinsic motivation would have an

added effect on intrinsic motivation

The following illustration shows the r/p between positive feedback, selfconfidence, and intrinsic motivation


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Positivefeedback

Feelings ofacceptance

Intrinsicmotivation


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It is appealing to assume that Extrinsic rewards can enhancemotivation of athletes. But the question is what happens to theathletes motivation if these rewards are withdrawn?

Can external rewards really actually damage or enhance

motivation?

Attribution studies have shown that external rewards can damagea young athletes intrinsic desire to compete.

According to the additive principle athlete low on intrinsicmotivation will participate in a competitive situation if there is anextrinsic reward or motivation; but many research seems to castdoubt on this principle. What has been suggested is the

Multiplicative principle which is the notion that E.rewards ormotivation may interact with I.M to either add or detract from it.

Embedded in the Attribution theory are the concepts ofdiscounting and over justification

These concepts suggests that adding external rewards as anincentive to participate in an otherwise interesting activity mayrepresent an over justificationfor participating, leading to adiscounting, or reduction in I.M


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Whenever an individual comes to believe that she is participating in anotherwise interesting activity for external rewards, I.M is minimized.

The over justification principle plays a role in the weakening of I.M in

both children and adults. Cognitive Evaluation theory: (Deci &Ryan, 1985) is deeply seated in

attribution theory and in locus of control origin-pawn r/p . Decitheorized E. rewards can affect I. motivation in 2 ways:

1. The first is to produce a decrement in I.M. this occurs as people

perceive a change in locus of control from an internal to external to anexternal one. That is when people come to perceive that theirbehaviour is controlled by external forces, they respond withdecreased levels of I.m. this is the controlling aspect of E.m and servesto place an athlete in a position of a pawn who is acted upon.

2. The second effect of E. rewards is informational in nature, and resultsin an increase in intrinsic motivation. If an E award provide s feedbackto the person and enhances that persons sense of competence andself determination, increased I. m will be the end result. This isreferred to as the informational aspect of E. m and it places an athlete

in the position of an originator who does the acting.


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Consider the following situations

a 10 year old boy who agrees to run in a five

mile road race because of a ten dollarincentive from his father

A 12 year girl who receives an award thatrecognizes her position in the tournament.

Research has also linked I.m to gaolorientation. Indi. Displaying a task (mastery)orientation enjoy enhanced I.m because of the

selfreferenced and self- determined nature oftheir involvement.

Conversely ind. Displaying an ego orientationsuffer a loss of I.m because of the controlling

nature of their involvement


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Key Participation Constructs Psychological

Key Participation Constructs - Psychological

Perceived competence

Perceived Self-Competence Scales (Harter) Physical Self-perception Profile (Fox & Corbin)

Physical Description Questionnaire (Marsh)

Self-efficacy

Goal orientation Perception of Sport Questionnaire (Roberts et al)

Task and Ego Orientation Sports Questionnaire(Duda)


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Key participation

constructs-

psychological

Competitive orientation Sport Orientation Questionnaire (Gill)

Affect / Mood state Positive Affect negative Affect Schedule (Watson

et al)

Enjoyment


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Key participation

constructs-

contextual Significant others

Parents, peers, coaches/teachers, family, friends,work colleagues, health professionals

Health & fitness

Activity choice

Boys more likely to choose competitive, team sports

Structural barriers

Personal (psychological)

External (resources, opportunities, other interests)

f


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1. The Coach or Teacher

These significant people in the lives of athletes shouldprovide a climate that enhances participation in sport.Epstein (1989) and Treasure have proposed that a task-mastery oriented climate created by coach or teacher canfoster self confidence in youth and increase I.m. theacronym for the recommendation offered by Epstein isTARGET thus

Tasks. Tasks involving diversity and facilitate an interest and taskinvolvement.

Authority. Students should be given opportunities to participateactively in the learning process by being involved in decisionmaking and monitoring their own personal progress

Rewards. Rewards for participation should focus upon indi. Gains

and improvement, and away from social comparisons

Developing self

confidence in sport


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Grouping. Students should be placed ingroups so that they can work on indi.

Skills in a cooperative learning climate Evaluation. Evaluation should involve

numerous self tests that focus upon

effort and personal improvement. Timing. Timing is critical to the

interaction of all of these conditions


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The parent

1. Encounrage independence and reinforce

childs efforts at becoming indpt.2. Be warm and encouraging their children

3. Comfort and support children when there

is setbacks, fear and discouragement

4. Expect children to be able to, competent,and responsible

5. Demonstrate confidence in children's abilityby resisting the urge to take charge whenthey experience difficulty in mastering a

task


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6. Allow and expect many trials for a child tomaster a task

7. Keep trac of a childs successes and applaudthem. Dont dwell on failures

8. Pay attention to childs efforts. Listen to

their problems and pay attention to theirfeelings

h di id l hl


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The Individual Athlete

Participatory motivation: documents reasons youth

participate or otherwise in youth sport activities.Some motives expressed are:

1. Motive to learn new skills and to improve onexisting sport skills

2. The motive to have fun and to enjoy participatingin sport

3. The motive to become physically fit and to enjoy

good health4. The motive to enjoy the challenge and excitement

of sports participation

5. The motive to enjoy a team atmosphere and to be

chapter 4[1] motivation working one

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