chapter 5 aerobic exercise

Revised Edition: 2016

ISBN 978-1-280-13048-9

© All rights reserved.

Published by: Academic Pages48 West 48 Street, Suite 1116,New York, NY 10036, United StatesEmail: [email protected]

WT________________________WORLD TECHNOLOGIES________________________

Table of Contents

Chapter 1 - Physical Education

Chapter 2 - How to Be a Gym Teacher

Chapter 3 - How to Be Motivated to Exercise

Chapter 4 - How to Begin Learning Gymnastics

Chapter 5 - Aerobic Exercise

Chapter 6 - Skipping Rope

Chapter 7 - Walking

Chapter 8 - Weight Training

Chapter 9 - Eccentric Training

Chapter 10 - Strength Training

Chapter 11 - Personal Trainer

Chapter 12 - How to Become a Personal Trainer

Chapter 13 - How to Become a Certified Personal Trainer

Chapter 14 - How to Be a Personal Trainer

Chapter 15 - How to Make Right Eating Choices and Avoid Fatty Foods

Chapter 16 - How to Train Your Body

Chapter 17 - How to Develop Healthy Eating Habits

Chapter 18 - How to Use Gym Equipment

Chapter 19 - How to Build Lower Abs


Chapter 20 - How to Do Yoga Meditation

Chapter 21 - How to Get the Most from Pilates


Chapter 1

Physical Education

PE equipment in Calhan, Colorado

Physical education (often abbreviated Phys. Ed. or P.E.) or gymnastics (gym or gym class) is a course taken during primary and secondary education that encourages psychomotor learning in a play or movement exploration setting.

Trends

Physical education trends have developed recently to incorporate a greater variety of activities. Introducing students to lifetime activities like bowling, walking/hiking, or Frisbee at an early age can help students develop good activity habits that will carry over


into adulthood. Some teachers have even begun to incorporate stress-reduction tech-niques such as yoga and deep-breathing. Teaching non-traditional sports to students may also provide the necessary motivation for students to increase their activity, and can help students learn about different cultures. For example, while teaching a unit about lacrosse (in, say, Arizona, USA), students can also learn a little bit about the Native American cultures of the Northeast and Eastern Canada, where lacrosse originated. Teaching non-traditional (or non-native) sports provides a great opportunity to integrate academic concepts from other subjects as well (social studies from the example above), which is required of every P.E. teacher these days.

There are also many different models that have been created as of late that change the face of P.E. One example of this is the Health Club Model. Teaching with this model is very different from the "Organized Recess" of 20 or 30 years ago. Spun off the boom in the health club industry, a P.E. class provides many of the same "classes" that are found at a health club. Monday a student could be doing kickboxing, the next day is yoga, Wednesday the student is doing aerobics. This type of program provides a great variety of activity for students, a lot a high intensity exercise, and helps introduce these activities for use later in life. The Sports Education model is another example of a new model were the class is run like a sports league, with students taking the role of coaches, scorers, referees, and reporters as well as players. Using this model, students practice manage-ment skills, mathematics skills, and writing skill all while learning sports skills and being active.

Another trend is the incorporation of Health and Nutrition to the physical education curriculum. The Child Nutrition and WIC Re-authorization Act of 2004 required that all school districts with a federally funded school meal program develop wellness policies that address nutrition and physical activity. While teaching students sports and movement skills, P.E. teachers are now incorporating short health and nutrition lessons into the curriculum. This is more prevalent at the elementary school level, where students do not have a specific Health class. Recently most elementary schools have specific health classes for students as well as physical education class. With the recent outbreaks of diseases such as swine flu, school districts are making it mandatory for students to learn about practicing good hygiene along with other health topics.

Today many states require Physical Education teachers to be certified to teach Health also. Many colleges and Universities offer both Physical Education and Health as one certification. This push towards Health education, is beginning in the intermediate level, including lessons on bullying, self esteem and stress and anger management.

In the United States, the physical education curriculum is designed to allow school pupils a full range of modern opportunities, dozens of sports and hundreds of carefully reviewed drills and exercises, including exposure to the education with the use of pedometer, GPS, and heart rate monitors, as well as state-of-the-art exercise machines in the upper grades. Some martial arts classes, like wrestling in the United States, and Pencak Silat in France, Indonesia and Malaysia, are taught to teach children self-defense and to feel good about themselves. The physical education curriculum is designed to allow students to


experience at least a minimum exposure to the following categories of activities: aquatics, conditioning activities, gymnastics, individual/dual sports, team sports, rhythms, and dance. Students are encouraged to continue to explore those activities in which they have a primary interest by effectively managing their community resources.

In these areas, a planned sequence of learning experiences is designed to support a progression of student development. This allows kids through 6th grade to be introduced to sports, fitness, and teamwork in order to be better prepared for the middle and high school age. In 1975, the United States House of Representatives voted to require school physical education classes include both genders. Some high school and some middle school PE classes are single-sex. Requiring individuals to participate in physical education activities, such as dodge ball, flag football, and other competitive sports remains a controversial subject because of the social impact these have on young children. It is, however, important to note that many school budgets have seen cutbacks and in some cases physical education programs have been cut - leaving educators and students to address these needs in other ways.

Worldwide

In Singapore, pupils from primary school through junior colleges are required to have 2 hours of PE every school week, except during examination seasons. Pupils are able to play games like football, badminton, 'captain's ball' and basketball during most sessions. Unorthodox sports such as tchoukball, fencing and skateboarding are occasionally played. In more prestigious secondary schools and in junior colleges, sports such as golf, tennis, shooting, squash are played. A compulsory fitness exam, NAPFA, is conducted in every school once every year to assess the physical fitness of the pupils. Pupils are given a series of fitness tests (Pull-ups/ Inclined pull-ups for girls, standing broad jump, sit-ups, sit-and-reach and 1.6 km for secondary/2.4 km for junior colleges run). Students are graded by gold, silver, bronze and fail. NAPFA for pre-enlistees serves as an indicator for an additional 2 months in the country's compulsory national service if they attain bronze or fail.

In Malaysia, pupils from primary schools to secondary schools are expected to do 2 periods or 1 hour of PE throughout the year except a week before examination. In most secondary schools, games like badminton, sepak takraw, football, basketball and tennis are available. Pupils are allowed to bring their own sports equipment to the school with the authorization of the teacher. In most secondary school, physical exams are rarely done, schools records on pupil's height, weight and how many push-up they can do.

In Scotland, pupils are expected to do two periods of PE in first year, one in second year and two in third and fourth year. In fifth and sixth year, PE is voluntary.


Some countries include Martial Arts training in school as part of Physical Education class. These Filipino children are doing karate.

In the Philippines, some schools have integrated martial arts training into their Physical Education curriculum.

In England, pupils are expected to do two hours of PE a week in Year 7, 8 and 9 and at least 1 in year 10 and 11.

In Wales, pupils are expected to do only one hour of PE per fortnight.

In Poland, pupils are expected to do at least three hours of PE a week during primary and secondary education. Universities must also organise at least 60 hours of physical education classes at undergraduate courses.

In Nepal, physical education is poor and poorly organized because the educational system has only been recently established and is still adjusting to recent changes and updates. Nepal has not gone very far in the sector of education because the educational history of Nepal is very short. Before 1951, Nepal was under a monarchy. The monarchy did not wish to provide education to the citizens as it did not want them to be educated and therefore politically aware. Institution of democracy did not result in a modern educ-ational system; what education there was little better. After 10 years of democracy the


country again plunged into an autocratic monarchy. In 1990 democracy was restored and the education sector started to flourish. Since then, Physical Education became part of the school curriculum. At the primary level (1-5), some minor and local games are now taught, like hide and seek and some athletic based local events. In lower secondary level (6-8), the students are taught general concepts on major games like football, volleyball, basket ball, Kho-Kho and Kabaddi. They also learn some athletics like 100m race 100*4m relay race and some other minor and lead up games. In class Nine and ten it is an optional subject where they specialize in some games like volleyball, basketball, handball, cricket, Kho Kho Kabaddi, Badminton, table tennis and some athletics are also taught. In college it is taught in the education stream. Even though it is included in school curriculum, Nepal is not able to produce any worthwhile products of games and sports for reasons ranging from poverty to decentralized government.

Adapted Physical Education

Adapted Physical Education or APE, is a sub-discipline of physical education, focusing on inclusion and students with special needs.

Adapted Physical Education (APE) is a sub-discipline of physical education in the United States. It is an individualized program created for students with disabilities in order to ensure safe and successful physical education opportunities. Physical education involves physical fitness, motor fitness, fundamental motor skills and patterns, aquatics skills, dance skills, individual, group games, and sports (including lifetime sports). Adapted Physical Education is a direct service, not a related service.

Laws

Some key U.S. laws that have been influential in the advancement of APE include:

Enacted in 2001, this act puts significant federal support behind the improvement of reading and mathematics scores and compromises other critical curricular areas, including physical education, health, history, art, computer science, and music (Auxter, Pyfer, Zittel, Roth, 2010). Additionally, schools and teachers are held to higher standards in the areas of accountability, assessment, and transparency. These higher standards are achieved by: 1. Annual Testing 2. Monitoring Academic Progress 3. Filing District Report Cards 4. Hiring Highly Qualified Teachers 5. Creating a Measurable 'Reading First' Program 6. Funding Poorer Schools

Americans with Disabilities Act (P.L. 101-336)

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was enacted in 1990 to prohibit the discrimination of individuals with disabilities in the public and private sectors. The ADA outlaws discrimination against a person with a disability in five spheres: employment, public services, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications. To be protected by the ADA, the individual must have a disability or be associated with an individual with a disability. In 2008, effective January 1, 2009, Congress passed a law to


restore ADA back to its original intent of defining a disability, looking at the effects of the disability in at least one major life activity. This change helped companies and employers follow the rules of ADA. The ADA requires accessibility in federal and private sectors, including physical education facilities. For example, weight rooms should be able to accommodate wheelchair users, gym lockers should have key locks instead of combination locks for those who need it, and gyms with stairs should also have ramps.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)

Enacted in 1990 (and reauthorized in 1997 and 2004), IDEA was the reauthorization of PL 94-142 and continued the emphasis upon FAPE (Free and Appropriate Public Education), IEP (Individual Education Program), LRE (Least Restrictive Environment), and Physical Education as a direct educational service. With this reauthorization, person-first terminology was instituted, and emphasis was placed on the education of students with disabilities within the general curriculum and parent involvement in educational programming. Under Federal Law, students must have one of thirteen named disabilities to qualify for this special programming.

Education for All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142)

Enacted in 1975, this act mandated: (a) a free appropriate public education (FAPE) for all children and adults with disabilities between the ages of 3 and 21 years; (b) an Individualized Education Program; (c) an education in the Least Restrictive Environment; and (d) Physical Education as a direct, educational service.

To ensure that every child with a disability receives an appropriate education, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 mandated that an Individual Education Program (IEP) be developed for each student with a disability that requires specialized instruction. The IEP should be the cornerstone of the student's education and should be the living, working document that teachers and parents use as the basis for the instructional process.

The Rehabilitation Act (P.L. 93-112, Section 504)

Created in 1973, this act mandated that individuals with disabilities cannot be excluded from any program or activity receiving federal funds solely on the basis of their disability. Students with disabilities who do not qualify for services under IDEA, yet require reasonable accommodations to benefit from their education must have a written 504 plan. A 504 plan is a written document that states modifications and accommodations that the student will be needing to be given the same program as those individuals who do not have a disability. The student's disability and corresponding need for reasonable accommodation are identified and documented in the plan. All school staff involved in the provision of accommodations should be contacted by the 504 coordinator and made aware of their duties and responsibilities.


Individual Education Program or IEP

An Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) can be defined as a plan for each student, ages 3 to 21, who qualifies for adapted physical education based on an evaluation. All IEPs are outcome-oriented giving assurance that the student will benefit from special education and have real opportunities, full participation, independent living, and economic self-efficiency. IEPs are revised once a year by an IEP team. IEPs are developed by the IEP team and based on comprehensive assessment as outlined by guidelines established in IDEA.

Information in an IEP Includes

• Student name, date of birth, duration of IEP • Student strengths and concerns of the parent • Student present level of academic achievement and functional

performance • Level of participation in the general education curriculum • Annual academic or functional goals

o Goals must have an action, condition, and criteria o Goals must be measurable, observable, and attainable

• Procedures for measuring student progress • Any alternate assessments • Frequency of reports on student progress • Who are the implementers responsible for short term objectives • Transition plan for students age 14 or older

Additional information on the IEP include, but are not limited to, specialized trans-portation, related services, testing accommodations, and transition services.

Purpose

Federal law mandates that each student receiving special education and related services must have an Individualized Education Program (IEP) developed for them. An IEP must be designed and written specifically for one student, outlining individualized needs, and used to establish an appropriate educational placement. Some consider the IEP to be a "management" program to guide appropriate service delivery, which includes the area of physical education. The IEP creates an opportunity for teachers, parents, school admini-strators, related services personnel and students (when appropriate) to work together to improve educational results for learners with disabilities.

Who Must be Present at an IEP for Physical Education Meeting

• The student when appropriate • The parent(s) or guardian(s), or a family advocate • Special Education teacher(s) • General Education teacher(s)


• A member of the evaluation team or a professional able to interpret assessment data.

• DIS/Related service personnel • Other Agencies • Psychologist

Steps in the Assessment and IEP Processes

1. Referral: A student can be referred by several sources including a teacher, parent, or administrator.

2. Parent Permission: Prior to assessment parent permission is required. 15 days to get the parents permission after the referral.

3. Screening: A non-required preliminary step to determine if a full evalu-ation is necessary.

4. Assessments: Comprehensive assessment should include formal tests, observations, and conversations with individuals involved in the student's education.

Examples of Formal Tests (norm and standardized): TGMD-2, BOT-2, APEAS-II, CTAPE.

Conversations: general physical educator, parent, class-room teacher, OT, PT, special educator, and student.

Observations: in the natural setting, student and teacher. Informal Tests (criterion): checklists, rubrics.

IEP Timeline

• 1. 60 days from when parent permission is received, the evaluation should be

completed. 2. Revisit the IEP once per year. 3. Re-evaluate the IEP every 3 years unless an IEP team member requests

otherwise.

Who is qualified/responsible/or should provide the assessment?

• The manner in which assessments are implemented are determined by state guidelines. The state department of education provides further guidance.

• IDEA guidelines provide that assessment must be administered by trained and knowledgeable personnel ([614(3)(a)(iv)]). However, "trained" and "knowledgeable" are not clearly defined. Best practice involves administr-ation of adapted physical education assessment by a physical educator who has training and knowledge of the general physical education curriculum, the nature of the student's disability, underlying bases of motor control, behavioral evaluation as applied to the physical education environment, and a variety of adapted physical education evaluation tools.


Do all students with disabilities need an IEP for physical education?

No, IDEA 2004 mandates each individual with a disability have an IEP developed if necessary to benefit their education. If an appropriate assessment is completed and the IEP team decides the student is not safe and/or successful in general physical education without supplementary aids and services, then an IEP is developed and services provided. A student can have IEP goals related to physical education needs regardless of their educational placement.

What happens at the end of the year?

The IEP team must meet to reexamine and change a child's IEP at least once a year. The IEP team must decied if the child's annual goals are being met. The IEP team needs to bring sufficient evidence of progress including all written assessments demonstrating the progress made throughout the year (IEP checklist, written observations) and visual evidence.

Placement Options

What is the relationship between placement and the IEP?

Decisions based on IDEA qualifications are generally discussed and determined during and Individual Education Plan (IEP) meeting. IEP recommendations for services and supports must consider a student's unique needs, the most appro-priate environment (Least Restrictive Environment)."." The Least Restrictive Environment will be based upon the assessment process and where the IEP goals can best be met. There are a variety of placement option which should be con-sidered including:

• Full-time General PE (GPE) • General PE with a younger class • Part-time Adapted PE (GPE for some units or parts of a lesson) • Reverse Mainstreaming • Small Group or One on One PE • Separate School • Home/Hospital

Transition

Transition is defined as movement, passage, or change from one stage to another. In adapted physical education, this process occurs when a student moves from early child-hood programs to elementary school, middle school, and high school, and lastly into the community (TWU). Postsecondary transition planning must be included in the first Individualized Education Plan (IEP) that will be in effect when the child turns 16 years of age.


Transition, as defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA), is "...a coordinated set of activities for a student, designed within a results-oriented plan, which promotes movement from school to post-school activities, including post secondary education, vocational training, integrated employment (including supported employment), continuing and adult education, adult services, independent living, or community participation." Not every transition program will be the same; it is dependent upon the individual's strengths, preferences, and interests. It is important for physical educators to provide transition programming to help students with disabilities move toward active community involvement and to promote healthy and independent lifestyles.

Physical educators can address transition by identifying accessible community resources in which students with disabilities ca participate. An ecological analysis can be completed to assess student independence and necessary levels of support for successful participation. Best practice involves including physical recreation transition goals on the student's individual transition plan.

When completing assessment for transition, it is important to identify activities the family enjoys. This is done so the student can be taught the essential skills required to be able to participate with the family. Leisure interest surveys can be completed with the student and the family. Sample leisure activities may include the following:

• Water Sports • Bowling • Rock Climbing • Gymnastics • Golf • Canoeing • Horseshoes • Bicycling • Equestrianism

Once assessment is complete, and Individual Transition Plan can be developed with goals and objectives written in person first language, specific to the individual student to ensure their abilities to function in the community when they graduate. The members involved in developing the Individual Transition Plan should be the IEP team members. The IEP team members should have the following questions in mind:

1. What interests or hobbies do the students and his or her family enjoy doing?

2. What knowledge and competencies does the student need in order to move from school-based to community based living in their particular com-munity.

3. What knowledge and prior experience does the student already have? 4. What knowledge and experience will the student need to be successful? 5. What will the student's living situation be like after high school?


6. Will the student be employed in the area? Will working interfere with recreation/leisure time? If so, how will the student stay active?

As is true in most aspects of adapted physical education, the skills practiced during the transition process tend to be most successful when the students have an opportunity to contribute to the decision making process. Also, providing sufficient amounts of repeated trials will drastically improve the students' level of success.

While teaching students leisure activities, it is critical to provide information of appro-priate facilities. Community clubs, organizations, and parks provide many opportunities for students to remain active. Many community resources have programs specifically designed for individuals with disabilities. The adapted physical education teacher should be familiar with these programs and utilize them as a regular part of the students' transition program. The APE teacher should also stress functional transition skills, such as the proper use of fitness equipment or how to use an electronic identification card to sign in at a fitness center. Individuals with disabilities who have greater access to, and actively participate in recreation and leisure activities are more satisfied with their lives. In addition, when engaged in recreation and leisure activities, opportunities of success in communities increases for individuals with disabilities. The formation of a reverse mainstreaming physical education program will also help in the transition of the student with a disability. This program can benefit both the student with a disability and the peer mentor as together they will attempt to achieve better physical fitness skills, improved social skills, and higher standards of social and personal responsibilities.

Additional transition programming should empower the student to:

• Find information about the activity • Find hours of operation for facilities • Figure out transportation • Know how to perform the activity independently • Find a way to fit the activity into the individual's weekly schedule.

Advocacy for Transition

With respect to transition, adapted physical educators should first and foremost advocate that their own involvement in the post-school transition process be indicated on their students' Individualized Education Program (IEP). Some other areas in transition which should be brought to the attention of administrators and community officials are implementing ways in which physical activity sites can become more accessible, advocating that students with disabilities be able to participate in the entire continuum of sports programs (integrate and segregated) sponsored by the school and community; and helping parents rally for appropriate community recreation and sport opportunities for their children with disabilities.


Barriers to Transition

• Facilities

Are their public facilities available for students nearby or do students have to use transportation to get to the facility.

• Transportation

Transportation can become a problem during transition. Many students who have a disability cannot drive a car, so it is important to teach students, during their educational process, other means of transportation. This may mean teaching students routines on how to use the city bus system, or finding a group to car pool with, or even finding an older adult who may not mind picking up a student when they are going to the local YMCA or any other facility.

• Money

Many fitness clubs are increasing prices for membership and with increasing gas prices it may be difficult for students with disabilities to afford a membership somewhere and have the means of getting there if they are not within walking distance. Also depending on the transportation that they choose to use there may be an additional cost for a bus or taxi.

• Planning

For many students with disabilities planning a trip to the YMCA or any facility will be difficult task. In school their schedule was planned for them and they didn't have to worry about how and when things were going to happen. As a result, planning is one of the biggest barriers to transition. Students with disabilities may need to be taught what to wear, what transportation to use, how to set up plans with friends, and how to figure out how much money they may need.

• Lack of programs

There may be a lack of programs or personal in the students community, who have the knowledge and ability to assist individuals with disabilities. This may mean individuals with disabilities may have to participate in programs with individuals without disabilities. This may help with the socialization aspect of development, however it may limit their practice and participation time. The individual may also be intimidated by the other individuals, which may push them away from that activity or program.

• Lack of Support i.e.: school, organizations, public, families... • Staff/ employee knowledge i.e.: at local businesses, teacher assistants • Strange "New" places


• Lack of Motivation

Students with disabilities are continuously motivated by teachers, paraprofes-sionals, and classmates during their education process. When their education process is done these individuals may not be there to motivate and push them to become physically active. Finding out activities and sports during the education process which the student enjoys participating in can help intrisically motivate these students when they are in the transition period.

• Limited Community Recreation Activities

Use of Technology

With the development of new and improved technology with physical education, and especially adapted physical education, it is important for the APE teacher to know and understand different ways to implement technology for a successful transitional period for his or her students. APE teachers can develop an updated website regarding a fitness workout plan, in which students, who may need to stay at home half of the day or for students who have graduated, can download and follow at home with a sibling or parents. Students can be taught how to keep track of their physical fitness goals and record the data on spreadsheet. Video files can also be used to demonstrate proper technique. Teachers can easily create videos of students doing an activity and download them onto an Ipod or computer so that the students have an easily accessible reference to use during transition periods or after they graduate. In APE pedometers can easily be introduced into any lesson and taught how to use and how to keep track of steps. Teachers can also supply appropriate and motivating music for aerobic activities either on an Ipod or on a compact disc. Video games are also starting to become more and more predominant in physical education classes these days. It is important that teachers introduce some of theses games such as: Dance Dance Revolution, Wii Sports, and the Eye Toy. These games can be used outside of school as well. With technology growing and becoming better each day, APE teachers need to continue to grow as professionals and try to use this to benefit and enhance their students physical development.

Adapted physical education teachers are not only required to teach students with disabilities how to stay and become physically active, but also how, when and where. The internet is a great resource for students and APE teachers to find opportunities to continue being physically active. There are many websites that show you how to do activities, when physical activity events are going on, and where you can be physically active, whether it is in a park, gym, or walking for a cause. It is important that we give resources to students so that they can navigate through the internet and find area events they can be a part of or public facilities where they can become members.

It is the APE teachers responsibility to recognize and teach students with disabilities how to overcome the barriers for transition. In order to achieve this APE teachers need to concentrate on activities in the community that promote a physically active lifestyle while enhancing the health and wellness of students with disabilities. Upon graduation, students


with disabilities should know how to plan their activity, perform their activity and become personally responsible for participating in recreational activities on a regular basis.

Transition Opportunities:

• Creates Friendships within community. • Introduce students to transportation system. • Provide students with an opportunity to use facilities. • Provide students with the basic knowledge of technology available to them

for further use. • Provide students with ideas on how to overcome barriers of transition.


Chapter 2

How to Be a Gym Teacher

Physical education is a required component for many public and private schools throu-ghout the country

Grade levels from kindergarten through high school and into college usually participate in some form of physical education as part of a balanced curriculum. The process to become a gym teacher is analogous to obtaining teaching certifications for other subjects found within the school system. Here is a guide on how to be a gym teacher and make it your profession.


Steps

1. Take advanced high school courses in physical education, chemistry, physics and other sciences that focus on kinesiology to prepare for collegiate level classes.

2. Go to college and obtain a Bachelor of Science degree in athletic training and physical education. Courses that might be covered include, but are not limited to, kinesiology, first aid, communications, field sports and health education.

3. Concentrate on a specific discipline within the Bachelor of Science major. Some students focus their coursework on a specific field such as exercise science, health promotion or nutrition.

4. Get a teaching certificate in the state you wish to be a gym teacher. Each state requires a certificate that allows you to teach certain grade levels. Obtain the certificate for elementary education, secondary education or both.

5. Find a job in your desired physical education field. Don’t limit yourself to school systems. There are physical education programs held after school, through church organizations, municipal organizations and more. Find a job that will allow you to gain experience fresh out of college and reach your longer term career goals.

6. Obtain a Master’s degree. Depending on the state and school district, some teachers are required to complete a Master’s of Arts Education (or similar degree) within a certain time from when they are hired.

7. Pursue continuing education annually. Depending on the state and school district, teachers may be required to clock a certain number of hours studying continuing education. These courses will teach the latest methods and practices in the physical education field and may run the gambit from nutrition to new exercises that can be incorporated into class.


8. Be enthusiastic and motivate the students to achieve new goals within the scope of their physical health. In order to be an effective gym teacher, motivation is the key. Inspire the students to have a good time while learning about their physical health along the way.

Tips

• Many gym teachers are asked to teach other subjects as well as their physical education responsibilities. This is especially common in smaller school districts where there might not be a need for a full-time physical education teacher. Get a degree that allows you to teach another subject so that you are more desirable to potential employers.

• Coach a sport at a local school. Becoming an assistant or head coach is a great way to get your foot in a door to a school system when jobs are hard to come by. Then when a gym teacher position opens up, you’ll already have an introduction to some of the people you might be working with at that school system.


Chapter 3

How to Be Motivated to Exercise

It can be tough to discipline yourself to exercise, especially when you have little or no interest in it other than wanting to be more active because you "should". Exercise should be an integral part of your life. You don't have to do it all the time or make it overly strenuous, but the health benefits of walking just 30 minutes a day are well worth it. It can help prevent cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and strokes, along with maintaining weight.


Steps

1. Change your mindset. The first thing to do in order for you to be more motivated to exercise is to change your mindset. Mentally prepare yourself by acknow-ledging that you want to exercise. Say to yourself "I want to exercise." You have made the decision you want to. Mental commitment is very important.

2. Invest in an iPod or MP3 Player. They are great for exercising, as you can make a play list that will keep you entertained with your favorite songs. This can also help keep you focused by blocking out distractions in the outside world. Whether you are walking or jogging, people tend to adjust their pace to the beat of the song they are listening to, so go for upbeat songs if you want subconscious encoura-gement to keep your pace up.

3. Stick to a routine, but it will depend on you and your life style. You may prefer not to follow a scheduled routine, if you feel it becomes a chore and you get bored with it. If you shake it up a bit to be more spontaneous, you may enjoy it more if you are in the mood for it.

4. Put yourself in a position where you have to walk. This could be done by getting off the bus a few stops earlier to home or work, or by walking anywhere you can in a reasonable distance such as to the dairy or grocery store, school, the post office, town, or a friend's house. Anywhere within a 25 minute walk should be a given. Park further from stores, so that you have further to walk to start shopping. The more often you do this the easier it will become as you get used to it.


Tips

• Walk your dog or someone else's if you like pets. They are great company! • Walk or jog with one or more friends for social motivation.

•

Warnings

• Do not over do it. Consult a professional trainer for an exercise plan, if necessary. • Do not do this if you have a serious injury. *Make sure it is safe. Think carefully

before exercising (jogging or walking) on the streets in the dark. • Do not let ear phones and music distract you from safety hazards such as cars or

cyclists. • Clear your exercise with your doctor, if you haven't exercised in quite some time

and/or because of your age.


Chapter 4

How to Begin Learning Gymnastics

Gymnastics is a very demanding sport and it will make you strong both inside and out. But how do you begin gymnastics?


Steps

1. Understand that gymnastics is both a physically and emotionally demanding sport that requires a flexible, strong body.

2. Find a local gym. Ask if they have classes for your age group/skill level, whether they compete, how many hours per week are required, how much the class costs, whether it is a recreational class or a team (a team is much more intense), and what the teacher-to-student ratio is.

3. Start out with the basics. For example, try to walk on the balance beam, or try a forward roll on the floor. Always ask your instructor for pointers. Work on doing a cartwheel and a handstand - two basic moves in gymnastics.

4. Work consistently on your splits to help your flexibility. 5. Work on building your strength, including arm, shoulder, and back strength,

your core muscles, and your leg muscles. For example, include pull-ups, push-ups, v-ups, crunches, handstands against a wall in your strength conditioning routine. Make sure to stretch.

6.


Practicing a front tick-tock

Work hard! Discipline is key in this sport. It takes time and repetition for your body to learn and remember the moves, so keep working until you get it right. If you get frustrated, sit down for a minute, get a drink, then go back and try again.

7. Follow your coach's instructions as precisely as you can. Keep in mind that your coach may seem very demanding but is really only trying to help you.


Tips

• For women's gymnastics, consider taking a ballet or yoga class to improve flexibility and the quality of your dance on the floor, as well as your balance on the beam. For men's gymnastics, you may want to take a weight training class to help with your core strength - something men's gymnastics relies on daily.

• Don't be afraid to speak up for yourself if your having a hard time with a skill. If you are unsure of how to do something or feel you cannot execute the move safely, ask for help!

• Always focus on doing your best. Compete with yourself and you will see improvement.

• Make sure you stay hydrated while you're doing gymnastics. It will help keep your muscles from being injured.

• Remember that you don't have to do artistic gymnastics. Rhythmic gymnastics requires great flexibility. Some people enjoy it more because they don't have to worry about hurting themselves.

• Don't give up because you couldn't do the splits in a day. Gymnastics requires lots of time and repetition!


Warnings

• Gymnastics is a dangerous sport. Broken bones or torn muscles can all happen in gymnastics. Seriously consider whether you think you can handle pain well. As a beginner you probably won't sustain any injury, but it is still important to understand the risk factors.

• "Rips" are a common, yet painful part of gymnastics. Rips are when a part of the outer layer of skin on your palm is "ripped" from the rest of your hand. They occur when too much friction comes between your hand and the bar. There really isn't a way to prevent rips, they're a part of being a gymnast. Rips heal over time and usually become calluses. Although some people may argue that grips can prevent rips, they weren't meant to prevent rips and wont. You don't need grips until you reach a higher level. Chalk is often applied to your hands to help you grip onto the bar, but you don't need too much. An excess of chalk can create a high amount of friction and cause more rips.

• Always remove your socks before doing gymnastics. Bare feet allow you to move more freely and safely.

Things You'll Need

• Grips for bars (once approved by your coach) • Athletic tape (for sprained ankles etc. or "ripped" hands on bars) • Free Weights (optional) • Patience • Balance • Hand-eye coordination • Arm strength • A leotard


Chapter 5

Aerobic Exercise

Aerobic exercise is physical exercise that intends to improve the oxygen system. Aerobic means "with oxygen", and refers to the use of oxygen in the body's metabolic or energy-generating process. Many types of exercise are aerobic, and by definition are performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time.

History

Both the term and the specific exercise method were developed by Kenneth H. Cooper, M.D., an exercise physiologist, and Col. Pauline Potts, a physical therapist, both in the United States Air Force. Dr. Cooper, an avowed exercise enthusiast, was personally and professionally puzzled about why some people with excellent muscular strength were still prone to poor performance at tasks such as long-distance running, swimming, and bicycling. He began measuring systematic human performance using a bicycle ergometer, and began measuring sustained performance in terms of a person's ability to use oxygen. His groundbreaking book, Aerobics, was published in 1968, and included scientific exercise programs using running, walking, swimming and bicycling. The book came at a fortuitous historical moment, when increasing weakness and inactivity in the general population was causing a perceived need for increased exercise.


Aerobic versus anaerobic exercise

Fox and Haskell formula showing the split between aerobic (light orange) and anaerobic (dark orange) exercise and heart rate.

Aerobic exercise and fitness can be contrasted with anaerobic exercise, of which strength training and short-distance running are the most salient examples. The two types of exercise differ by the duration and intensity of muscular contractions involved, as well as by how energy is generated within the muscle. Initially during aerobic exercise, glycogen is broken down to produce glucose, which then reacts with oxygen (Krebs cycle) to produce carbon dioxide and water and releasing energy. In the absence of these carbohydrates, fat metabolism is initiated instead. The latter is a slow process, and is accompanied by a decline in performance level. This gradual switch to fat as fuel is a major cause of what marathon runners call "hitting the wall". Anaerobic exercise, in contrast, refers to the initial phase of exercise, or to any short burst of intense exertion, in which the glycogen or sugar is respired without oxygen, and is a far less efficient process. Operating anaerobically, an untrained 400 meter sprinter may "hit the wall" short of the full distance.

Aerobic exercise comprises innumerable forms. In general, it is performed at a moderate level of intensity over a relatively long period of time. For example, running a long distance at a moderate pace is an aerobic exercise, but sprinting is not. Playing singles tennis, with near-continuous motion, is generally considered aerobic activity, while golf or two person team tennis, with brief bursts of activity punctuated by more frequent breaks, may not be predominantly aerobic. Some sports are thus inherently "aerobic",


while other aerobic exercises, such as fartlek training or aerobic dance classes, are designed specifically to improve aerobic capacity and fitness.

Among the recognized benefits of doing regular aerobic exercise are:

• Strengthening the muscles involved in respiration, to facilitate the flow of air in and out of the lungs

• Strengthening and enlarging the heart muscle, to improve its pumping efficiency and reduce the resting heart rate, known as aerobic conditioning

• Strengthening muscles throughout the body • Improving circulation efficiency and reducing blood pressure • Increasing the total number of red blood cells in the body, facilitating transport of

oxygen • Improved mental health, including reducing stress and lowering the incidence of

depression • Reducing the risk for diabetes.

As a result, aerobic exercise can reduce the risk of death due to cardiovascular problems. In addition, high-impact aerobic activities (such as jogging or jumping rope) can stimulate bone growth, as well as reducing the risk of osteoporosis for both men and women.

In addition to the health benefits of aerobic exercise, there are numerous performance benefits:

• Increased storage of energy molecules such as fats and carbohydrates within the muscles, allowing for increased endurance

• Neovascularization of the muscle sarcomeres to increase blood flow through the muscles

• Increasing speed at which aerobic metabolism is activated within muscles, allowing a greater portion of energy for intense exercise to be generated aerobic-ally

• Improving the ability of muscles to use fats during exercise, preserving intra-muscular glycogen

• Enhancing the speed at which muscles recover from high intensity exercise

Both the health benefits and the performance benefits, or "training effect", require a minimum duration and frequency of exercise. Most authorities suggest at least twenty minutes performed at least three times per week.

Aerobic capacity

'Aerobic capacity' describes the functional capacity of the cardiorespiratory system, (the heart, lungs and blood vessels). Aerobic capacity is defined as the maximum amount of oxygen the body can use during a specified period, usually during intense exercise. It is a function both of cardiorespiratory performance and the maximum ability to remove and


utilize oxygen from circulating blood. To measure maximal aerobic capacity, an exercise physiologist or physician will perform a VO2 max test, in which a subject will undergo progressively more strenuous exercise on a treadmill, from an easy walk through to exhaustion. The individual is typically connected to a respirometer to measure oxygen consumption, and the speed is increased incrementally over a fixed duration of time. The higher the measured cardiorespiratory endurance level, the more oxygen has been trans-ported to and used by exercising muscles, and the higher the level of intensity at which the individual can exercise. More simply stated, the higher the aerobic capacity, the higher the level of aerobic fitness. The Cooper and multi-stage fitness tests can also be used to assess functional aerobic capacity for particular jobs or activities.

The degree to which aerobic capacity can be improved by exercise varies very widely in the human population: while the average response to training is an approximately 17% increase in VO2max, in any population there are "high responders" who may as much as double their capacity, and "low responders" who will see little or no benefit from training. Studies indicate that approximately 10% of otherwise healthy individuals cannot improve their aerobic capacity with exercise at all. The degree of an individual's respon-siveness is highly heritable, suggesting that this trait is genetically determined.

Criticisms

When overall fitness is an occupational requirement, as it is for athletes, soldiers, and police and fire personnel, aerobic exercise alone may not provide a well balanced exercise program. In particular, muscular strength, especially upper-body muscular strength, may be neglected. Also, the metabolic pathways involved in anaerobic meta-bolism (glycolysis and lactic acid fermentation) that generate energy during high intensity, low duration tasks, such as sprinting, are not exercised at peak aerobic exercise levels. Aerobic exercise remains however a valuable component of a balanced exercise program and is good for cardiovascular health.

Some persons suffer repetitive stress injuries with some forms of aerobics, and then must choose less injurious, "low-impact" forms of aerobics, or lengthen the gap between bouts of exercise to allow for greater recovery.

Higher intensity exercise, such as High-intensity interval training (HIIT), increases the resting metabolic rate (RMR) in the 24 hours following high intensity exercise, ultimately burning more calories than lower intensity exercise; low intensity exercise burns more calories during the exercise, due to the increased duration, but fewer afterwards.

Aerobic activity is also used by individuals with anorexia as a means of suppressing appetite, since aerobic exercise increases sugar and fatty acid transport in the blood by stimulating tissues to release their energy stores. While there is some support for exercising while hungry as a means of tapping into fat stores, most evidence is equivocal. In addition, performance can be impaired by lack of nutrients, which will reduce training effects.


Commercial success

Aerobic exercise has long been a popular form of weight loss and physical fitness, often taking a commercial form.

• Judi Sheppard Missett largely helped create the market for commercial aerobics with her Jazzercise program in the 1970s

• Richard Simmons hosted an aerobic exercise show on television, beginning in the 1980s, and continued with a variety of exercise videos.

• Billy Blanks' Tae Bo helped popularize cardio-boxing, workouts that used mar-tial arts movements in the 1990s

• The Nia Technique, also called Neuromuscular Integrative Action, was develo-ped in the 1980s as a form of "non-impact" aerobics (the original word is in the acronym). This is in contrast to popular "no pain no gain" attitudes, and attempted to combat the problem of impact injuries.

Varieties of aerobic (cardiovascular) exercise

Indoor

• Stair climbing • Elliptical trainer • Indoor rower • Stairmaster • Stationary bicycle • Treadmill

Outdoor

• Cross-country skiing • Cycling • Inline skating • Jogging • Nordic walking • football • rugby

Indoor or outdoor

• Kickboxing • Swimming • Jumping rope


Chapter 6

Skipping Rope

A skipping rope (British English) or jump rope (American English) is the primary tool used in the game of skipping played by children and many young adults, where one or more participants jump over a rope swung so that it passes under their feet and over their heads. This may consist of one participant turning and jumping the rope, or a minimum of three participants taking turns, two of whom turn the rope while one or more jumps. This is called long rope. Sometimes the latter is played with two turning ropes; this form of the activity is called Double Dutch and is significantly more difficult. Jump-rope rhymes are often chanted beginning when the skipper jumps in and ending when the skipper is tripped up.

In contrast to running, jumping rope is unlikely to lead to knee damage since the impact of each jump or step is absorbed by the balls of both feet rather than the heels. This decreases the ground reaction forces through the patella-femoral joint greatly. Jumping rope also helps strengthen the arms and shoulders. This combination of an aerobic workout and coordination-building footwork has made jumping rope a popular form of exercise for athletes, especially boxers and wrestlers. Individuals or groups can partici-pate in the exercise, and learning proper jump rope technique is simple compared to many other athletic activities. The exercise is also appropriate for a wide range of ages and fitness levels. Jumping rope is particularly effective in an aerobic routine combined with other activities, such as walking, biking, or running.

History

The exact origin of jumping rope is unclear. However, jump rope dates back all the way to the Egyptians and aborigines of Australia. The first jump ropes are said to be made of bamboo and vines found in jungles. Jumping along with these items lead to what we refer to today as jump roping. Some say it originated in China, while Western versions are said to have originated around 1600 B.C. in Egypt. The first real evidence of jump rope as an activity is seen in medieval paintings. Children rolled hoops and jumped were some of the first to jump rope in America which brought about the variation of jump rope called “Double Dutch.” In the 1940s and 1950’s jump rope became the game of choice for inner city children because any one could play and it only required a rope. The 1970s brought an increased interest to jump rope as a way to achieve physical fitness and health. Since then, jump rope events and programs have emerged and jumping rope has become part of many different exercise training regimens.


Competition

A young girl playing on a jump rope

Jump rope is an organized competitive sport, though most people who live in an area without a team may not be aware of this. Athletes compete in individual and team events using single ropes or double Dutch. In freestyle routines, jumpers have a set time limit to demonstrate a combination of skills in four categories- footwork, strength, multiple unders and rope manipulations; in many competitions these are choreographed to music. During the speed events, athletes try to complete as many jumps as possible within a particular amount of time. For example, the world record for 30 second speed is 188 jumps. The FISAC-IRSF World Jump Rope Championships are held in July every other year. In 2006 Toronto, Canada hosted the event and in 2008 it was held in Cape Town,


South Africa. In 2010, it will be in London, England. The 4th Asian Rope Skipping Championship was held on 9 February 2007 at the Talkatora Indoor Stadium, New Delhi, India, organized by the Rope Skipping Federation of India. Jump rope exhibitions are also frequently staged at events such as festivals, charity functions, and sporting half-time shows.

Though many only see jump rope as a simple, fun activity, those familiar with its development of a competitive side consider it a sport. Serious jump rope athletes train vigorously year-round. Jumping rope takes immense strength, endurance, focus, and patience, and can be much more than a schoolyard game of chanting rhymes. There are teams such as Hot Dog USA, Mission Thunder Stompers, Penticton Black Widow Rope Spinners, Cary SuperSkippers, Jumping for Joy and more.

In the United States, the main jump rope organization is USA Jump Rope (USAJR). USAJR is composed of hundreds of jump roping teams and hundreds of jumpers from all over the country. These teams attend workshops, training camps, perform for the public, and compete against each other throughout the year. USA Jump Rope sponsors various regional competitions and a national competition at Walt Disney World's Wide World of Sports Complex in Orlando, Florida every June. In 2009 the Competition was held in Galveston, Texas and will be held there until 2012, when it will move to Long Beach, CA. USA Jump Rope Nationals is broadcast by ESPN annually. Competing teams consist of athletes of all ages, but are most commonly graduate school to high school-aged individuals.

To get to Nationals, you must first qualify at Regionals. There are 13 regions in the United States, and you must place 4th or higher for your age category to qualify in that event. If you do not, you cannot compete at Nationals.

Once at Nationals, you compete in as many events as you qualified in in your region. If you are one of the top 12 competitors in all the age divisions of that event, you move up to Grand Nationals. It is possible to get to Grand Nationals in every event, but highly unlikely. Once at Grand Nationals, you perform your routine once more, and are judged on that by experienced judges. If you have the highest score, you are a Grand National Champion, which is the best of the best of the USA.

Historically in the United States there were two competing jump rope organizations: the International Rope Skipping Organization (IRSO), and the World Rope Skipping Federation (WRSF). IRSO focused on stunt-oriented and gymnastic/athletic type jump rope moves, while the WRSF appreciated the aesthetics and form of jump roping. In 1995 these two organizations merged to form The United States Amateur Jump Rope Federation (USAJRF), which was recently renamed USA Jump Rope to fit the trend of other Olympic and Olympic-hopeful non-sports.


Jumping rope as exercise

Jumping rope is an activity not only suited for competition or recreation, but also for a cardiovascular workout, similar to jogging or bicycle riding. This aerobic exercise can achieve a "burn rate" of up to 700 calories per hour of vigorous activity, with about 0.1 calories consumed per jump. Ten minutes of jumping rope is roughly the equivalent of running an eight-minute mile. Jumping rope for 15–20 minutes is enough to burn off the calories from a candy bar.

Jumping rope can avoid the knee damage which may occur during running, since the impact of each jump or step is absorbed by both legs. Jumping rope also helps strengthen the arms and shoulders. This combination of an aerobic workout and coordination-building footwork has made jumping rope a popular form of exercise for athletes, especially boxers and wrestlers. Individuals or groups can participate in the exercise, and learning proper jump rope technique is relatively simple compared to many other athletic activities. The exercise is also appropriate for a wide range of ages and fitness levels. Jumping rope is particularly effective in an aerobic routine combined with other activities, such as walking, biking, or running. Many badminton players around the world jump rope to increase their endurance for competitions.

Jumping rope techniques

Several simultaneous jumpers, jumping a single rope


Some of the techniques that can be used when jumping rope are:

Basic jump This is where both feet are slightly apart and jump at the same time over the rope. Beginners should master this technique first before moving onto more advanced techniques.

Alternate foot jump (speed step) This style consists of using alternate feet to jump off the ground. This technique can be used to effectively double the number of skips per minute as compared to the above technique. You use this step for speed events.

Criss-cross This method is similar to the basic jump with the only difference being that while jumping, the left hand goes to the right part of the body and vice versa for the right hand. Your arms cross your body.

Side Swing This is a basic technique where the rope passes the side of the skipper's body, without jumping it. Usually the skipper performs a basic jump after a side swing, or a criss-cross.

EB(front-back cross) This is similar to the criss-cross except one arm crosses behind the back.

Double under To perform a double under, the participant needs to jump up higher than usual while swinging the rope twice under his feet. It is possible to have the rope swing three times under the feet (triple under). In competitive jump rope, triples, quadruples ("quads"), and quintuples ("quins") are common.

Combination jumps There are many more difficult jump roping tricks that combine two or more of these techniques to make a single trick. These combinations can also be used in Chinese Wheel, Double Dutch, Egg Beater, triangle and Long Rope.

Toad (Leg over cross) The toad is a complicated trick where the jumper performs the "Cross" manoeuvre with one leg intercepting the opposite arm from the inside.

Inverse Toad This is the same as the toad except the arm intersects the leg from the outside.

Elephant This is a combination of the inverse and regular toad, where the leg intersects both arms.

Frog (Donkey Kick) This is a variation of a handstand, with a beginner version and an advanced version. In the beginner version, the jumper does a handstand, comes down and then pulls the rope under. In the advanced, the jumper pulls the rope while coming down from the handstand.

Other Many other variations are possible, including: "skier", a side-to-side jump keeping the feet together; "bell", a front-and-back jump keeping the feet together; "scis-sors", a jump putting one foot forward and the other back, then switching back-


and-forth; "jumping jack", a jump putting the feet apart and then together; and "can-can" a jump with one leg up and bent, followed by a jump with both feet on ground, followed by a jump kicking the foot out. The possibilities are endless, and many Grand National champions have routines consisting of tricks they made up.


Chapter 7

Walking

Simple Walk-Cycle

Walking (also known as ambulation) is one of the main gaits of locomotion among legged animals, and is typically slower than running and other gaits. Walking is defined by an 'inverted pendulum' gait in which the body vaults over the stiff limb or limbs with each step. This applies regardless of the number of limbs - even arthropods with six, eight or more limbs.

In humans and other bipeds, walking is generally distinguished from running in that only one foot at a time leaves contact with the ground and there is a period of double-support. In contrast, running begins when both feet are off the ground with each step. This distinction has the status of a formal requirement in competitive walking events. For quadrupedal species, there are numerous gaits which may be termed walking or running, and distinctions based upon the presence or absence of a suspended phase or the number of feet in contact any time do not yield mechanically correct classification. The most


effective method to distinguish walking from running is based on the percent of the stride in which a foot is in contact with the ground (averaged across all feet); defining a walk as greater than 50% contact corresponds well with identification of 'inverted pendulum' mechanics via force plate measurements.

The average human child achieves independent walking ability around 11 months old. The word walk is descended from the Old English wealcan "to roll".

For humans, walking is the main form of transportation without a vehicle or riding animal.

Although walking speeds can vary greatly depending on factors such as height, weight, age, terrain, surface, load, culture, effort, and fitness, the average human walking speed is about 5 kilometres per hour (km/h), or about 3.1 miles per hour (mph). Specific studies have found pedestrian walking speeds ranging from 4.51 km/h to 4.75 km/h for older individuals to 5.32 km/h to 5.43 km/h for younger individuals. A pedestrian is a person who is walking on a road, sidewalk or path.

Health benefits of walking

Sustained walking sessions for a minimum period of thirty to sixty minutes a day, five days a week, with the correct walking posture, reduces health risks and has various overall health benefits, such as reducing the chances of cancer, type 2 diabetes, heart disease, anxiety and depression. Life expectancy is also increased even for individuals suffering from obesity or high blood pressure. Walking also increases bone health, especially strengthening the hip bone, and lowering the more harmful bad low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and raises the more useful good high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol.

Studies have found that walking can also prevent dementia and Alzheimer's.

Variants of walking

While not strictly bipedal, several primarily bipedal human gaits (where the long bones of the arms support at most a small fraction of the body's weight) are generally regarded as variants of walking. These include:

• Hand walking; an unusual form of locomotion, in which the walker moves primarily using their hands.

• Walking on crutches (usually executed by alternating between standing on both legs, and rocking forward "on the crutches" (e.g., supported under the armpits by them);

• Walking with one or two walking stick(s) or trekking poles (reducing the load on one or both legs, or supplementing the body's normal balancing mechanisms by also pushing against the ground through at least one arm that holds a long object);

• Walking while holding on to a walker, a framework to aid with balance; and


• Scrambling, using the arms (and hands or some other extension to the arms) not just as a backup to normal balance, but, as when walking on talus, to achieve states of balance that would be impossible or unstable when supported solely by the legs.

Biomechanics

Human walking is accomplished with a strategy called the double pendulum. During forward motion, the leg that leaves the ground swings forward from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum. The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one foot or the other is always in contact with the ground. The process of walking recovers approximately sixty per cent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamics and ground reaction force.

Walking differs from a running gait in a number of ways. The most obvious is that during walking one leg always stays on the ground while the other is swinging. In running there is typically a ballistic phase where the runner is airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals).

Another difference concerns the movement of the center of mass of the body. In walking the body "vaults" over the leg on the ground, raising the center of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are spread apart. Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This is reversed in running where the center of mass is at its lowest as the leg is vertical. This is because the impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy.

There is an absolute limit on an individual's speed of walking (without special techniques such as those employed in speed walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the center of mass during a stride - if it's greater than the acceleration due to gravity the person will become airborne as they vault over the leg on the ground. Typically however, animals switch to a run at a lower speed than this due to energy efficiencies.


As a leisure activity

Race walking. Note that a number of competitors are cheating (i.e., running).

Many people walk as a hobby, and in our post-industrial age it is often enjoyed as one of the best forms of exercise.

Fitness walkers and others may use a pedometer to count their steps. The types of walking include bushwalking, racewalking, weight-walking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking and hiking on long-distance paths. Sometimes people prefer to walk indoors using a treadmill. In some countries walking as a hobby is known as hiking (the typical North American term), rambling (a somewhat dated British expression, but remaining in use because it is enshrined in the title of the important Ramblers), or tramping. Hiking is a subtype of walking, generally used to mean walking in nature areas on specially designated routes or trails, as opposed to in urban environments; however, hiking can also refer to any long-distance walk. More obscure terms for walking include "to go by Marrow-bone stage", "to take one's daily constitutional", "to ride Shank's pony", "to ride Shank's mare", or "to go by Walker's bus". Among search and rescue responders, those responders who walk (rather than ride, drive, fly, climb, or sit in a communications trailer) often are known as "ground pounders".

The Walking the Way to Health Initiative is the largest volunteer led walking scheme in the United Kingdom. Volunteers are trained to lead free Health Walks from community


venues such as libraries and GP surgeries. The scheme has trained over 35,000 volunteers and have over 500 schemes operating across the UK, with thousands of people walking every week.

Professionals working to increase the number of people walking more usually come from 6 sectors: health, transport, environment, schools, sport & recreation and urban design. A new organization called Walk England launched a web site on the 18th June 2008 to provide these professionals with evidence, advice and examples of success stories of how to encourage communities to walk more. The site has a social networking aspect to allow professionals and the public to ask questions, discuss, post news and events and communicate with others in their area about walking, as well as a "walk now" option to find out what walks are available in each region.

The world's largest registration walking event is the International Four Days Marches Nijmegen. The annual Labor Day walk on Mackinac Bridge draws over sixty thousand participants. The Chesapeake Bay Bridge walk annually draws over fifty thousand participants. Walks are often organized as charity events with walkers seeking sponsors to raise money for a specific cause. Charity walks range in length from two mile (3 km) or five km walks to as far as fifty miles (eighty km). The MS Challenge Walk is an example of a fifty mile walk which raises money to fight multiple sclerosis. The Oxfam Trailwalker is a one hundred km event.

In Britain, the Ramblers' Association is the biggest organization that looks after the interests of walkers. A registered charity, it has 139,000 members. Regular, brisk cycling or walking can improve confidence, stamina, energy, weight control, life expectancy and reduce stress. It can also reduce the risk of coronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood pressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Modern scientific studies have shown that walking, besides its physical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind — improving memory skills, learning ability, concentration and abstract reasoning, as well as reducing stress and uplifting one's spirits.

As a form of tourism there are many options for walking. The most famous one would be "walking tours" normally offered in different cities by paid guide tours. However, there are some volunteers that can drive walking tours for tourists and do not charge for it, but just ask for a small tip at the end of the walk.

As transportation

Walking is the most basic and common mode of transportation and is recommended for a healthy lifestyle, and has numerous environmental benefits. However people are walking less in the UK, a Department of Transport report found that between 1995/97 and 2005 the average number of walk trips per person fell by 16%, from 292 to 245 per year. Many professionals in local authorities and the NHS are employed to halt this decline by ensuring that the built environment allows people to walk and that there are walking opportunities available to them.


"Walking is convenient, it needs no special equipment, is self-regulating and inherently safe. Walking is as natural as breathing." John Butcher, Founder Walk21, 1999

On roads with no sidewalks, pedestrians should always walk facing the oncoming traffic for their own and other people's safety.

When distances are too great to be convenient, walking can be combined with other modes of transportation, such as cycling, public transport, car sharing, carpooling, hitchhiking, ride sharing, car rentals and taxis. These methods may be more efficient or desirable than private car ownership, being a healthy means of physical exercise.

Walkability

There has been a recent focus among urban planners in some communities to create pedestrian-friendly areas and roads, allowing commuting, shopping and recreation to be done on foot. The concept of walkability has arisen as a measure of the degree to which an area is friendly to walking. Some communities are at least partially car-free, making them particularly supportive of walking and other modes of transportation. In the United States, the Active Living network is an example of a concerted effort to develop communities more friendly to walking and other physical activities.

Walking is also considered to be a clear example of a sustainable mode of transport, especially suited for urban use and/or relatively shorter distances. Non-motorised transport modes such as walking, but also cycling, small-wheeled transport (skates, skateboards, push scooters and hand carts) or wheelchair travel are often key elements of successfully encouraging clean urban transport. A large variety of case studies and good practices (from European cities and some worldwide examples) that promote and stimulate walking as a means of transportation in cities can be found at Eltis, Europe's portal for local transport.

The development of specific rights of way with appropriate infrastructure can promote increased participation and enjoyment of walking. Examples of types of investment include pedestrian malls, and foreshoreways such as oceanways and riverwalks.


Chapter 8

Weight Training

A complete weight training workout can be performed with a pair of adjustable dumbbells and a set of weight disks (plates).

Weight training is a common type of strength training for developing the strength and size of skeletal muscles. It uses the force of gravity (in the form of weighted bars,


dumbbells or weight stacks) to oppose the force generated by muscle through concentric or eccentric contraction. Weight training uses a variety of specialized equipment to target specific muscle groups and types of movement.

Weight training differs from bodybuilding, Olympic weightlifting, powerlifting, and strongman, which are sports rather than forms of exercise. Weight training, however, is often part of the athlete's training regimen.

Weight training versus other types of exercise

Strength training is an inclusive term that describes all exercises devoted toward increasing physical strength. Weight training is a type of strength training that uses weights rather than elastic, Eccentric Training or muscular resistance to increase strength. Endurance training is associated with aerobic exercise while flexibility training is associ-ated with stretching exercise like yoga or pilates. Weight training is often used as a synonym for strength training, but is actually a specific type within the more inclusive category.

History of weight training

An early plate-loading barbell and kettlebell

Hippocrates explained the principle behind weight training when he wrote "that which is used develops, and that which is not used wastes away." The genealogy of lifting can be


traced back to the beginning of recorded history where man's fascination with physical abilities can be found among numerous ancient writings. Progressive resistance training dates back at least to Ancient Greece, when legend has it that wrestler Milo of Croton trained by carrying a newborn calf on his back every day until it was fully grown. Another Greek, the physician Galen, described strength training exercises using the halteres (an early form of dumbbell) in the 2nd century.

Another early device was the Indian club, which came from ancient Persia where it was called the "meels". It subsequently became popular during the 19th century, and has recently made a comeback in the form of the clubbell.

Ancient Greek sculptures also depict lifting feats. The weights were generally stones, but later gave way to dumbbells. The dumbbell was joined by the barbell in the later half of the 19th century. Early barbells had hollow globes that could be filled with sand or lead shot, but by the end of the century these were replaced by the plate-loading barbell commonly used today.

The 1960s saw the gradual introduction of exercise machines into the still-rare strength training gyms of the time. Weight training became increasingly popular in the 1970s, following the release of the bodybuilding movie Pumping Iron, and the subsequent popularity of Arnold Schwarzenegger. Since the late 1990s increasing numbers of women have taken up weight training, influenced by programs like Body for Life; currently nearly one in five U.S. women engages in weight training on a regular basis.

Basic principles

The basic principles of weight training are essentially identical to those of strength training, and involve a manipulation of the number of repetitions (reps), sets, tempo, exercise types, and weight moved to cause desired increases in strength, endurance, and size. The specific combinations of reps, sets, exercises, and weights depends on the aims of the individual performing the exercise; sets with fewer reps can be performed with heavier weights.

In addition to the basic principles of strength training, a further consideration added by weight training is the equipment used. Types of equipment include barbells, dumbbells, pulleys and stacks in the form of weight machines, and the body's own weight in the case of chin-ups and push-ups. Different types of weights will give different types of resistance, and often the same absolute weight can have different relative weights depending on the type of equipment used. For example, lifting 10 kilograms using a dumbbell sometimes requires more force than moving 10 kilograms on a weight stack if certain pulley arrangements are used. In other cases, the weight stack may require more force than the equivalent dumbbell weight due to additional torque or resistance in the machine.

Weight training also requires the use of 'good form', performing the movements with the appropriate muscle group, and not transferring the weight to different body parts in order


to move greater weight (called 'cheating'). Failure to use good form during a training set can result in injury or a failure to meet training goals; since the desired muscle group is not challenged sufficiently, the threshold of overload is never reached and the muscle does not gain in strength.

Comparison to other types of strength training

The benefits of weight training overall are comparable to most other types of strength training: increased muscle, tendon and ligament strength, bone density, flexibility, tone, metabolic rate, and postural support. There are benefits and limitations to weight training as compared to other types of strength training.

Weight training versus resistance training

Resistance training involves the application of elastic or hydraulic resistance to muscle contraction rather than gravity. Weight training provides the majority of the resistance at the beginning, initiation joint angle of the movement, when the muscle must overcome the inertia of the weight's mass. After this point the overall resistance alters depending on the angle of the joint. In comparison, hydraulic resistance provides a fixed amount of resistance throughout the range of motion, depending on the speed of the movement. Elastic resistance provides the greatest resistance at the end of the motion, when the elastic element is stretched to the greatest extent.

Weight training versus isometric training

Isometric exercise provides a fixed amount of resistance based on the force output of the muscle. This strengthens the muscle at the specific joint angle at which the isometric exercise occurs, with some lesser gains in strength also occurring at proximal joint angles. In comparison, weight training strengthens the muscle throughout the range of motion the joint is trained in, causing an increase in physical strength from the initiating through to terminating joint angle.

Weight training and bodybuilding

Although weight training is similar to bodybuilding, they have different objectives. Bodybuilders use weight training to develop their muscles for size, shape, and symmetry regardless of any increase in strength for competition in bodybuilding contests; they train to maximize their muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, many weight trainers train to improve their strength and anaerobic endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat far below normal.

The bodybuilding community has been the source of many of weight training's principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs. Weight training does allow tremendous flexibility in exercises and weights which can allow bodybuilders to target specific muscles and muscle groups, as well as attain specific goals.


Of course, not all bodybuilding is undertaken to compete in bodybuilding contests, and, in fact the vast majority of bodybuilders never compete, but bodybuild for their own personal reasons, irrespective of any judging panel except themselves.

Safety

Weight training is a safe form of exercise when the movements are slow, controlled, and carefully defined. However, as with any form of exercise, improper execution and the failure to take appropriate precautions can result in injury.

Maintaining proper form

A dumbbell squat

When the exercise becomes difficult towards the end of a set, there is a temptation to cheat, i.e., to use poor form to recruit other muscle groups to assist the effort. This may shift the effort to weaker muscles that cannot handle the weight. For example, the squat and the deadlift are used to exercise the largest muscles in the body—the leg and buttock muscles—so they require substantial weight. Beginners are tempted to round their back while performing these exercises. The relaxation of the spinal erectors which allows the lower back to round can cause shearing in the vertebrae of the lumbar spine, potentially damaging the spinal discs.


Stretching and warm-up

The cross trainer can be used to warm up muscles in both the upper and lower body

Weight trainers commonly spend 5 to 20 minutes warming up their muscles before starting a workout. It's common to stretch the entire body to increase overall flexibility score; however, many people stretch just the area being worked that day.

Warm up sets are also important. For example the same lifter working on his chest would also be advised to complete at least two warm up sets prior to hitting his "core tonnage." Core tonnage refers to the heavier lifts that actually strain your muscles. For example if the lifter's main sets were at 205 lbs, 225 lbs and 235 lbs on the bench, then a warmup of 5 reps of 135 and 5 reps of 185 would be advisable. When properly warmed up the lifter will then have more strength and stamina since the blood has begun to flow to the muscle groups.

Breathing

Breathing shallowly or holding one's breath while working out limits the oxygen supply to the muscles and the brain, decreasing performance and, under extreme stress, risking a


black-out or a stroke by aneurysm. Some people advise weight trainers to conscientiously "inhale on effort" and to exhale when lowering the weight. This technique ensures that the trainer breathes through the most difficult part of the exercise, where one would reflexively hold one's breath.

Other coaches advise trainees to perform the valsalva maneuver during exercises which place a load on the spine, since the risk of a stroke by aneurysm is astronomically lower than the risk of an orthopedic injury caused by inadequate rigidity of the torso.

Hydration

As with other sports, weight trainers should avoid dehydration throughout the workout by drinking sufficient water, even while not thirsty. Unless you are sweating to an extreme degree, being thirsty is not a sign that you have already become dehydrated. However, if an athlete relies on thirst alone for when and how much to drink, it may lead to their becoming dehydrated. This is particularly true in hot environments, or for those older than 65.

Some athletic trainers advise athletes to drink about 7 imperial fluid ounces (2.0 dL) every 15 minutes while exercising, and about 80 imperial fluid ounces (2.3 L) throughout the day.

However, a much more accurate determination of how much fluid is necessary can be made by performing appropriate weight measurements before and after a typical exercise session, to determine how much fluid is lost during the workout. The greatest source of fluid loss during exercise is through perspiration, but as long as your fluid intake is roughly equivalent to your rate of perspiration, hydration levels will be maintained.

Under most circumstances, sports drinks do not offer a physiological benefit over water during weight training. However, high-intensity exercise for a continuous duration of at least one hour may require the replenishment of electrolytes which a sports drink may provide. Some may maintain that an Energy drink improves performance in weight training and other physical exercise, but in fact, these energy drinks can cause dehy-dration, tremors, heat stroke, and heart attack when consumed in excess. The above reference refers to 'Energy drinks' such as Red Bull that contain caffine, it does not refer to 'Sports drinks' that contain simple carbohydrates & water only which do not cause the above ill effects.

However it is also important not to consume too much water in a short time, as this can lead to water intoxication and other electrolyte disturbances which in turn can lead to nausea, vomiting, convulsions, brain swelling, unconsciousness and possibly death.

Insufficient hydration may cause lethargy, soreness or muscle cramps. The urine of well-hydrated persons should be nearly colorless, while an intense yellow color is normally a sign of insufficient hydration.


Avoiding pain

An exercise should be halted if marked or sudden pain is felt, to prevent further injury. However, not all discomfort indicates injury. Weight training exercises are brief but very intense, and many people are unaccustomed to this level of effort. The expression "no pain, no gain" refers to working through the discomfort expected from such vigorous effort, rather than to willfully ignore extreme pain, which may indicate serious soft tissue injuries.

Discomfort can arise from other factors. Individuals who perform large numbers of repetitions, sets, and exercises for each muscle group may experience a burning sensation in their muscles. These individuals may also experience a swelling sensation in their muscles from increased blood flow (the "pump"). True muscle fatigue is experienced as a marked and uncontrollable loss of strength in a muscle, arising from the nervous system (motor unit) rather than from the muscle fibers themselves. Extreme neural fatigue can be experienced as temporary muscle failure. Some weight training programs actively seek temporary muscle failure; evidence to support this type of training is mixed at best. Irrespective of their program, however, most athletes engaged in high-intensity weight training will experience muscle failure during their regimens.

Beginners are advised to build up slowly to a weight training programme. Untrained individuals may have some muscles that are comparatively stronger than others. An injury can result if, in a particular exercise, the primary muscle is stronger than its stabi-lising muscles. Building up slowly allows muscles time to develop appropriate strengths relative to each other. This can also help to minimise delayed onset muscle soreness. A sudden start to an intense program can cause significant muscular soreness. Unexercised muscles contain cross-linkages that are torn during intense exercise.

Other precautions

Anyone beginning an intensive physical training programme is typically advised to consult a physician, because of possible undetected heart or other conditions for which such activity is contraindicated.

Exercises like the bench press or the squat in which a failed lift can potentially result in the lifter becoming trapped under the weight are normally performed inside a power rack or in the presence of one or more spotters, who can safely re-rack the barbell if the weight trainer is unable to do so.


Equipment

A pull-up, a type of bodyweight exercise that requires no dumbbells or other weights but does require equipment - a pull-up bar.

Weight training usually requires different types of equipment; most common are dumb-bells, barbells, and weight machines. Various combinations of specific exercises, mach-ines, dumbbells, and barbells allow weight trainers to exercise body parts in one or more ways. Some exercise approaches use only bodyweight exercises such as press-ups that require no equipment, while others such as a pull-up require no weights but do require a pull-up bar that is strong enough to support the weight of the trainer.

Other types of equipment include:

Wrist strap


Lifting belt

• Lifting straps, which allow more weight to be lifted by transferring the load to the wrists and avoiding limitations in forearm muscles and grip strength

• Weightlifting belts, which are meant to support the back (though there is con-roversy regarding the safety of these devices)

• Weighted clothing, bags of sand, lead shot, or other materials that are strapped to wrists, ankles, torso or other body parts to increase the amount of work required by muscles

Types of exercises

Isotonic and plyometric exercises

These terms combine the prefix "iso" (meaning "same") with "tonic" (strength) and "plio" (more) with "metric" (distance). In "isotonic" exercises the force applied to the muscle does not change (while the length of the muscle decreases or increases) while in "plyometric" exercises the length of the muscle stretches and contracts rapidly to increase the power output of a muscle.

Weight training is primarily an isotonic form of exercise, as the force produced by the muscle to push or pull weighted objects should not change (though in practice the force


produced does decrease as muscles fatigue). Any object can be used for weight training, but dumbbells, barbells, and other specialised equipment are normally used because they can be adjusted to specific weights and are easily gripped. Many exercises are not strictly isotonic because the force on the muscle varies as the joint moves through its range of motion. Movements can become easier or harder depending on the angle of muscular force relative to gravity; for example, a standard biceps curl becomes easier as the hand approaches the shoulder as more of the load is taken by the structure of the elbow. Certain machines such as the Nautilus involve special adaptations to keep resistance constant irrespective of the joint angle.

Plyometrics exploit the stretch-shortening cycle of muscles to enhance the myotatic (stretch) reflex. This involves rapid alternation of lengthening and shortening of muscle fibers against resistance. The resistance involved is often a weighted object such as a medicine ball or sandbag, but can also be the body itself as in jumping exercises or the body with a weight vest that allows movement with resistance. Plyometrics is used to develop explosive speed, and focuses on maximal power instead of maximal strength by compressing the force of muscular contraction into as short a period as possible, and may be used to improve the effectiveness of a boxer's punch, or to increase the vertical jumping ability of a basketball player. Care must be taken when performing plyometric exercises because they inflict greater stress upon the involved joints and tendons than other forms of exercise.

Isolation exercises versus compound exercises

The leg extension is an isolation exercise


An isolation exercise is one where the movement is restricted to one joint only. For example, the leg extension is an isolation exercise for the quadriceps. Specialized types of equipment are used to ensure that other muscle groups are only minimally involved—they just help the individual maintain a stable posture—and movement occurs only around the knee joint. Most isolation exercises involve machines rather than dumbbells and barbells (free weights), though free weights can be used when combined with special positions and joint bracing.

Compound exercises work several muscle groups at once, and include movement around two or more joints. For example, in the leg press movement occurs around the hip, knee and ankle joints. This exercise is primarily used to develop the quadriceps, but it also involves the hamstrings, glutes and calves. Compound exercises are generally similar to the ways that people naturally push, pull and lift objects, whereas isolation exercises often feel a little unnatural. Compound exercises generally involve dumbbells and barbells (free weights), involving more muscles to stabilize the body and joints as well as move the weight.

The leg press is a compound exercise

Each type of exercise has its uses. Compound exercises build the basic strength that is needed to perform everyday pushing, pulling and lifting activities. Isolation exercises are useful for "rounding out" a routine, by directly exercising muscle groups that cannot be fully exercised in the compound exercises.

The type of exercise performed also depends on the individual's goals. Those who seek to increase their performance in sports would focus mostly on compound exercises, with isolation exercises being used to strengthen just those muscles that are holding the athlete back. Similarly, a powerlifter would focus on the specific compound exercises that are performed at powerlifting competitions. However, those who seek to improve the look of their body without necessarily maximising their strength gains (including bodybuilders)


would put more of an emphasis on isolation exercises. Both types of athletes, however, generally make use of both compound and isolation exercises.

Free weights versus weight machines

Exercise balls allow a wider range of free weight exercises to be performed. They are also known as stability balls, fitness balls, gym balls, sports balls, therapy balls or body balls. They are sometimes confused with medicine balls

Free weights include dumbbells, barbells, medicine balls, sandbells, and kettlebells. Unlike weight machines, they do not constrain users to specific, fixed movements, and therefore require more effort from the individual's stabilizer muscles. It is often argued that free weight exercises are superior for precisely this reason. As weight machines can go some way toward preventing poor form, they are somewhat safer than free weights for novice trainees. Moreover, since users need not concentrate so much on maintaining good form, they can focus more on the effort they are putting into the exercise. However, most athletes, bodybuilders, and serious fitness enthusiasts prefer to use compound free weight exercises to gain functional strength.


The weight stack from a Cable machine

Some free weight exercises can be performed while sitting or lying on an exercise ball. This makes it more difficult to maintain good form, which helps to exercise the deep torso muscles that are important for maintaining posture.

There are a number of weight machines that are commonly found in neighborhood gyms. The Smith machine is a barbell that is constrained to move only vertically upwards and downwards. The cable machine consists of two weight stacks separated by 2.5 metres, with cables running through adjustable pulleys (that can be fixed at any height) to various types of handles. There are also exercise-specific weight machines such as the leg press. A multigym includes a variety of exercise-specific mechanisms in one apparatus.


One limitation of many free weight exercises and exercise machines is that the muscle is working maximally against gravity during only a small portion of the lift. Some exercise-specific machines feature an oval cam (first introduced by Nautilus) which varies the resistance so that the resistance, and the muscle force required, remains constant throughout the full range of motion of the exercise.

Health benefits

A study published in 2009 revealed that weightlifting may reduce the symptoms of lymphedema in women who have undergone a mastectomy. For decades prior to the study, women were told to "avoid heavy lifting" as it was thought that it would increase the risk of developing lymphedema.

Weight training has also been shown to benefit dieters as it inhibits lean body mass loss (as opposed to fat loss) when under a caloric deficit.

Weight training also strengthens bones, helping to prevent bone loss and osteoporosis. By increasing muscular strength and improving balance, weight training can reduce falls by elderly persons as well.


Chapter 9

Eccentric Training

Eccentric training is the lowering phase of an exercise. For example, in a bicep curl the action of lowering the dumbbell back down from the lift is the eccentric phase of that exercise — as long as the dumbbell is lowered slowly rather than letting it drop.

There are three distinct phases in the movement of muscles and tendons: isometric (no movement), concentric (contracting) and eccentric (lowering). All three of these stages in muscles movements have an affect on muscle tissues and tendons (tendons are what attach the muscle to the bone).

Eccentric training focuses on slowing down the elongation of the muscle process in order to challenge the muscles, which can lead to stronger muscles, faster muscle repair and increasing metabolic rate.

Eccentric movement provides a braking mechanism for muscle and tendon groups that are experiencing concentric movement to protect joints from damage as the contraction is released.

Eccentric training is particularly good for casual and high performance athletes or the elderly and patients looking to rehabilitate certain muscles and tendons.

Negative movement

This movement has also been described as negative training. This “negative” movement is necessary to reverse the muscle from its initial trajectory.

When weight exceeds the force developed by the muscle, as in an eccentric muscle action, the exercise is referred to as negative work because the muscle is absorbing energy in this loaded position.

It goes on to state that eccentric contractions use less energy, even though they create more force than concentric actions.


History

Adolf Fick originally discovered in 1882 that “contracting muscle under stretch could produce greater force than a shortening muscle contraction” like in concentric move-ments. Fifty years later, A.V. Hill determined that “the body had lower energy demand during an eccentric muscle contraction than during a concentric muscle action”.

Erling Asmussen first introduced eccentric training in 1953 as “excentric,” with ex meaning “away from” and centric meaning “center.” Hence, the term was coined to mean a muscle contraction that moves away from the center of the muscle.

But the first revelation of the functional significance of these properties occurred by way of a clever demonstration devised by Bud Abbott, Brenda Bigland, and Murdoch Ritchie. They connected two stationary cycle ergometers back-to-back with a single chain, such that one cyclist pedaled forward and the other resisted this forward motion by braking the backward-moving pedals. Because the internal resistance of the device was low, the same force was being applied by both individuals, yet the task was much easier for the individual braking. This demonstration cleverly revealed that a tiny female resisting the movement of the pedals could easily exert more force than, and hence control the power output of, a large burly male pedaling forward.

Energy

During the eccentric phase of movement, the muscle absorbs energy. This work is done “by stretching the muscle and in this process the muscle absorbs mechanical energy”.

This mechanical energy is dissipated or converted into one or a combination of two energies.

• 1. Heat • 2. Elastic Recoil

Heat

The energy that is absorbed by the muscle will be dissipated as heat if the muscle is being used as a “damper or shock absorber”. This leads to increase in body temperature.

Elastic Recoil

The energy that is absorbed by the muscle can be converted into elastic recoil energy, and can be recovered and reused by the body. This creates more efficiency because the body is able to use the energy for the next movement, decreasing the initial impact or shock of the movement.

For example, kinetic energy is absorbed in running every time your foot strikes the ground and continues as your mass overtakes the foot. At this moment, elastic recoil


energy is at its maximum and a large amount of this energy is absorbed and is added to the next stride.

This movement is similar to the action of springs, where the muscle is continually shortened and stretched resulting in enhanced effectiveness and force. It can lead to the perception of “less effort” even though dealing with higher force.

But time matters in elastic recoil. If this energy is not used quickly it is dissipated as heat. The roll of eccentric training is to use these principles of energy conversion to strengthen muscle and tendon groups.

Physiological mechanisms

The muscle has “tension producing tissue comprising small contractile units referred to as sarcomeres” that each contain a “thick (myosin) and thin (actin) myofilament (muscle filaments or proteins) that overlaps to format a cross-bridge bond (attachment)”.

When in a concentric exercise, shortening of a muscle occurs as the myosin cross bridges continually attach to actin and draw the actin across the myosin — creating force. Each cross-bridge attachment and detachment cycle is powered by the splitting of one molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Examples of these type of exercises are kicking a ball or lifting up a weight.

In response to this motion, the eccentric movement stretches the muscle with opposing force that is stronger than muscle force production. When myofilaments of the muscle fiber are stretched while doing eccentric contracting there may be a less cross bridge attachments of myosin and actin detaching. With more cross bridges attached there are greater force productions produced in the muscle. Examples of activities in which eccentric muscle contractions occur include walking down a hill or resisting the force of gravity while lowering a weight or object.

“Eccentric actions place a stretch on the sacomeres to the point where the myofilaments may experience strain, otherwise known as exercise induced delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS)” (Aaron Bubbico & Len Kravitz, 2010). One area of research that has much promise in relation to DOMS and eccentric exercise is the repeated-bout effect (RBE). To help prevent or lessen DOMS from eccentric exercise, or to hasten recovery from it, eccentrically stimulate the muscle then repeat in a week to build up resistance, and the strain will reduce over time.

Findings

Several key findings have been researched regarding the benefits of eccentric training:

• Eccentric training creates greater force owing to the “decreased rate of cross-bridge muscle detachments.” Patients and athletes will have more muscle force for bigger weights when eccentric training.


• Eccentric contractions use less energy and actually absorb energy that will be used as heat or elastic recoil for the next movement.

• Increased DOMS leads to more tenderness in eccentric, rather than pure pain or tendon swelling amongst patients.

• Repeated-bout Effect markedly reduces DOMS. “Completing bouts of eccentric training and then repeating the workout 1 week (or more) later will result in less DOMS after the second workout.”

• Older individuals are less vulnerable to injury from eccentric exercise, primarily because of the reduced strain on muscle-tendon groupings as compared to traditional concentric exercise.

• Stretching of the muscles and eccentric training provides protection from injury or re-injury.

• Eccentric training has proven to be an excellent post rehabilitation intervention for lower-body injuries.

• Subjects report less weariness from eccentric training than from concentric training.

• Total body eccentric training can raise resting metabolic rate by about 9 per cent, with the greatest magnitude in the first two hours.

• While energy costs remain low, the degree of force is very high. This leads to muscles that respond with significant increases in muscle strength, size and power.

Sports and rehabilitation

With eccentric training, muscles are able to create more for less work, which has special meaning in the realms of high performance sports — both for injury prevention and optimal-performance training. For athletes and sports enthusiasts, this eccentric model can help with explosive force. training in order to prevent injuries or recurring injuries, and trains the body to use the kinetic force driven by eccentric training more efficiently.

According to tests, increases in both strength and muscle fiber are higher in eccentric training than in traditional concentric training.

The rehabilitative nature, low energy costs, high magnitudes of force, and low uptake of oxygen all align eccentric exercise for both the elderly and rehabilitative functions.

In old age, loss of strength and muscle mass is commonplace. Add to these factors disease and cardiac and respiratory illness. Eccentric training enables the elderly, and those with the same problems, the ability to train muscle groups and increase strength and resiliency with low-energy exercise.

Eccentric training has also been found to be very beneficial to those with different physical ailments.


Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) damage

Tearing an ACL in the knee causes serious damage that can last several years and often requires surgery. The ACL is one of the four main stabilizing ligaments of the knee. During the post-operative rehabilitation of patients, eccentric training can be used as a cornerstone of developing muscle size and strength. According to tests conducted J. Parry Gerber in 2007, structural changes in the muscles greatly exceeded those achieved with standard concentric rehabilitation. The success of the involvement of gradual progressive exposure to negative work ultimately led to the production of high muscle force.

Sarcopenia

Sarcopenia is the progressive loss of muscle mass due to aging. Muscle mass begins to deteriorate as early as the age of 25, and consistently deteriorates into old age. By the age of 80 “one half of the skeletal muscle has been lost” (Lastayo, Woolf, Lewek, Snyder-Mackler, Reich & Lindstedt, 2003). With this great decrease in mass, strength is also decreased. Eccentric training has the ability to counteract sarcopenia through sustained training. The unique trait of greater overloads to the muscle with less strenuous impact on the body, as well as cardiac and respiratory systems, offers a unique case for the elderly. The high-force and low-cost set of attributes in eccentric exercise makes it ideal for the actively impaired.

Muscle tendon injuries

The entire muscle-tendon system works cohesively to slow down limb movement. The close relationship between the muscle and tendons help to dissipate heat or temporarily store kinetic energy. If the forces needed to slow down a limb exceed the capacity of the muscle-tendon system injury is likely to occur.

Athletes with recurring hamstring and abductor muscle injuries have greater impairment of eccentric strength, suggesting that improvements in eccentric training may minimize the risks of injury by strengthening the muscle-tendon groupings in high-stress areas of the body.

Eccentric training is of huge benefit to those that wish to avert injuries by improving the muscles abilities to absorb more energy before deteriorating. According to one article, “Increased stiffness in tendons, greater force at failure, and an improved ability to absorb energy at the musculotendonous junction result following eccentric exercise training”.

Osteopenia

Usually viewed as a precursor to osteoporosis, Osteopenia is when bone density is lower than normal levels. Bone mass is affected by muscles forces and their loads to the bone structure. The strength and density of the bone is directly influenced by local strain. Due to the high strain on muscles during eccentric training, coupled with low energy output, eccentric training becomes a cornerstone of the rehabilitative process.


Tendinoses

Intense repetitive activities tend to create chronic tendon disorders, where the tendons become injured, inflamed or ruptured. While typically these disorders are directly related to eccentric muscle movements, the ability for a muscle to strengthen and prevent injury through eccentric training is great. Controlled rehabilitative regimes will actually stren-gthen and repair tendons. Ample evidence supports the notion that the tendon, like the muscle, can adapt favorably to physical stress and eccentric loads.

It has been deduced that high muscle tendon forces delivered in a controlled environment are needed for optimal tendon adaptation. While eccentric stress is related to the injury, high force eccentric exercises are needed to maximize recovery.

Chronic Patellar Tendonitis

A condition that arises when the tendon and the tissues that surround it, become inflamed and irritated. This is usually due to overuse, especially from jumping activities. This is the reason chronic patellar tendonitis is often called “jumper’s knee.” A study done by Roald Bahr and colleagues looked at which method of tendon rehabilitation exercise — the “eccentric squat” exercise or the universal gym “leg extension/leg curl” — produced more recovery results in terms of recovery in the treatment of chronic patellar tendonitis. On the twelve week exercise program, participates were tested for thigh circumference and quadricep and hamstring moment of force. There was no significant difference between the groups in either quadricep or hamstring moment of force and hamstring moment of force significantly increased in both groups, but the eccentric squat saw significantly lower pain ratings and produced twice as many “pain free” subjects at the end of the program than the other group.


Chapter 10

Strength Training

The pulldown, which strengthens the arms and back

Strength training is the use of resistance to muscular contraction to build the strength, anaerobic endurance, and size of skeletal muscles. There are many different methods of strength training, the most common being the use of gravity or elastic/hydraulic forces to oppose muscle contraction.


When properly performed, strength training can provide significant functional benefits and improvement in overall health and well-being, including increased bone, muscle, tendon and ligament strength and toughness, improved joint function, reduced potential for injury, increased bone density, a temporary increase in metabolism, improved cardiac function, and elevated HDL (good) cholesterol. Training commonly uses the technique of progressively increasing the force output of the muscle through incremental increases of weight, elastic tension or other resistance, and uses a variety of exercises and types of equipment to target specific muscle groups. Strength training is primarily an anaerobic activity, although some proponents have adapted it to provide the benefits of aerobic exercise through circuit training.

Strength training differs from bodybuilding, weightlifting, powerlifting, and strongman, which are sports rather than forms of exercise, although training for them is inherently interconnected with strength training, as it is for shotput, discus, and Highland games. Many other sports use strength training as part of their training regimen, notably football, rugby, lacrosse, basketball, hockey, and track and field.

History

An early plate-loading barbell and kettlebell


Until the 20th century, the history of strength training was very similar to the history of weight training. With the advent of modern technology, materials and knowledge, the methods that can be used for strength training have multiplied significantly.

Hippocrates explained the principle behind strength training when he wrote "that which if used develops, and that which if not used wastes away", referring to muscular hyper-trophy and atrophy. Progressive resistance training dates back at least to Ancient Greece, when legend has it that wrestler Milo of Croton trained by carrying a newborn calf on his back every day until it was fully grown. Another Greek, the physician Galen, described strength training exercises using the halteres (an early form of dumbbell) in the 2nd century. Ancient Persians used the meels, which became popular during the 19th century as the Indian club, and has recently made a comeback in the form of the clubbell.

The dumbbell was joined by the barbell in the latter half of the 19th century. Early barbells had hollow globes that could be filled with sand or lead shot, but by the end of the century these were replaced by the plate-loading barbell commonly used today.

Strength training with isometric exercise was popularised by Charles Atlas from the 1930s onwards. The 1960s saw the gradual introduction of exercise machines into the still-rare strength training gyms of the time. Strength training became increasingly popular in the 1980s following the release of the bodybuilding movie Pumping Iron and the subsequent popularity of Arnold Schwarzenegger.

Types of strength training

Weight training

Weight and resistance training are popular methods of strength training that use gravity (through weight stacks, plates or dumbbells) or elastic/hydraulic resistance to oppose muscle contraction. Each method provides a different challenge to the muscle relating to the position where the resistance to muscle contraction peaks. Weight training provides the majority of the resistance at the initiating joint angle when the movement begins, when the muscle must overcome the inertia of the weight's mass (however, if repetitions are performed extremely slowly, inertia is never overcome and resistance remains con-stant). In contrast, elastic resistance provides the greatest opposition to contraction at the end of the movement when the material experiences the greatest tension while hydraulic resistance varies depending on the speed of the submerged limb, with greater resistance at higher speeds. In addition to the equipment used, joint angles can alter the force output of the muscles due to leverage.

Resistance training

Resistance training is a form of strength training in which each effort is performed against a specific opposing force generated by resistance (i.e. resistance to being pushed, squeezed, stretched or bent). Exercises are isotonic if a body part is moving against the force. Exercises are isometric if a body part is holding still against the force. Resistance


exercise is used to develop the strength and size of skeletal muscles. Properly performed, resistance training can provide significant functional benefits and improvement in overall health and well-being.

The goal of resistance training, according to the American Sports Medicine Institute (ASMI), is to "gradually and progressively overload the musculoskeletal system so it gets stronger." Research shows that regular resistance training will strengthen muscle and increase bone mass.

Isometric training

Isometric exercise, or "isometrics", is a type of strength training in which the joint angle and muscle length do not change during contraction. Isometric exercises are opposed by a force equal to the force output of the muscle and there is no net movement. This mainly strengthens the muscle at the specific joint angle at which the isometric exercise occurs, with some increases in strength at joint angles up to 20° in either direction depending on the joint trained. In comparison, isotonic exercises strengthen the muscle throughout the entire range of motion of the exercise used.

Basic principles

The basic principles of strength training involve a manipulation of the number of repetitions (reps), sets, tempo, exercises and force to cause desired changes in strength, endurance, size or shape by overloading of a group of muscles. The specific com-binations of reps, sets, exercises, resistance and force depend on the purpose of the individual performing the exercise: sets with fewer reps can be performed using more force, but have a reduced impact on endurance.

Strength training also requires the use of 'good form', performing the movements with the appropriate muscle group(s), and not transferring the weight to different body parts in order to move greater weight/resistance (called 'cheating'). Typically failure to use good form during a training set can result in injury or an inability to meet training goals - since the desired muscle group is not challenged sufficiently, the threshold of overload is never reached and the muscle does not gain in strength. There are cases when cheating is beneficial, as is the case where weaker groups become the weak link in the chain and the target muscles are never fully exercised as a result.

The benefits of strength training include increased muscle, tendon and ligament strength, bone density, flexibility, tone, metabolic rate and postural support.

Terminology

Strength training has a variety of specialized terms used to describe parameters of strength training:


• Exercise - different exercises involve moving joints in specific patterns to challenge muscles in different ways

• Form - each exercise has a specific form, a topography of movement designed to maximize safety and muscle strength gains

• Rep - short for repetition, a rep is a single cycle of lifting and lowering a weight in a controlled manner, moving through the form of the exercise

• Set - a set consists of several repetitions performed one after another with no break between them with the number of reps per set and sets per exercise depen-ding on the goal of the individual. The number of repetitions one can perform at a certain weight is called the Rep Maximum (RM). For example, if one could perform ten reps at 75 lbs, then their RM for that weight would be 10RM. 1RM is therefore the maximum weight that someone can lift in a given exercise - i.e. a weight that they can only lift once without a break.

• Tempo - the speed with which an exercise is performed; the tempo of a movement has implications for the weight that can be moved and the effects on the muscle.

Realization of training goals

According to popular theory:

• Sets of one to five repetitions primarily develop strength, with more impact on muscle size and none on endurance.

• Sets of six to twelve repetitions develop a balance of strength, muscle size and endurance.

• Sets of thirteen to twenty repetitions develop endurance, with some increases to muscle size and limited impact on strength.

• Sets of more than twenty repetitions are considered to be focused on aerobic exercise. They do still use the anaerobic system, but usually at a rate through which it can consistently remove the lactic acid generated from it.

Individuals typically perform one to six sets per exercise, and one to three exercises per muscle group, with short breaks between each set - the specific combinations of reps, exercises, sets and break duration depends on the goals of the individual program. The duration of these breaks determines which energy system the body utilizes. Performing a series of exercises with little or no rest between them, referred to as "circuit training", will draw energy mostly from the aerobic energy system. Brief bursts of exercise, sepa-rated by breaks, are fueled by anaerobic systems, which use either phosphagens or glycolysis.

For developing endurance, gradual increases in volume and gradual decreases in intensity is the most effective program.

It has been shown that for beginners, multiple-set training offers minimal benefits over single-set training with respect to either strength gain or muscle mass increase, but for the experienced athlete multiple-set systems are required for optimal progress. However, one study shows that for leg muscles, three sets are more effective than one set.


Beginning weight-trainers are in the process of training the neurological aspects of strength, the ability of the brain to generate a rate of neuronal action potentials that will produce a muscular contraction that is close to the maximum of the muscle's potential.

Variable Training goal

Strength Power Hypertrophy Endurance Load (% of 1RM) 80-90 45-55 60-80 40-60 Reps per set 1-5 1-5 6-12 15-60 Sets per exercise 4-7 3-5 4-8 2-4 Rest between sets (mins) 2-6 2-6 2-5 1-2 Duration (seconds per set) 5-10 4-8 20-60 80-150 Speed per rep (% of max) 60-100 90-100 60-90 60-80 Training sessions per week 3-6 3-6 5-7 8-14

Table reproduced from Siff, 2003

Weights for each exercise should be chosen so that the desired number of repetitions can just be achieved.

Progressive overload

In one common method, weight training uses the principle of progressive overload, in which the muscles are overloaded by attempting to lift at least as much weight as they are capable of. They respond by growing larger and stronger. This procedure is repeated with progressively heavier weights as the practitioner gains strength and endurance.

However, performing exercises at the absolute limit of one's strength (known as one rep max lifts) is considered too risky for all but the most experienced practitioners. Moreover, most individuals wish to develop a combination of strength, endurance and muscle size. One repetition sets are not well suited to these aims. Practitioners therefore lift lighter (sub-maximal) weights, with more repetitions, to fatigue the muscle and all fibres within that muscle as required by the progressive overload principle.

Commonly, each exercise is continued to the point of momentary muscular failure. Contrary to widespread belief, this is not the point at which the individual thinks they cannot complete any more repetitions, but rather the first repetition that fails due to inadequate muscular strength. Training to failure is a controversial topic with some advocating training to failure on all sets while others believe that this will lead to overtraining, and suggest training to failure only on the last set of an exercise. Some practitioners recommend finishing a set of repetitions just before the point of failure; e.g. if you can do a maximum of 12 reps with a given weight, only perform 11. Adrenaline and other hormones may promote additional intensity by stimulating the body to lift additional weight (as well as the neuro-muscular stimulations that happen when in “fight-


or-flight” mode, as the body activates more muscle fibres), so getting "psyched up" before a workout can increase the maximum weight lifted.

Weight training can be a very effective form of strength training because exercises can be chosen, and weights precisely adjusted, to safely exhaust each individual muscle group after the specific numbers of sets and repetitions that have been found to be the most effective for the individual. Other strength training exercises lack the flexibility and precision that weights offer.

Split training

Split training involves working no more than three muscle groups or body parts per day, instead spreading the training of specific body parts throughout a training cycle of several days. It is commonly used by more advanced practitioners due to the logistics involved in training all muscle groups maximally. Training all the muscles in the body individually through their full range of motion in a single day is generally not considered possible due to caloric and time constraints. Split training involves fully exhausting individual muscle groups during a workout, then allowing several days for the muscle to fully recover. Muscles are worked roughly twice per week and allowed roughly 72 hours to recover. Recovery of certain muscle groups is usually achieved on days while training other groups. I.e. a 7 day week can consist of a practitioner training trapezius, side shoulders and upper shoulders to exhaustion on one day, the following day the arms to exhaustion, the day after that the rear, front shoulders and back, the day after that the chest. In this way all mentioned muscle groups are allowed the necessary recovery.

Intensity, volume, and frequency

Three important variables of strength training are intensity, volume and frequency. Intensity refers to the amount of work required to achieve the activity, and is proportional to the mass of the weights being lifted. Volume refers to the number of muscles worked, exercises, sets and reps during a single session. Frequency refers to how many training sessions are performed per week.

These variables are important because they are all mutually conflicting, as the muscle only has so much strength and endurance, and takes time to recover due to microtrauma. Increasing one by any significant amount necessitates the decrease of the other two, e.g. increasing weight means a reduction of reps, and will require more recovery time and therefore fewer workouts per week. Trying to push too much intensity, volume and frequency will result in overtraining, and eventually lead to injury and other health issues such as chronic soreness and general lethargy, illness or even acute trauma such as avulsion fractures. A high-medium-low formula can be used to avoid overtraining, with either intensity, volume, or frequency being high, one of the others being medium, and the other being low. One example of this training strategy can be found in the following chart:


Type High Med Low Intensity (% of 1RM) 80-100% 50-70% 10-40% Volume (per muscle) 1 exercise 2 exercises 3+ exercises Sets 1 set 2-3 sets 4+ sets Reps 1-6 reps 8-15 reps 20+ reps Session Frequency 1 p/w 2-3 p/w 4+ p/w

A common training strategy is to set the volume and frequency the same each week (e.g. training 3 times per week, with 2 sets of 12 reps each workout), and steadily increase the intensity (weight) on a weekly basis. However, to maximize progress to specific goals, individual programs may require different manipulations, such as decreasing the weight, and increase volume or frequency.

Making program alterations on a daily basis (daily undulating periodization) seems to be more efficient in eliciting strength gains than doing so every 4 weeks (linear periodization), but for beginners there are no differences between different periodization models.

Periodization

There are many complicated definitions for periodization, but the term simply means the division of the overall training program into periods which accomplish different goals.

Periodization is the modulating of volume, intensity, and frequency over time, to both stimulate gains and allow recovery.

In some programs for example; volume is decreased during a training cycle while intensity is increased. In this template, a lifter would begin a training cycle with a higher rep range than he will finish with.

For this example, the lifter has a 1 rep max of 225 lb:

Week Set 1 Set 2 Set 3 Set 4 Set 5 Volume Lbs.

Peak Intensity(Last

Set)

% of 1 Rep Max(Last

Set)

1 95 lb x 8reps

100 lb x 8reps

110 lb x 8reps

115 lb x 8reps

120 lb x 8reps 4,320 73% 52.5%

2 105 lb x 8reps

110 lb x 7reps

115 lb x 7reps

125 lb x 7reps

130 lb x 7reps 4,200 79% 57.75%

3 110 lb x 7reps

120 lb x 7reps

125 lb x 6reps

135 lb x 6reps

140 lb x 6reps 4,010 84% 63%

4 125 lb x 6reps

130 lb x 6reps

140 lb x 6reps

145 lb x 5reps

155 lb x 5reps 3,870 88% 68.25%


5 130 lb x 5reps

140 lb x 5reps

150 lb x 5reps

155 lb x 5reps

165 lb x 4reps 3,535 94% 73.5%

6 140 lb x 4reps

150 lb x 4reps

160 lb x 4reps

165 lb x 4reps

175 lb x 4reps 3,160 99% 79%

This is an example of periodization where the number of repetitions decreases while the weight increases.

Benefits

The benefits of weight training include greater muscular strength, improved muscle tone and appearance, increased endurance, enhanced bone density, and improved cardiova-scular fitness.

Many people take up weight training to improve their physical attractiveness. Most men can develop substantial muscles; most women lack the testosterone to do it, but they can develop a firm, "toned" physique, and they can increase their strength by the same pro-portion as that achieved by men (but usually from a significantly lower starting point). An individual's genetic make-up dictates the response to weight training stimuli to some extent.

The body's basal metabolic rate increases with increases in muscle mass, which promotes long-term fat loss and helps dieters avoid yo-yo dieting. Moreover, intense workouts elevate metabolism for several hours following the workout, which also promotes fat loss.

Weight training also provides functional benefits. Stronger muscles improve posture, provide better support for joints, and reduce the risk of injury from everyday activities. Older people who take up weight training can prevent some of the loss of muscle tissue that normally accompanies aging—and even regain some functional strength—and by doing so become less frail. They may be able to avoid some types of physical disability. Weight-bearing exercise also helps to prevent osteoporosis. The benefits of weight training for older people have been confirmed by studies of people who began engaging in it even in their 80s and 90s.

Strength training helps to maintain good flexibility. The ability of the body to resist the stresses that can result from an injury can be increased by obtaining a greater amount of strength. That is true in the athletic world and it has its advantages in performing everyday activities, such as lifting or carrying objects. Strength contributes to the overall efficiency of the human body. Starting a strength training program means you have started a new lifestyle because strength is reversible. It will decline if you do not continue to obtain a strength stimulus throughout your entire life.

For many people in rehabilitation or with an acquired disability, such as following stroke or orthopaedic surgery, strength training for weak muscles is a key factor to optimise


recovery. For people with such a health condition, their strength training is likely to need to be designed by an appropriate health professional, such as a physiotherapist.

Stronger muscles improve performance in a variety of sports. Sport-specific training routines are used by many competitors. These often specify that the speed of muscle contraction during weight training should be the same as that of the particular sport.

Though weight training can stimulate the cardiovascular system, many exercise physiologists, based on their observation of maximal oxygen uptake, argue that aerobics training is a better cardiovascular stimulus. Central catheter monitoring during resistance training reveals increased cardiac output, suggesting that strength training shows potential for cardiovascular exercise. However, a 2007 meta-analysis found that, though aerobic training is an effective therapy for heart failure patients, combined aerobic and strength training is ineffective.

One side-effect of any intense exercise is increased levels of dopamine, serotonin and norepinephrine, which can help to improve mood and counter feelings of depression.

Common concerns

Bodybuilding

Bodybuilding is a sport in which the goal is to increase muscle size and definition. Famous competitors include Steve Reeves, Sergio Oliva, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Lou Ferrigno and Ronnie Coleman. Bodybuilding increases the endurance of muscles, as well as strength, though not as much as if it were the primary goal. Bodybuilders compete in bodybuilding competitions, and use specific principles and methods of strength training to maximize muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, most strength trainers train to improve their strength and endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat below normal. Strength trainers tend to focus on compound exercises to build basic strength, whereas bodybuilders often use isolation exercises to visually separate their muscles, and to improve muscular symmetry. Pre-contest training for bodybuilders is different again, in that they attempt to retain as much muscular tissue as possible while undergoing severe dieting. However, the bodybuilding community has been the source of many strength training principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs.

Bodybuilding, strongman competitions and other sports are illustrations of how the basic principles and methods of strength training can be applied to achieve very different goals.

Nutrition

It is widely accepted that strength training must be matched by changes in diet in order to be effective. Adequate protein is generally believed to be required for building skeletal muscle with popular sources advising weight trainers to consume a high-protein diet with from 1.4 to 3.3 g of protein per kg of body weight per day (0.6 to 1.5 g per pound).


Protein that is neither needed for cell growth and repair nor consumed for energy is converted by the liver into fat, which is then stored in the body. Some people believe that a high-protein diet entails risk of kidney damage, but studies have shown that kidney problems only occur in people with previous kidney disease. Nonetheless, the deamin-ation process creates urea, which places low, but consistent, strain on the nephrons. Failure to properly hydrate can result in an exaggeration of this effect. An adequate supply of carbohydrates (5-7g per kg) is also needed as a source of energy and for the body to restore glycogen levels in muscles.

A light, balanced meal prior to the workout (usually one to two hours beforehand) ensures that adequate energy and amino acids are available for the intense bout of exercise. The type of nutrients consumed affects the response of the body, and nutrient timing whereby protein and carbohydrates are consumed prior to and after workout has a beneficial impact on muscle growth. Water is consumed throughout the course of the workout to prevent poor performance due to dehydration. A protein shake is often consumed immediately following the workout, because both protein uptake and protein usage are increased at this time. Glucose (or another simple sugar) is often consumed as well since this quickly replenishes any glycogen lost during the exercise period. To maximise muscle protein anabolism, recovery drink should contain glucose (dextrose), protein (usually whey) hydrosylate containing mainly dipeptides and tripeptides, and leucine. Some weight trainers also take ergogenic aids such as creatine or steroids to aid muscle growth. However, the effectiveness of some products is disputed and others are potentially harmful.

Sex differences in mass gains

Due to the androgenic hormonal differences between males and females, the latter are generally unable to develop large muscles regardless of the training program used. Normally the most that can be achieved is a look similar to that of a fitness model. Muscle is denser than fat, so someone who builds muscle while keeping the same body weight will occupy less volume; if two people weigh the same (and are the same height) but have different lean body mass percentages, the one with more muscle will appear thinner.

The results obtained by female bodybuilders are extremely atypical: they are self-selected for their genetic ability to build muscle, perform enormous amounts of exercise, their musculature is exaggerated by very low body fat, and like many male bodybuilders their results may be enhanced by anabolic steroids. Unless a woman dedicates her life to bodybuilding, she will not achieve the same results as a professional male bodybuilder. In addition, though bodybuilding uses the same principles as strength training, it is with a goal of gaining muscle bulk. Strength trainers with different goals and programs will not gain the same mass as a male professional bodybuilder.


Muscle toning

Some weight trainers perform light, high-repetition exercises in an attempt to "tone" their muscles without increasing their size.

What muscle builders refer to as a toned physique is one that combines reasonable muscular size with moderate levels of body fat, qualities that may result from a combination of diet and exercise. Exercises of 6-12 reps indeed do cause hypertrophy of the sarcoplasm in slow-twitch and high-twitch muscle fibers, contributing to overall increased muscle bulk. This is not to be confused with myofibril hypertrophy which leads to lifting gains. Both however can occur to an extent during this rep range.

Lowered-calorie diets have no positive effect on muscle hypertrophy for muscle of any fiber type. They may, however, decrease the thickness of subcutaneous fat (fat between muscle and skin), through an overall reduction in body fat, thus making muscle striations more visible.

Safety concerns related to children

Orthopaedic specialists used to recommend that children avoid weight training because the growth plates on their bones might be at risk. The very rare reports of growth plate fractures in children who trained with weights occurred as a result of inadequate supervision, improper form or excess weight, and there have been no reports of injuries to growth plates in youth training programs that followed established guidelines. The position of the National Strength and Conditioning Association is that strength training is safe for children if properly designed and supervised.

Younger children are at greater risk of injury than adults if they drop a weight on themselves or perform an exercise incorrectly; further, they may lack understanding of, or ignore the safety precautions around weight training equipment. As a result, supervision of minors is considered vital to ensuring the safety of any youth engaging in strength training.

Weight loss

An exercise like sit-ups or abdominal crunches uses a much smaller volume of muscle than whole-body aerobic exercise and is therefore less efficient at burning calories than an exercise like jogging. Instead, high-weight and low-rep exercises can be used to maintain or increase the body's muscle mass while dieting. They help to prevent the metabolic slowdown that otherwise often limits the effect of dieting and causes post-diet weight gain.

Weight loss also depends on the type of strength training used. Weight training is generally used for bulking, but the bulking method will more than likely not increase weight because of the diet involved. However, when resistance or circuit training is used, because they are not geared towards bulking, women tend to lose weight more quickly.


Lean muscles require calories to maintain themselves at rest, which will help reduce fat through an increase in the basal metabolic rate.

Safety

Strength training is a safe form of exercise when the movements are controlled, and carefully defined. However, as with any form of exercise, improper execution and the failure to take appropriate precautions can result in injury.

Methods and equipment

A number of strength training methods exist, each with its own goals, equipment and results. Apart from weight training, they include isometric exercise, plyometrics, Pilates or Super Slow.

Exercise equipment used for strength training includes weight machines, resistance bands, Swiss balls or Wobble boards, Indian clubs or weighted clothing.

Aerobic exercise versus anaerobic exercise

Strength training exercise is primarily anaerobic. Even while training at a lower intensity (training loads of ~20-RM), anaerobic glycolysis is still the major source of power, although aerobic metabolism makes a small contribution. Weight training is commonly perceived as anaerobic exercise, because one of the more common goals is to increase strength by lifting heavy weights. Other goals such as rehabilitation, weight loss, body shaping, and bodybuilding often use lower weights, adding aerobic character to the exercise.

Except in the extremes, a muscle will fire fibres of both the aerobic or anaerobic types on any given exercise, in varying ratio depending on the load on the intensity of the contraction. This is known as the energy system continuum. At higher loads, the muscle will recruit all muscle fibres possible, both anaerobic ("fast-twitch") and aerobic ("slow-twitch"), in order to generate the most force. However, at maximum load, the anaerobic processes contract so forcefully that the aerobic fibers are completely shut out, and all work is done by the anaerobic processes. Because the anaerobic muscle fibre uses its fuel faster than the blood and intracellular restorative cycles can resupply it, the maximum number of repetitions is limited. In the aerobic regime, the blood and intracellular processes can maintain a supply of fuel and oxygen, and continual repetition of the motion will not cause the muscle to fail.

Circuit weight training is a form of exercise that uses a number of weight training exercise sets separated by short intervals. The cardiovascular effort to recover from each set serves a function similar to an aerobic exercise, but this is not the same as saying that a weight training set is itself an aerobic process.


Exercises for specific muscle groups

A back extension

Weight trainers commonly divide the body's individual muscles into ten major muscle groups. These do not include the hip, neck and forearm muscles, which are rarely trained in isolation. The most common exercises for these muscle groups are listed below.

The sequence shown below is one possible way to order the exercises. The large muscles of the lower body are normally trained before the smaller muscles of the upper body, because these first exercises require more mental and physical energy. The core muscles of the torso are trained before the shoulder and arm muscles that assist them. Exercises often alternate between "pushing" and "pulling" movements to allow their specific supporting muscles time to recover. The stabilising muscles in the waist should be trained last.

Advanced techniques

A number of techniques have been developed to make weight training exercises more intense, and thereby potentially increase the rate of progress. Many weight lifters use these techniques to bring themselves past a plateau, a duration where a weightlifter may be unable to do more lifting repetitions, sets, or use higher weight resistance.

Set structure Drop sets

Drop sets do not end at the point of momentary muscular failure, but continue with progressively lighter weights.

Pyramid sets In a pyramid the weight is first increased, and then decreased over a series of sets. A full pyramid typically includes five sets of approximately 12, 10, 8, 10 and 12 reps. The first two sets are performed with light to medium weights to warm up the muscles. The middle set is the work set, and uses the heaviest weight possible. The last two sets are drop sets, and further fatigue the muscle with progressively lighter weights. This technique provides a combination of volume and intensity,


and is therefore popular with bodybuilders. However, the full pyramid may be too much for a beginner to handle, so it is only recommended for experienced trainers.

Burnouts Burnouts combine pyramids and drop sets, working up to higher weights with low reps and then back down to lower weights and high reps.

Diminishing set The diminishing set method is where a weight is chosen that can be lifted for 20 reps in one set, and then 70 repetitions are performed in as few sets as possible.

Rest-pause (heavy singles) Rest-pause heavy singles are performed at or near 1RM, with ten to twenty seconds of rest between each lift. The lift is repeated six to eight times. It is generally recommended to use this method infrequently.

Giant set The Giant set, is a form of training that targets one muscle group (e.g. the triceps) with four separate exercises performed in quick succession, often to failure and sometimes with the reduction of weight halfway through a set once muscle fatigue sets in. This form of intense training 'shocks' the muscles and as such, is usually performed by experienced trainers and should be used infrequently.

Combined sets Supersets

Supersets combine two or more exercises with similar motions to maximize the amount of work of an individual muscle or group of muscles. The exercises are performed with no rest period between the exercises. An example would be doing bench press, which predominantly works the pectoralis and triceps muscles, and then moving to an exercise that works just the triceps such as the triceps extension or the pushdown.

Push-pull supersets Push-pull supersets are similar to regular supersets, but exercises are chosen which work opposing muscle groups. This is especially popular when applied to arm exercises, for example by combining biceps curls with the triceps pushdown. Other examples include the shoulder press and lat pulldown combination, and the bench press and wide grip row combination.

Pre-exhaustion Pre-exhaustion combines an isolation exercise with a compound exercise for the same muscle group. The isolation exercise first exhausts the muscle group, and then the compound exercise uses the muscle group's supporting muscles to push it further than would otherwise be possible. For example, the triceps muscles normally help the pectorals perform their function. But in the "bench press" the weaker triceps often fails first, which limits the impact on the pectorals. By preceding the bench press with the pec fly, the pectorals can be pre-exhausted so that both muscles fail at the same time, and both benefit equally from the exercise.

Breakdowns Breakdowns were developed by Fred Hatfield and Mike Quinn to work the different types of muscle fibers for maximum stimulation. Three different


exercises that work the same muscle group are selected, and used for a superset. The first exercise uses a heavy weight (~85% of 1 rep max) for around five reps, the second a medium weight (~70% of 1 rep max) for around twelve reps, and finally the third exercise is performed with a light weight (~50% of 1 rep max) for twenty to thirty reps, or even lighter (~40% of 1 rep max) for forty or more reps. (Going to failure is discouraged.) The entire superset is performed three times.

Beyond failure Forced reps

Forced reps occur after momentary muscular failure. An assistant provides just enough help to get the weight trainer past the sticking point of the exercise, and allow further repetitions to be completed. Weight trainers often do this when they are spotting their exercise partner. With some exercises forced reps can be done without a training partner. For example, with one-arm biceps curls the other arm can be used to assist the arm that is being trained.

Cheat reps Cheating is a deliberate compromise of form to maximize reps. Cheating has the advantage that it can be done without a training partner, but compromises safety. A typical example of cheat reps occurs during biceps curls when, beginning with the load at the waist, the exerciser swings the barbell or dumbbell forward and up during the concentric phase utilizing momentum to assist his biceps muscles in moving the load to a shortened muscle position. Momentum assistance during the concentric phase allows him to move greater loads during the more difficult concentric phase. The objective can be to position greater loads of resistance to the biceps in preparation of performing the eccentric phase than the more difficult concentric phase would otherwise allow. Replacing a typical function of a training partner with a solo exerciser performing cheat reps facilitates forced reps or negative reps when training alone.

Rest-pause (post-failure) After a normal set of 6-8 reps (to failure), the weight is re-racked and the trainer takes 10-15 deep breaths, and then performs one more repetition. This process can be repeated for two further repetitions. The twenty-rep squat is another, similar approach, in that it follows a 12-15 rep set of squats with individual rest-pause reps, up to a total of 20 reps.

Weight stripping Weight stripping is a technique used after failure with a normal resistance in certain exercises, particularly with easily adjustable machines, whereby the weight trainer or a partner gradually reduces the resistance after a full set is taken to failure. With each reduction in resistance, as many possible reps are completed and the resistance is then reduced again. This is continued until the resistance is approximately half the original resistance.

Negative reps Negatives are performed with much heavier weights. Assistants lift the weight, and then the weight trainer attempts to resist its downward progress through an eccentric contraction. Alternatively, an individual can use an exercise machine for negatives by lifting the weight with both arms or legs, and then lowering it with


only one. Or they can simply lower weights more slowly than they lift them: for example, by taking two seconds to lift each weight and four seconds to lower it.

Partial reps Partial reps, as the name implies, involves movement through only part of the normal path of an exercise. Partial reps can be performed with heavier weights. Usually, only the easiest part of the repetition is attempted.

Burns Burns involve mixing partial reps into a set of full range reps in order to increase intensity. The partials can be performed at any part of the exercise movement, depending on what works best for the particular exercise. Also, the partials can either be added after the end of a set or in some alternating fashion with the full range reps. For example, after performing a set of biceps curls to failure, an individual would cheat the bar back to the most contracted position, and then perform several partial reps.

Other techniques Progressive movement training

Progressive movement training attempts to gradually increase the range of motion throughout a training cycle. The lifter will start with a much heavier weight than they could handle in the full range of motion, only moving through the last 3-5” of the movement. Throughout the training cycle, the lifter will gradually increase the range of motion until the joint moves through the full range of the exercise. This is a style that was made popular by Paul Anderson.

Super slow Super slow repetitions are performed with lighter weights. The lifting and lowering phases of each repetition take 10 seconds or more.

Timed rests By strictly controlling the rest periods between reps and sets a trainer can reduce their level of blood oxygenation, which helps to increase the stress on the muscles.


Using a wrist strap Wrist straps

Wrist straps (lifting straps) are sometimes used to assist in gripping very heavy weights. They are particularly useful for the deadlift. Some lifters avoid using wrist straps in order to develop their grip strength, just as some go further by using thick bars. Wrist straps can allow a lifter initially to use more weight than they might be able to handle safely for an entire set, as unlike simply holding a weight, if it is dropped then the lifter must descend with it or be pulled down. Straps place stress on the bones of the wrist which can be potentially harmful if excessive.


Chapter 11

Personal Trainer

A personal trainer is a person who helps people exercise. The scope of practice for a personal trainer is to enhance the components of fitness for the general, healthy population. The five classic components of fitness are muscular strength, muscular endurance, body composition, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility, although there are other subsets like power, skill, and speed. The general population is defined as an age range of 18 to about 50 (45 and younger for males, 55 and younger for females). The definition of healthy in this context means an absence of a disease that would affect one's ability to exercise. Anyone outside that scope of practice should be placed in a trainer's scope after a visit to the doctor to see what kind, if any, exercise they are capable of.

A personal trainer demonstrating proper use of a Bosu ball


In contrast to an athletic trainer (AT), a personal trainer may not have higher education in the health sciences, may not be required to obtain any particular kind of professional certification for purposes of the job, or may be "certified" by one of any number of organizations that only require minimal coursework or the most basic of competencies, and that is not recognized nationally or internationally. For athletic trainers, all must have at least a bachelor’s degree specifically in the athletic training health profession, must pass a comprehensive exam before earning the athletic training credential, must keep their knowledge and skills current by participating in continuing education in the field, and must adhere to the specific standards of professional practice set by one national certifying agency.

Job overview

Personal trainer assessing a client's goals and needs as they write a fitness program

Many personal trainers work through local fitness centers such as personal training studios and health clubs, assisting clients within the facility. Others may be available for sessions in a clients home, or serve as instructors for fitness classes. Trainers are generally needed to demonstrate various exercises and help clients improve their exercise techniques. Due to the more interpersonal contact between a trainer and a client versus a general gym setting, a trainer is more readily able to provide motivation and support to an individual in an exercise program, in addition to proper technical instruction. A trainer can keep records of their clients’ exercise sessions to help monitor progress, and may also advise their clients on how to modify their lifestyle outside of the gym to improve their fitness.


In the United States, stats show that by 2006 fitness workers in general were employed in about 235,000 jobs, with a portion of those being trainers. Almost all personal trainers and group exercise instructors worked in physical fitness facilities, health clubs, and fitness centers, mainly in the amusement and recreation industry or in civic and social organizations. One of the fastest-growing fields of fitness training is corporate fitness. Many large companies are beginning to offer corporate fitness packages for employees wishing to create or maintain a healthy exercise program. Personal trainers are now often going into offices to train office staff at their desks in their lunch breaks using tables and chairs as gym equipment.

Regulations and training

Trainers usually are advised to have certification before beginning work in a club or facility in the United States.

Most certifying organizations require candidates to have a high school diploma, be certified in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and automated external defibrillator (AED), and pass an exam. The type of fitness discipline will determine the level and amount of education and training that is needed.

Personal training outdoors

Training providers vary based on price and type of training. Many trainers either practice at a major health club chain or practice freelance, training at the client's home. Also, some trainers aspire to have their own studios and this is a rapidly growing sector which


gives the trainer a chance to maximize their income and downtime. In addition, personal training outdoors has seen a rise in popularity as personal trainers use the local environ-ment in creative ways to train their clients.

In Australia, personal trainers are required to be a member of a registering body such as Fitness Australia to gain insurance and work as a personal trainer. The minimum qualifications are Certificate III and Certificate IV in Personal Training. Many personal trainers also have additional qualifications in weight loss, strength training, kids fitness, and nutrition. Since the industry in Australia is self regulated, there are still unqualified trainers operating and calling themselves personal trainers. Consumers should always check the credentials of their personal trainer before beginning a program.

Personal training courses in Australia are conducted at universities, TAFE's and private training organizations. They range from short courses (6 weeks) through to 18 months and can be conducted face to face in small or large groups, and also via correspondence.


Chapter 12

How to Become a Personal Trainer

Personal training is one of the fastest growing careers today with very high job satis-faction levels. The U.S. Department of Labor is forecasting a 50% growth rate for the industry through the next decade.

Steps

1. Determine if personal training is right for you. Before you jump into a new career, make sure that you are a good match. Do you like helping others, do you mind working nights and weekends, are you a good listener? And most important, are you patient? And if you are planning on starting your own personal training business, you are going to need to have exceptional communication and motiv-ation skills.

2. Get certified! Choosing the right certification is important because most of your personal training education will come from the certification course you choose. Make sure you choose a program that covers the areas you are interested in. For example, if you want to work with kids, make sure your certification will qualify


you to work with this special group. Plan on spending $400-800 dollars on completing the program including materials. Many certifications have self-study online options which can save you money.

3. Choose a specialty. In order to grow your client base, it is helpful to specialize in an area. You can choose to work with special groups like athletes, children, senior citizens, and people with injuries. Each of these groups requires special handling so make sure you know what you are doing.

4. Get the job! Working at a gym is a great way to get experience. Finding clients is easy, you get a steady paycheck, and your liability insurance is provided by your employer. But work hard to prepare yourself to start your own business. That is where the money is.

5. Start your own business. Once you develop a loyal following of clients, you are ready to venture out on your own. Make sure you understand all the complexities of running a business like insurance, payroll and taxes.

Tips

• Remember to schedule time off for yourself when starting your business. Burnout is a real risk when you are just starting out.

• Create and follow a business plan prior to, and during your business year. • Remember that the professional organization you got your certification from will

require a specific yearly number of CECs (CEUs) to maintain your certification. Make sure you plan for the time and money it will take to complete these.

• Networking is key in this business, most of all when your are just starting out. Attending conferences and conventions is a great way to meet people, keep up with the latest fitness trends and research, and be able to really learn and see how others became successful. Plus, it's fun- a whole group of people who are as passionate about health, fitness, and physical activity as you. You'll leave feeling inspired.

Warnings

• Be careful to avoid disreputable certifications. A proper certification should require several months of preparation and a proctored exam. Avoid sites that offer quick certification for under $100. Do your research and check the organization's credentials to make sure that their certifications are recognized. Trace their name to one of the "big ones"- NASM, ACSM, ACE, NSCA, NAFT, IDEA.

• Working with special needs groups can increase your liability. Make sure you know what you are doing and have the proper insurance coverage.


Chapter 13

How to Become a Certified Personal Trainer

You have a love for fitness, a passion to help other people choose healthy lifestyles, and you enjoy working with a variety of personalities. That makes you a good fit to become a certified personal trainer. A certified personal trainer works one on one with a client to tailor an exercise plan specific to that client’s needs and to provide accountability and assistance before, during and in between workouts. Working as a certified personal trainer can be a rewarding and lucrative career, if you follow the right steps and work hard to please your clients.

Steps

1. Complete all prerequisites. o If you want to become a certified personal trainer, you don’t need a

college degree. However, you should be at least 18 years old, have a high school diploma or GED and have some familiarity with exercise science.

2. Assess your personal skills. o A certified personal trainer works with all types of people in many

different circumstances. One session, you may work to train a competitive athlete who lives for the sport. In your next session, you may work with someone who wants to lose weight but finds it hard to stay motivated. You need to have a repertoire to work with all types of clients and meet them where they are.

3. Obtain certification through a nationally recognized and accredited organiz-ation when you want to become a certified personal trainer.

o Certification proves that you have studied and are qualified to teach fitness classes and work as a personal trainer. Certification does cost money, and there are many options available, so take time to decide what certification is best for you. If you already know where you want to work, call and ask what certifications they prefer you have. If you don’t have your ideal job in mind, browse through the many certification options.

o The National Academy of Sports Medicine (NASM) offers a nationally accredited personal training certificate that’s highly reputable. NASM is the preferred certification organization for Gold’s Gym, Bally Total Fitness, 24Hour Fitness, Town Sports International and Lifetime Fitness.


4. Boost your credibility with a specialized certification if you desire. o A specialty certification, also known as a specialty cert, allows you to

charge a little bit more because you have specialty knowledge in that particular field. One example of a specialty certification option is the ACE Clinical Exercise Specialist certification.

o American Fitness Professionals and Associates allows you to obtain nutrition consultant certification, yoga instructor certification, Pilates instructor certification, weight management certification, children’s fitness certification and senior fitness certification.

5. Set up your own business or get a job with a fitness center. o If you work out of your home, you can woo your own clients and help

them at any facility. If you work at a fitness center, you’ll work exclu-sively with clients of that gym.

o If you want a position that’s outside of the box, consider working with corporate fitness, at a spa or even on a cruise ship.

6. Maintain your certification through continuing education. o Personal trainer certification isn’t a one time achievement; you must stay

up to date with the industry and enroll in continuing education opportu-nities to maintain your certification. Continuing education opportunities include classes, lectures, seminars and workshops dealing with personal training and exercise science.

7. Join a personal trainer organization to network with other trainers and to learn more about certification opportunities.

o Attending personal trainer summits can count towards your continuing education requirements, and it provides you with the opportunity to meet other personal trainers from across the country.

Tips

• CPR training isn’t required, but it is highly recommended if you want to become a certified personal trainer.


How to Choose a Personal Trainer

A trainer will teach you to use the equipment correctly

Hiring a personal trainer can help you make the most of your gym membership. A trainer can give you a well-rounded workout that will work every muscle group, and help you develop core strength as well. Another benefit to having a personal trainer is that you learn the correct way to use the machines and weights, and you will also learn many floor exercises.

Steps

1. Don't be in a hurry. You don't have to sign up for training sessions with the trainer who gives you your initial tour of the gym.

2. While you're using the gym, pay attention to the trainers who are working with their clients. Staring in a gym is rude, but if you are using a machine near a trainer and client you can hear how they interact and get an idea of how knowledgeable the trainer is.

3. Gym membership usually includes a free monthly training session. Use these to get acquainted with the different trainers in the gym.

4. Gel with your trainer. Personality matters. No matter how good a trainer is, if you don't get along with him you won't be happy. Some people want a drill sergeant, but others are intimidated by forceful trainers.

5. During your free monthly training sessions, interview the trainer. A good trainer will listen to you, find out what your goals are, and help you reach those goals.


Tips

•

Personality matters

Make sure that your trainer is certified. A good personal trainer goes through schooling to learn about nutrition, muscles, etc.

• If the trainer seems more interested in selling you supplements than helping you work out, get a different trainer.

• If you sign up for a number of sessions and find that you're not getting along with the trainer, ask the management if you can switch.

• Your personal trainer can't do his job if you don't do yours. Show up on time, bring a towel, bring your water. Between training sessions, do your workouts on your own as recommended. Don't expect to reach your goal without a lot of work and sweat.

Warnings

• If any exercise hurts, tell your trainer immediately. He should be able to give you alternatives that won't injure you.

• Always consult your physician before you start an exercise program.


Chapter 14

How to Be a Personal Trainer

Personal trainers are highly motivated individuals with an interest in guiding others toward fitness and good health. A good trainer will know how to leave you exhausted, sweaty and inspired--all at the same time. This isn't guesswork; a good trainer's tech-niques and methodology are backed by research and training. If you have a zest for helping people push themselves beyond what they thought they could do, you might have what it takes to be a personal trainer, too.


Steps

1. Get a personal training certification from a well-respected, nationally-recognized strength and conditioning organization. Examples include the American Council on Exercise, American College of Sports Medicine, the Nat-ional Academy of Sports Medicine and the National Strength and Conditioning Association. Although a certification isn't strictly necessary to be a good personal trainer, it's a good source of knowledge and training, will teach you best practices to help reduce your potential liability, and greatly enhances your credibility.

o Consult the various training programs for their certification requirements. Some require four-year or higher degrees; other programs simply require passing a test that demonstrates both practical and theoretical knowledge.

o Check local universities for personal training certification programs, too. 2. Get a basic CPR/First Aid certification if it wasn't included as part of your

personal trainer certification. Your local American Red Cross chapter is a good source of information about CPR classes in your area.

3. Work out regularly. In other words, practice what you preach. Clients are much more likely to trust a trainer that follows her own advice and has the results to prove it. The more practice you have under your belt, the more chances you have to see first-hand what works and what doesn't. And with sufficient practice, your knowledge of proper form and technique becomes second nature.

4. Train regularly. Word-of-mouth advertising from satisfied clients will help you get more clients. Contact local gyms to inquire about training in their facility. Local rehabilitation clinics are another potential source of clients and referrals. Often, clients who have finished with physical therapy still need guidance and encouragement to stay active, healthy and complete a full recovery. Ask clients to refer friends, distribute fliers to local weight-loss groups and put brochures up on public bulletin boards.

o Pay special attention to each client's individual needs. Some need careful, constant supervision; others may want to be educated so they can become self-sufficient exercisers. Make it standard policy to have a goal-setting session with each new client to make sure you're both working toward the same ultimate goal.

5. Continue your education. Even if the organization that certified you doesn't require continuing education, you should still keep current on the latest develop-ments in the cutting-edge field of sports science. Not only does this introduce you to new techniques that may be of benefit to your clients, it also means you're more likely to be able to answer your clients' questions, whether they come from honest curiosity or an urge to stump the trainer.

6. Study new modalities when the opportunity presents. The more, diverse experiences you have in the fitness field, the longer your list of qualifications gets and the better you'll be able to connect with like-minded clients. Study what interests you; Spinning, various types of yoga, CrossFit, Zumba and boot camp workouts are just a few examples of specialties you can explore.


How to Choose a Personal Trainer in Singapore

The fitness industry in Singapore has no governing body that regulates personal trainer certifications. So how do you spot the 'real deal' personal trainers from the 'fly by night' personal trainers who gets certified just by attending a weekend personal trainer certific-ation seminar?

Singapore personal trainers comprise mostly of part-time freelancers who already has day jobs not related to the fitness industry. Prevent yourself from getting ripped off by educating yourself first.

Steps

1. Find a personal trainer who performs some form of movement screening to assess posture before designing your workout program. The trainer needs to measure your body fat and girth measurements for the purpose of progress tracking

2. Ensure that the Personal Trainer is certified, meaning they would have certificate from various service provider such as ACE, ACSM and FISAF. Fitness Instructor Certificate IS NOT A PERSONAL TRAINER CERTI-FICATE. Fitness Instructor Certificate is just on general fitness which implement more as a Floor trainer in Gym.

3. Have an assessment. A thorough health assessment needs to be done whether by a physician or by the trainer (provided he or she is well trained).

4. Decide if this trainer is someone you can work with. 5. Ask for references from the trainer's previous clients. Use these to check if

they are happy with the trainer's services. 6. Find out what the trainer's charges are. Rates will vary from trainer to trainer.

Tips

• Ask for the total number of hours the personal trainer have clocked in training clients as opposed to number of years; and also total number of clients

• A reliable personal trainer should have enough compelling testimonials from current/past clients.

• Before and after pictures, video or audio recorded testimonials is the best. • To see if he is versatile, request for a free trial session at home or at the park

where there would be no equipment used. He would have to adapt to the situation and think of ways to design a complete total body workout.

Warnings

• Only hire a personal trainer when you have done enough ground work and checks of your potential trainer.

• Play it safe by hiring one that has a 100% money back guarantee.


• Read the terms and conditions before signing up. • In Singapore, certification is not a good indicator of hiring a fitness professional.


Chapter 15

How to Make Right Eating Choices and Avoid Fatty Foods

One of the most known facts in the weight loss program is losing weight through making the right eating choice. Avoiding those fatty foods could do wonders to your body. One should not forget that it is important to plan a proper diet chart in order to get rid of those extra kilos. As such it also becomes important to understand the difference between starvation and controlled food intake. Having 6 to 7 small meals instead of 3 big ones is often recommended. As Marsha Siegel said, “Eat six small meals a day and lose weight.” By opting for big meals instead of small, a person can tend to over eat. The fear of not getting the food for longer gap makes the person consume more food than the normal one.

Steps

1. Realize that you can skip cheese and fried food and still find the food tasty and enjoy it. Processed food should be avoided as far as possible. Processed food is devoid of real nutrition required for the body. One must also avoid all wrong stuff like chips, pizza, etc. This will help reduce cravings.

2. Include raw food in your diet plan. This is an interesting step towards avoiding the extra oil used while cooking. You could even try to kick off the calories by consuming a good amount of water. It helps in flushing out the toxins from the body. This further helps in burning out calories.

3. Try and substitute a good amount of fruits and vegetables instead of junk food. Food filled with fiber should be included in the diet; it helps in the process of digestion. Healthy eating is healthy living. If you must indulge in junk food, then try to have a small portion of it. By doing this, you can eat your favorite food without feeling guilty.

4. Understand the difference between a good fat and a bad fat. Try to maintain the balance with both good and bad food. A balanced eating habit along with a few hours of workout session could do wonders.

5. Keep in mind is to eat treats in small quantities just to tantalize the taste buds. Plan out a balanced food chart on the basis of health and nutrition. This could be an important step towards keeping a check on that extra dip of cheese and remaining healthy for the rest of life.


How to Eat Healthy

There are many popular diets on the market today, but most of them are unhealthy and sometimes even dangerous. This will explain how to eat a healthy, balanced diet for life and avoid unhealthy diets.


Steps

1.

Determine how many calories your body needs to function each day. This number can vary wildly, depending upon your metabolism and how phy-sically active you are. If you're the kind of person who puts on 10 pounds just smelling a slice of pizza, then your daily caloric intake should stay around 2000 calories for men, and 1500 calories for women. Your body mass also plays a part in this: More calories are suitable for naturally bigger people, and fewer calories for smaller people. If you're the kind of person who can eat without putting on a pound, or you're physically active, you may want to increase your daily caloric intake by 1000-2000 calories, a little less for women. Also consider that the more muscle mass you have, the more calories you need to function. The bad fats are saturated and trans fat. Someone on a 2000 calorie diet should consume less than 20 grams of saturated fat a day, and trans fat can and should be avoided all together. The good fats are plain fat, which you should eat about 30% of your calories in, and poly- and monounsaturated fats.

2.


Don't fear fatty foods. You need to consume fat from foods for your body to function correctly. However, it's important to choose the right kinds of fats: Most animal fats and some vegetable oils are high in the kind of fats that raise your LDL cholesterol levels; the bad cholesterol. Contrary to popular belief, eating cholesterol doesn't necessarily raise the amount of cholesterol in your body. If you give your body the right tools, it will flush excess cholesterol from your body. Those tools are monounsaturated fatty acids, which you should try to consume regularly. These are the good fats, and they help lower the bad cholesterol in your body by raising the good cholesterol. Foods that are high in monounsaturated fatty acids are olive oil, nuts, fish oil, and various seed oils. Adding these "good" fats to your weekly diet can lower your cholesterol and reduce your risk of heart disease. Consider sautéing vegetables in small amounts of olive oil, and grabbing a hand-full of mixed nuts for a snack instead of a candy bar. There are also various supplements that contain these good fats that you can take daily.

3.


Carbohydrates are important. You need to eat foods high in carbs since they are your body's main source of energy. The trick is to choose the right carbs. Simple carbs like sugar and processed flour are quickly absorbed by the body's digestive system. This causes a kind of carb overload, and your body releases huge amounts of insulin to combat the overload. Not only is the excess insulin bad on your heart, but it encourages weight gain. Insulin is the main hormone in your body responsible for fat storage. Eat plenty of carbs, but eat carbs that are slowly digested by the body like whole grain flour, hearty vegetables, oats, and unprocessed grains like brown rice. These kinds of food not only contain complex carbs that are slowly digested by the body, but are usually higher in vitamins and other nutrients that are beneficial to the body and they are higher in fiber which keeps your digestive system running smoothly.

4. Eat larger meals early in the day. Your metabolism slows down towards the end of the evening and is less efficient at digesting foods. That means more of the energy stored in the food will be stored as fat and your body won't absorb as many nutrients from the meal. Many American families tend to have their big meal at dinner time. The problem with this is your day is basically over, and your body's need for energy isn't as great as it is early in the day. This large meal, late in the day, can also make you feel tired, and who wants to feel too tired to have fun now that the workday is over? Try eating a medium-sized meal for breakfast, a large meal for lunch, and a small meal for dinner. Better yet, try eating 4-6 small meals over the course of your day. That keeps your body fueled for the whole day without dumping a large amount of food into your stomach, which your body might have a hard time digesting.


5. Don't skip breakfast! Many people do because they don't feel they need to eat breakfast, or they just don't feel hungry first thing in the morning. Research shows that people who skip breakfast are usually fatter than those who eat a well balanced breakfast. Although you might not feel hungry first thing in the morning, if you skip breakfast you will feel extra hungry come lunch time, making you more prone to overeating for your afternoon meal. In addition, skipping breakfast makes your body think that you are starving. After all, by lunch time, you may not have eaten in almost eighteen hours. For the rest of the day after you skip breakfast, your body will store up most of the energy you get from food, instead of allowing you to burn it, in anticipation of food scarcity. Not only will this cause you to be tired during the day when your body isn't using the food that you ate, but the extra energy stored up will result in weight gain.

6.

Heat Retentive Plate

Make eating fun. Avoiding simple carbs and fatty foods doesn't need to be boring. Have fun not only with the food, but with the meal. Eating with family and friends makes the meal more satisfying than eating in front of the TV or in the car on the way home from work. You will also eat more slowly when enjoying your meal, which gives your body time to feel full before you burst a button; your brain needs about 20 minutes to get the signal that you are satisfied (To be More precise: It is a region in the brain called the hypothalamus), if you eat too fast you will overeat, your stomach will get bloated and you will still feel hungry. There are now on the market a new type of "plates for eating slowly" that keep your food warm while you enjoy, these totally new ceramic "heat retentive plates" remain hot for more than 30 minutes to keep food warm and can be handled safely with the bare hands. There are also more creative cooking resources available to us than ever before. You can find great tasting recipes in magazines, books, and right here on the Internet. Eating baked fish three or four times a week can get boring, so do a


little recipe hunting to find more exciting ways to prepare your meals. If you make of eating slowly a pleasant experience you will acquire an habit that prevents overeating and obesity

7. Buy non-fat or reduced fat foods. This is done not to avoid getting fat, because eating fat will not make you fat. And it's not about eating fewer calories. It's about control. Control what kinds of fats you put in your body. For instance, olive oil has many health benefits, so buy non-fat or reduced fat salad dressing and add a table spoon of olive oil to the jar. You'll have a salad dressing that tastes great, and is also better for your health. So buy the non-fat foods so you can replace the missing fat with "good" fats. Reme-mber, you do need to eat a moderate amount of fat each day. Fat is something that can be very deceiving. For example, if you're trying to lose weight, you're going to look for food with low fat content. However, there are some foods that have good fats. These fats are monounsaturated fat and polyunsaturated fat. These fats add calories from fat, and so does trans fat and saturated fat, so they combine, which can be confusing. It's important to look at the saturated and trans fat content. If you see 20 calories from fat on the label, but 0g of trans fat and saturated fat, that means that there is polyunsaturated fat and/or monounsaturated fat. Polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat are good for you. They protect your heart and increase 'good' cholesterol. It's good to have enough good fats, but all good things have to come to an end. Also make sure to keep in mind that sometimes it can read 0g of trans fats on the label, but can still have trans fats. Take a look at the ingredients list; if it says, "partially hydrogenated" anything, that means it contains trans fat.

8. Give yourself a cheat meal. Cheating doesn't mean pigging out on all the wrong foods once a week, it means enjoying a food you really love once a week. Have a couple slices of greasy pizza on Sundays, or a big slice of double chocolate cake on Saturdays. This cheat meal will help you stick to the change in diet, and in some ways it's actually good for your body. Special occasions, such as birthdays in the family, count as cheat meals.

9. Give up alcohol. The negatives of alcohol outweigh the positives. Don't be fooled by advertiser's claims that a glass of wine is healthy for the body. You can get all the benefits of wine with out any of the negatives from "grape seed extract". Even drinking a glass of 100% grape juice gives you more benefits than a glass of wine. (Although, both juice and alcohol contain excess sugar.) If you are serious about optimal health, you need to give up alcohol.

10. If you feel tempted to eat fatty snacks like chips, once you start eating the bag, it's going to be easy to give in. Do not buy them in the first place, and do not start eating it if others are serving chip, and you'll soon forget about those chips in the store and concentrate on other things.

11. Acquire the habit of eating slowly; it will get you satisfied with less calories and will prevent overeating and obesity with all its consequences.


12. Reduce sugar Check the label on food for the amount of sugar they contain. If it's not a raw food and has more than 5 grams of sugar in a serving, don't eat it. Refined sugar has little to no benefit to you body. When you crave something sweet, reach for a piece of fresh fruit, your body will thank you for it.

13. Drink plenty of water. It helps eliminate toxins more efficiently, makes your feel more alive and energized, does wonders for you skin and makes you feel fuller so you end up eating less! also drink less soda that will help

Tips

• Eating healthy will give you some health benefits, but you won't achieve the full benefits possible unless you exercise. Exercising doesn't have to be hard, and you don't even have to break a sweat. Just go for a short 30 minute walk four times a week will greatly improve your health. Start out slowly, if you must.

• Eat slowly as part of any weight loss plan or eating healthy plan; it helps digestion, prevents overeating and obesity.

• If you consume more calories than your body needs each day, your body will store the excess energy as fat. This is a mistake that many people make when it comes to weight loss. Regardless of how much you exercise, overeating will lead to weight gain. In industrialized countries, that excess body fat is unnecessary. We are no longer hunter/gatherers. Your next meal is as close as your local grocery store (assuming you are living in the city or the suburb) and we don't need extra energy stores to hold us over till the next meal.

• Use extra virgin olive oil when cooking. It's purer, and is better for your heart than other kinds of olive oil. The darker the better. Furthermore, "light" olive oil has as many Calories as extra virgin olive oil -- the "light" refers to the color and flavor intensity. Unfortunately, though, using extra virgin olive oil when cooking at higher temperatures ruins the flavors that make it "extra virgin". Soybean and canola oils are not very good contrary to previous belief. They actually stimulate fat production and storage.

• Consider eating leafy greens like Kale, Collard Greens, Mustard Greens and Swiss Chard. They are packed with nutrients and will fill you up very quickly. A simple sautee with olive oil, garlic, a little salt and pepper and you have a surpri-singly tasty meal that is very nutritious.

• This takes patience. You won't see a drastic drop in your cholesterol level or weight or increase in your energy level immediately. You need to give the changes in diet some time to kick in. You may start to notice changes a couple weeks later.

• Check out spices like Turmeric, Cardamom, Cumin and Cayenne. Studies say these have great antioxidant properties (especially in the liver) and the heat will get your heart rate up and metabolism going.

• Have a positive and upbeat attitude. If you start your new diet thinking, "This is something I have to do," instead of, "This is something I want to do," then you've already failed before you started.


• Adding whole, unrefined grains to the diet can add valuable vitamins and mine-rals that would otherwise be lost. However it can completely upset our digestion as well. Many animals that eat grains have 4 stomachs they use to digest them adequately, and ferment them so they can uptake nutrients. Humans have only one stomach, and if you introduce grains without first fermenting or sprouting them you may experience digestive upsets. There are various anti nutrients in grains (like phytic acid) and enzyme inhibitors that will prevent mineral absorption and lead to deficiencies and digestive problems. To remedy this, take oatmeal and soak it the night before in a little bit of yogurt. This will make it taste slightly sour, but make it more digestible. Sourdough bread is also another good example.

•

Lettuce is a great choice of natural fiber, and can taste great with the proper healthy dressings. You can make a great salad with nuts, raisins, and whole wheat croutons. Mix it in a bowl so it's evenly distributed and place it on top of a salad. Use a sugar free and low carb balsamic dressing; it has less than 1 gram of carbohydrates and 0 Calories. The head of lettuce is 21 Calories, plus the nuts and raisins and whole wheat croutons which could range depending on size but for this example we will estimate 100 Calories, bringing you a very low calorie and filling meal for only 120 Calories.


• Choose wheat (brown) bread instead of white bread. Processed carbohydrates such as those found in white bread are harder to draw nutrients from, and therefore are seen as empty Calories.

• Smoothies are great for breakfast. Combine the following in a blender or food processor:

o banana o 4 medium-size strawberries o 1/2 cup of skim milk or soy milk

• For protein, try substituting beans for higher calorie foods like boneless skinless chicken breasts, or tuna. Not only will you be getting additional phytochemicals from the plant based protein, it will not have the harmful saturated fat content. Remember that even an orange has more than 5% of its calories from protein!

• Non-fat yogurt can make a great snack, and its healthy bacteria can help with various stomach problems.

• Carry water with you at all times. Try to drink water in place of soft drinks and other flavored beverages. A good rule of thumb is to drink half your body weight in ounces per day.

• Consider eating organic. Organic food isn't made with the use of a lot of harmful chemicals, or other harmful processes. Not only is organic food good for you, but it is sustainable and good for the environment too! Other foods can be extremely harmful to the environment.

• Read the labels on everything you eat. Don't just buy something because it is marketed as being "healthy." Lots of companies trying to sell their food off as healthy when really it is full of high fructose corn syrup, hydrogenated oils, trans fats, and hidden sugars. This is also the best way to learn about a product. It gives you almost all the information about that product you'll ever need. If you're trying to lose weight, try to choose foods with low calories. If you want to gain weight for a football team or some such reason, you are going to choose food with lots of calories. However, too many calories, not enough exercise, and eating too much at one time, can make you fat.

• Avoid processed foods. They are unnatural so are more difficult for your body to break down which means they will lie in your gut making you feel bloated and lathargic. Eat things which are not messed with such as raw fruits and vegetables, brown rice, whole-wheat pasta and so on.

• Avoid diet soft-drinks and other products containing artificial sweeteners (such as light yogurt). The artificial sweeteners are much worse for you than real sugar. If you can't give them up, make the real thing a very occasional treat. Look at the ingredients list and avoid anything with aspartame.

• Seek solace in the fact that once you are used to eating fresh, healthy food you'll really begin to like it. You will stop craving cookies, chips, fries - everything that was damaging your body to begin with.

• Eat before you shop so you can focus on your grocery list without having any unnecessary cravings.


Warnings

• There is a vibrant debate in health circles about whether organic food is healthier. Some believe that the chemicals in conventional foods are just as safe and healthy as the expensive organic alternatives. Organic food advocates would argue the opposite. Everyone agrees that organic options have just as many calories as non-organic options. So even if it is organic, make sure you pay attention to your calorie intake.

• You should always consult your doctor before making drastic changes to your diet and your lifestyle.

• Excess body fat is hard on your body. It's hard on your heart because it needs to work extra hard to push blood through your larger body. Your body builds extra veins that run through the extra body fat and has to work harder to push blood through those veins.

• Excess body weight is also hard on your muscles and joints. Carrying around extra weight puts more pressure on your knees, hips, and back. While this might not have a huge effect in your youth, you will feel it as you get older.

• Any drastic change in your diet can cause constipation, so make sure you eat a lot of dark green leafy vegetables, and other naturally high fiber foods. Your dige-stive system will typically adjust after a week or two, but you should consult your doctor if it continues. (Other good sources of fiber include: flax seed, psyllium, whole grains, fruits and vegetables, and beans!-- Remember, you can always look at the nutrition facts to see the daily percentage of fiber given in different foods. For fresh, unpackaged foods, you can look up nutrition facts online; although, it usually won't ever hurt you to eat fresh, unpackaged fruits and veggies!)

• Make sure there isn't a lot of unhealthy food in your house that can tempt you. Give or throw away the foods you shouldn't eat. You can't eat what you don't buy!

• Please do not underfeed yourself. Even if you have extra body fat, do not let yourself go hungry. That is worse than being fat. Eating the right food and exercising daily is a much better way to lose weight!

• Don't ever under-eat. Going hungry or skipping meals will actually make you put on weight. Your body will think you're experiencing famine so will hoard all the fats you ingest to see you through a time of little food. This will make you feel lathargic, depressed and listless.

• Diets don't work. Don't think you can just eat well for a few months then go back to a diet of junk food and expect to stay slim and healthy for the rest of your life. You need to completely revolutionize your lifestyle. It's hard work but it's worth it.


Chapter 16

How to Train Your Body

You want to train your body but you don't have any idea of what to do, or you want some tips? Let me try to give you some basic tips and exercises you can try out.

(You may want to consult your doctor before you do any exercises.)


Steps

1.

Make sure you have time to workout

2.

Make sure to drink some water during the workout


3.

Always warm up for 5-10 minutes with some light exercises, like "jumping jacks". If you want to train outdoors, you can just take a jog. Jogging is THE most basic and probably best exercises you can do. It does not build muscles in the upper body, but it strengthen your legs, your stamina, your overall health! So it's great for people who wants to begin training, to just start with jogging for a week or two before starting to do any other exercises. You can either jog every day or less but to get some fast progress, you should jog at least 3 times a week. It costs no money to jog.

4.

Do some push-ups. Push-ups are, (like jogging), a very simple and good exercise that require no equipment. It trains your chest, your arms, your abs and torso.

5.


Add sit-ups to your regimen. Sit-up is a very basic abdominal exercise. It comes in many variation. doing 100 every day (not necessarily 100 sit-ups continuous) will give you some results, most likely.

6.


your legs are the foundation of your body, so its important to train your legs properly. so the simplest option for training for training your legs is jogging. if you cant jog because there is traffic or something, you can just jump up and down. there is a good technique on youtube if you search for "monkey jump" (kung fu)if you have a stationary bike, it is a very good for your legs.

7.


it is important to remember to train the back. the "superman" exercise is very good for your back. so is the "cat and camel" exercise.

8.

Try "bicep curls" if you would like larger biceps. They are very effective for your arms.


9. Know what to train. Here are the main areas on the body to train: legs, abs, chest, back, shoulders and arms. You can use youtube to find some other exercises than mentioned above to train each area.

10.

Take a break. Resting is as important as training, in fact when you rest your muscles are growing.

11.

remember to stretch your muscles after working out. hold for at least 15 secounds, and if you want to get more flexible hold for a minute and a half


Tips

• Be moderate at the start, get the techniques right first. • Don't compare yourself with others. everybody has been new beginners once! • Train regular. results don't come over night, but over time. • Train with others or with music, it is more motivating. • To best burn fat, you should do a light exercises for a 15-30 minutes, that's cardio

workout. • Eat healthy food like fish, fruits and vegetables. not pills or shakes. eat less candy

and snacks. • find out if you want to get strong, be fast, have more endurance, if you are

training for a spesiffic sport or if you just want to get more slim and healthy, and set your goals after that.

How to Stay Fit at Home

You dont even need to go to a gym! You can do alot of fit things at your own house! Just take out a hula hoop or skiping rope and there you are staying fit. What’s not staying fit is watching family guy all day or playing computer games.


Steps

1. Look around and see all the exercise that we could be getting right at home. However, we first need to reset our minds, in to getting back to our daily lives - instead of focusing on going to the Gym, or spending money on costly exercise equipment.

2. While we are working on changing the way that we think, it is important that we all realize the importance of how we eat. Although there are so many new studies that tell us something different everyday about food, we can figure some things out for ourselves, and find a plan that works for each of us as individuals.

3. Realize that it is crazy the way that TV portrays things, like someone that wears a size ten, gets down to a size one...like a size ten was too big, Not! Then to top it off shows us someone claiming to be in a size one, when it is obvious they are much bigger. But naturally, that will get blamed on saying TV adds (ten to fifteen) pounds on you; and if that's the case, then some people on TV look like spaghetti noodles. Plus if that's the case, well some of the Movie Stars that are claiming to be over weight aren't, it's just TV...if they stayed off TV (they would look thinner); therefore, they would lose weight automatically...and a career.

4. Now that we are done resetting our minds lets look at simple (good old fashion) home chores to stay fit; such as sweeping the porch, pulling weeds by hand, trimming hedges, wiping down the counter tops in the kitchen, taking down curtains and washing them, feather dusting the walls, dusting and polishing furniture. There is always something to do around the house that will keep you fit; thus you'll have a clean environment in which to live... plus you'll stay healthy and looking good.

5. Now since you are already working out, why not take time out from chores and hop on an exercise bike to take yourself for a ride; then later while relaxing (in front of the tube) do a few simple curls with a small dumb bell...while being proud of all that you accomplished in a days time.

6. If you're video-game savvy and enjoy dance games, then why not buy DDR (Dance Dance Revolution) or purchase a Wii and Wii Fit? This method is one of the simplest ways to lose weight. Usually, most people tend to enjoy their weight loss experience instead of it being detrimental and periodic routine.

7. If you are hyper and bored and stuck at home, jump around the house. Literally hop. Anything that causes you to sweat will help you turn body fat into muscle or just burn it off.

8. Don't forget, if hopping seems strange or boring, add a hula hoop or jump rope! The hula hoop will work your abs & hips, the jump rope is great for cardio. All you need is 15 minutes, but 20 to 30 minutes once a day will really get your heart rate up and those calories burning! After dont eat alot of food with calories

Tips

• Be sure to stay focused on that old saying that "you are what you eat" find a food plan that works for you...in time it will become a way of life for you...you'll learn to love the self-control and improvements that you have made.


• You can spend a lot of money on staying fit or stay busy improving your living environment...while staying fit at the same time...it is up to you.

• Keep in mind that movement is exercising, such as when you are wiping down a counter top...your hand and arm should be moving in a circular directions...which helps to keep them arms in shape...add a few basic arm movements in with it, and you are on your way (to having toned arms).

• You have probably heard or may hear someone say that they walk a lot; then somebody else will come along and say that it is not the right type of walking that they are doing, in which don't make a whole lot of sense...it is common know-ledge that (walking is still putting one foot in front of the other) that is unless there is a new way of walking that just hasn't been heard of yet.

• When away from home, park your car a distance from where that you need to go, such as the grocery store, etc., each step is in the right direction to staying fit.

• In this Huge World that we live in there is plenty of room for all shapes and sizes of people; but at the same time, living as healthy as we can will make our time here all the better.

• Try eating less fat and sugar & try running. • listening to music will help exercise • If you have a Wii, try to purchase the 'my fitness coach' game. It supplies you

with a personal fitness coach and allows you to moniter how much calories you are burning while completing the cardio excersises. when exercising make sure you dont eat.

Warnings

• Don't get too tied-up at staying home, get out and enjoy life too...keeping a balance will build a better happier you.

• People should not have to live thinking about exercising all the time, relax sometimes for that is a healthy thing to do...and you still burn calories...just at a slower pace.

• Stay active. Don't just stay home all day eating fatty food, playing video games, and staying on the computer


Chapter 17

How to Develop Healthy Eating Habits

We all realize that we have to eat to live, but too little of the right kinds of food can lead to poor health. Here are some tips to help develop more healthy eating habits:

Steps

1. Schedule three meals a day into your routine. It's important to be nourished adequately throughout the day to prevent fatigue and to perform at an optimal level.

2. Eat a healthy breakfast. Include grains and fruits. Try a high-fiber cereal with low fat milk and sliced bananas.

3. Eating small frequent meals can be less taxing on your digestive system. 4. Snack between meals to curb your appetite and provide a little energy. Try a

piece of fruit or a few crackers with peanut butter. 5. Do not let yourself become so hungry as to overeat at mealtime. Overeating

burdens your digestive system. 6. Drinking water or having a small bowl of soup before meals may keep you

from overeating at your meal. 7. Eat slowly and chew your food thoroughly to aid in your digestion. Take time

to savor your food. 8. Obtain protein from a less complicated source, such as nuts, legumes, grains

and sprouts. 9. Choose low fat dairy products, lean white meats or wild fish if animal

products are desired.


10. Combine vegetables and grains with a small amount of protein for a syner-gistic effect.

11. Choose a variety of whole grain products to include millet, barley and buck-wheat.

12. Choose a variety of fruits and vegetables that are deep in color, such as the dark orange of a carrot or the deep green of spinach. They contain more nutrients.

13. Choose organic products to eliminate chemical exposure. Chemicals are harm-ful to overall health.

14. Avoid processed food as it contains ingredients that have been changed from their natural state. These unnatural foods are difficult for your body to assi-milate.

15. Choose sea salt as it is equivalent in nature to the salt within your body. It is very cleansing. Refined salt causes fluid retention and increased blood pressure.

16. Eliminate sugars or choose an unrefined sugar, such as turbinado or honey. 17. Drink plenty of clean water to aid in flushing toxins and the waste products

of natural cell metabolism. 18. Gradually wean from large portions to achieve a healthy weight. 19. Eat less in the evening if you are no longer exercising throughout the rema-

inder of the day. 20. Use moderation when developing new eating habits. The important thing is to

develop a plan that you'll find easy to accomplish and easy to maintain. 21. Keep a positive attitude focusing on long term results. 22. Eat at least one nutritious meal per day with your family to encourage their

good eating habits.

Tips

• Research several different kinds of diets focusing on the health and longevity of other cultures.

• If you are eating sensibly, but unable to maintain your health, see a physician for further testing.

• A personal trainer can determine a more appropriate diet and exercise plan based upon your body type and future goals.

• Take your time losing weight. Work to maintain your weight loss as well as your health.

• A steady exercise program can speed weight loss, but be sure it is reasonable to maintain.

• It may be healthier to be overweight than to have constant fluctuations in weight. • Treat yourself to an occasional descretion, such as a piece of chocolate. • Restaurants are known to carry refined salt and processed foods. • The FDA recommends 0-2 servings of meat per day. • Eat a gram of protein for every pound you weigh to maintain your weight.


Chapter 18

How to Use Gym Equipment

Fitness centers have a wide variety of equipment for members to use, from weight machines to medicine balls. If you haven't used the equipment before, the thought of using it incorrectly, especially when other people may be watching, is intimidating. It may not be possible to find an employee to provide assistance, forcing you to decide between trying unfamiliar equipment or leaving without completing a workout.

Steps

Using Weight Machines

1. Look for instructions. Most machines have a short set of instructions and illustration affixed to them.

2. Find the adjustments. The machines' seats and benches adjust to the height of the user, and you can adjust moving parts to accommodate your leg or arm length.


3. Adjust the machine so your joints line up with the pivot points of the machines, your legs (if sitting) are flat on the floor, and the pads rest com-fortably against your limbs.

4. Choose a weight that's not too heavy, so you don't run the risk of injuring yourself if you find you can't complete a repetition. If you can complete ten repetitions easily, choose a slightly heavier weight.

5. Lift the weights slowly, concentrating on keeping the proper form and exhaling during the lift. Don't adjust your position to lift the weight because you will not get the full benefit of the machine, and you may injure yourself.

6. Avoid letting the weight clang against the rest of the stack at the end of the repetition, because this annoys others.

7. Wipe your sweat off the machine with your gym towel before leaving it.

Lifting Free Weights

1. Watch yourself in the mirror. Because you don't have a weight machine to help you maintain the proper form, you have to pay careful attention to how you lift the weight.

2. Resist the urge to jerk the weight to "get it started." If you can't lift and lower the weight slowly and smoothly, choose a lighter weight.

3. Work with a spotter if you're going to lift heavy weights. If you can't complete the last couple of repetitions, you could find yourself trapped under a barbell or straining your muscles in an attempt to maintain control. A spotter will help you lift the weight safely so you can finish your set. You can often ask another member to spot you in return for being his or her spotter.

4. Add weight to barbells or dumbbells without clanging the plates together. Make sure you have the same weight on each side and that they're secured with collars.

5. Rack the weights when you're done. Both dumbbells and plates are racked in order of weight.

6. Dry your sweat from the bench when you're done.

Working on Aerobic (Cardio) Machines

1. Read the instructions carefully. 2. Ensure you know how to turn the machine off quickly if you run into trouble.

Most aerobic machines will stop when you stop, but some, such as a treadmill, will not.

3. Start slowly and increase your speed once you're comfortable with the movement.

4. Resist the temptation to talk to the person next to you. Most people play music, watch TV or just listen to the sound of their breathing while they use an aerobic machine. Talk is distracting.

5. Decrease speed over several minutes at the end of your workout to allow your body time to cool down. If you stop suddenly, you may lose your balance when you get off the machine.


6. Use your gym towel to clean your sweat off the machine. 7. Limit your workout to 30 minutes if all the machines are in use, other

members are waiting to use a machine or if the fitness center is crowded.

Tips

• Ask if you can schedule time with a trainer to teach you to use the equipment in the gym. A trainer will explain the purpose of each machine, show you how to adjust it properly and walk you through the movements so you can get the most from each machine. A trainer will also explain the aerobic machines as well as other equipment, such as medicine balls and stretching apparatuses.

Warnings

• Don't get into competitions with other members, trying to lift more weight or set your treadmill for a faster speed. Not only will you compromise your own workout, but you may injure yourself. You will also annoy the other members.


Chapter 19

How to Build Lower Abs

The network of muscles that make up the lower abdominals — the rectus abdominus, transverse abdominus and oblique muscles — must all be properly worked to achieve trim lower abs. Lower abdominal muscles that are in shape help to promote good posture and support back health. While the upper abdominals are relatively easy to exercise, the lower abs offer a challenge. It is more difficult to see the results of consistent lower abdominal exercise because the abs are positioned under layers of fat. Use the inform-ation here to effectively combine proper nutrition, regular cardio workouts and specific lower abdominal exercises to achieve your fitness goals.

Steps

1. Understand the types of abdominal muscles: o The rectus abdominus are the muscles that extend from the ribcage to the

pelvic region and include both upper and lower abdominals. o The rectus abdominus are the ab muscles that are the most noticeable

when well-defined. o The muscles that surround the abdominal region are the transverse abdo-

minus muscles. o The transverse abdominus muscles are the deepest muscle fibers in the

abdomen. o The internal and external oblique muscles are found on the sides of the

abdominal region. 2. Expect to target all of these abdominal muscle groups to build lower abs

properly. 3. Build lower abs with proper nutrition and regular exercise.

o Choose foods low in fat as you build lower abs. o The fatty area that surrounds your abdomen covers the lower abdominal

muscles and is the first place new fat accumulates. Adjust your diet to exclude excessively fatty foods and concentrate on a low-fat diet to deter fat accumulation in the abdominal region.

4. Couple a proper low-fat diet with a regular cardio exercise regimen to burn away fat from the abdominals.

o Diet alone will not build lower abs. You must participate in low or high impact aerobic activity to melt away the fat that covers the lower abs.


5. Perform exercises that target the muscles of the lower abdominals, as regular crunches do not effectively work the lower abdominal region.

o A lying leg lift uses your body resistance to work the lower abdominal muscles. Lay flat on a mat with your legs straight and your arms parallel to your body, palms down. Slowly use the muscles in the lower abs to raise your straightened legs to a 45 degree angle and hold for 15 seconds. Lower the legs and repeat for 10 reps.

o Try a series of reverse crunches to build lower abs. Lay flat on a mat and rest your arms parallel to the floor, palms down. Raise your legs off of the floor in a bent knee position. Use the strength of the lower abdominals to bring the knees close to the chest. In a slow, controlled movement, use the strength of the lower abdominals to bring the knees close to the chest. Slowly release to the starting position and repeat for 10 to 15 reps.

Tips

• Seek the advice and guidance of an experienced fitness trainer who can tailor a well-rounded workout to meet your specific lower abdominal needs.

• Combine the reverse crunch with a regular crunch for a complete abdominal workout.

• To protect your lower back during floor exercise that targets the lower abs, make a triangle with your hands and place the hands under the small of your back for extra back support.

Warnings

• Stop floor exercises if you experience pain or excessive discomfort in your back. • Always stretch before and after you work your lower abdominals to warm up the

muscles properly and to relax the muscles after a workout.


How to Build Muscle

Your body builds muscle naturally in response to strenuous activity. But if your daily routine doesn't involve challenging your muscles to grow, how do you trigger the muscle-building process? It doesn't happen overnight (as any bodybuilder can tell you) but you'll be well on your way to "bulking up" if you follow these steps consistently.

Steps

1. Develop a program. Decide which exercises you'll do on which days. Some exercises focus on a specific muscle (e.g. bicep curl) while other exercises call upon several muscles at once (e.g. squat). The important thing is to make sure each muscle gets a chance to rest for at least a full day before using it again. For example, you can do a full-body weight training routine every other day (with cardio in between, if you want) or you can alternate muscle groups (arms on Monday, legs on Tuesday, upper back and chest on Wednesday, etc.).

o Do Calisthenics or Compound Exercises. Push-ups, Pull-ups, Dips, Pis-tols, Reverse Crunches, etc. These exercises are functional and encourage your body to use primary muscle groups, secondary muscle groups, stabi-lizing muscles as well as your core. Add weight when these exercises get easy.

o Muscles grow during rest, not during training. If you don't give a muscle adequate time to recover, you'll actually interfere with the muscle building process. When you lift weight, you're supposed to stress the muscle to the extent that it breaks down at the cellular level, resulting in increased protein synthesis, which produces thicker muscle fibers. This process begins 2-4 hours after the workout and lasts 24 hours (although some researchers suggest that muscles worked to exhaustion need 36-48 hours


to rebuild). If you stress the muscle again before the process is complete, you'll break down the muscle fibers before they've had a chance to rebuild.

o To build volume rather than strength, design your program around lots of repetitions (8 to 12), three to five sets, and short (30- to 90-second) rest periods between sets. Athletes looking for power and strength, on the other hand, will favor a program with reps that max out at around six and sets ranging from two to six, with a long rest period (two to five minutes) to promote better recovery between sets.

2.

Practice good form. Learn how to do each exercise properly (full extension of movement, proper stance and posture, etc.) or else you'll not only reduce the effectiveness of the movement, but you'll also be increasing the risk of injury. To


master each exercise, learn to do it slowly with light weight. Your form will improve with practice. Even though you might feel more accomplished when you move quickly, you're depending on momentum to do some of the work for you, instead of your muscles. Do each rep slowly, in a controlled and steady fashion. More advanced lifters are able to benefit to a significant extent through explosive repetitions, but since this also compounds the risk of injury in novice athletes, it is solely recommended for more advanced athletes.

3. Lift to fatigue. As mentioned earlier, in order to trigger the muscle building process, you need to stress the muscle. By the final rep of your final set, your muscle should be exhausted. That should be the last rep you can do with perfect form. If you start losing form before then because your muscles are too tired, you're using too much weight. If you find that you can add in one or more reps in good form, you need to add on some weight.

o Ask someone to "spot" you, so that you can safely push your muscles to the point where they fail. Your spotter can then help you with the weight just enough so that you can complete the motion. Having a spotter for exercises like bench press is normal and expected, so don't be shy to ask someone. And if you can't find a spotter, don't lift to failure on any exercise where a dropped weight could injure you.

4. Change your eating habits. You can't build muscle unless you give your body the proper building blocks to do so (and stop giving it junk). There are also plenty of supplements which can give you energy and aid in muscle recovery and repair, but remember, they are supplements, which means they only work in conjunction with a good, consistently followed exercise regimen and a proper diet.

o Incorporate complex carbs and protein into your diet. Focus on lean protein like egg whites and low fat yogurt, and whole grain carbs like oatmeal and whole-wheat toast. Avoid sugary, white processed foods; they interfere with your glucose levels and immune system.

o Eat small meals throughout the day. This gives your body a steady supply of fuel to build muscle. Eating in "spurts" (2-3 large meals per day) should be avoided because it hinders muscle growth during the stretches between meals. You should eat 5 to 6 small meals a day.

o Since creatine provides energy, take this supplement about 45 minutes before a workout. Look for products that pair creatine with carbs, as this combination increases the rate at which the creatine is absorbed by your muscles. Consuming creatine with a glass of juice will have the same effect.

o Drink sports drinks during your workout. Look for drinks that contain carbs and protein. This combination reduces muscle damage and hastens recovery.

o Get a carb-loaded drink or snack (1.5g of carbs for each 2.2 lbs that you weigh) within 30 minutes of your workout to stimulate an enzyme that helps the body produce glycogen.

o Have a whey protein drink within 30 minutes of your workout to help your body repair and rebuild lean muscle tissue.


5. Change your routine every four to six weeks. As your body adapts to stress, you'll hit a plateau where the benefits of weight training will begin to diminish. The only way to prevent this from happening is to change things up, such as by increasing weight and changing exercises.

6. Focus more on the lowering part of the lift. So many people are so concerned with trying to get the weight where they want it to go, that they seem to completely forget why they’re actually lifting: To get bigger muscles!! The more you use momentum to help you get the weight up, the less muscle you are using. Furthermore, lifting heavier weights with bad form is not nearly as good as lifting lighter weights, the weights you should be using, with proper form. Also, the eccentric (lowering) portion of the exercise is actually more important than the concentric (contracting) portion. For example, the eccentric movement in bench-ing is when the weight is being lowered and in lat pull downs it is when the bar is moving up. It is during the lowering part that your muscle fibers actually rip, thereby allowing them to be healed and grow even more. When you lift you want to make sure that you can feel the targeted muscle(s) burning; if you can’t, then you might need to adjust your form a bit. Common examples of this are abdo-minal exercises. Many people tend to bend their waist instead of their midsection and end up working their hip flexors more than their abs.

Tips

• While doing cardio will help burn fat so your emerging musculature is more evident, doing it for more than 90 minutes will favor a lean physique, rather than bulk. Most bodybuilders greatly limit their cardio while they're "bulking" (building muscle), then add more cardio when they're "cutting" (shedding fat).

• Remember that your ability to build muscle can be limited by genetics and sex. Some people are genetically predisposed to build muscle easily. Other people may need to experiment with different eating habits and training routines to find what works for them.

• Get enough sleep. Sleep is a critical element of rest. Avoid caffeine and alcohol for deeper sleep.

• Eating correctly costs a lot of money. If you have a limited budget, spend your money on your needed weekly food before spending it on supplements. Creatine works for many people but is a waste if you are not eating enough of the proper food to build muscle.

• To continue building more and more muscle, increase the difficulty of your exercise routine.

• Train to complete failure. This means you should do as many repetitions as physically possible on each set. This will ensure the most muscle tearing, and allow them to grow back bigger.

• Choose a weight that will allow you to do about 8-12 reps per set. • Always take off or reduce your intensity/volume by at least 50% every 5 weeks to

avoid over training, and to keep making gains.


Warnings

• Many people you will encounter in a gym have misguided ideas about physiology and proper athletic programming. There's a lot of "gym mythology" floating around. Take others' suggestions with a grain of salt, and always ask for sources (like the ones provided below).

• Know your limit for exercise. Trying to be macho and doing too much can hurt you.

• Don't be intimidated or make assumptions when you see someone using a different amount of weight than you. They may be on a program where they're doing less reps with more weight, or vice versa.


Chapter 20

How to Do Yoga Meditation

The Sanskrit word "yoga" actually means "union with the divine". The stretching exercises that we in the west associate with yoga were originally designed, thousands of years ago, to help the practitioner gain control of their own life force, a spiritual energy known as kundalini. When this energy rises from the base of the spine up through the top of the head, an expanded state of awareness, called self-realization, can be achieved.

With practice, a self-realized person can feel not only his or her own kundalini as it moves between the 7 primary energy centers (chakras) of their body, they will also be able to experience "collective consciousness" -- an advanced awareness in which they can feel the spiritual energy of anyone they put their attention on.

Steps

1. Find a quiet place to be alone for 5 - 10 minutes. 2. Sit upright in a chair, but not too rigidly, remove your shoes and keep your

feet slightly apart. If you can sit comfortably on the floor, do so, with shoes off. Have the palms of both hands open on your knees.


3. Close your eyes. Become aware of your surroundings, then direct your attention inside, to the base of your spine. Slowly, pull your attention up through the center of your body along the spinal column, until it comes to rest on the top of your head and slightly forward, to the place where the soft spot was when you were a baby.

4. Keeping your eyes closed, firmly press the palm of your right hand onto this soft spot on your head, then raise your right hand about six inches above your head, palm down. Move it up and down slightly until you locate an energy between your head and your hand. You may feel it on your palm either as cool or warm.

5. Keep your attention where your hand is over your head, then bring the hand back on to your lap. You may repeat step 4 using your left hand, as one hand may be more sensitive than the other.

6. Sit like this for 5 - 10 minutes, in mental silence. If a thought pops up, just watch it rise and fall, or say either, “I forgive” or “Not now”.

7. Slowly open your eyes at the end of your meditation. Become aware of any change you may feel inside your body, or any shift in your attention.

Tips

• The meditation should be without effort, don’t try, just be - the idea is to stay in the pure moment of the present.

• Meditate twice a day for best results. • Keep a meditation journal.


How to Perform Yoga

A woman on a yoga ball

Yoga is a beautiful art. It calms the mind, body, and soul. If you want to learn how to do some basic yoga steps, please read on.

Steps

1. Make sure you have the right equipment, listed in the Things You'll Need section.

2. Warm up by stretching. A few minutes should be fine. Be sure not to eat for two hours before you practice.

3.


The Lotus Pose is one of the simplest poses. Simply put your feet on top of your thighs. If you are having trouble, try the following.

o Half Lotus is easier to do. Just cross your legs, like you would if you were to sit down.

4.


Peaceful Pose is also a nice, simple pose. Just lay flat on your back, and spread out your arms and legs. Take deep breaths in to calm you more.

5. The Cat and Cow is a moving pose. Put your knees on the ground and curl your head into the chest. This is the cat. For the cow, just bend a bit more to the front and stretch your head out. Repeat a few times.

6. The Mountain Pose is also simple. Stand up, close your eyes, and put your hands to the chest.

7. Keep practicing until you get it right!

Tips

• Try breathing in deeply and do not do other activities while yoga. • Drink lots of water to keep you hydrated.

• Before you start your yoga session, breathe in deeply 5 times. It has been known to calm you down before you do anything else. If you are feeling very stressed, try 10 or 15 breaths.

• Hire a yoga instructor if you would like to know more yoga poses. Also, your instructor could properly teach you yoga, instead of reading it off the internet.

Warnings

• Do not over work yourself. Push yourself only as far as you can go without hurting yourself. You can seriously injure yourself. Drink plenty of water and eat healthy!


Things You'll Need

• Yoga mat • Comfortable pillow • Water bottle • Spotter (if you need one) • A chair to stretch, rest, and put all your things on (if needed)


Chapter 21

How to Get the Most from Pilates

Pilates was developed by German gymnast Joseph Pilates in the early 20th century. His system was designed with injured world war 1 soldiers in mind, as a way of aiding rehabilitation. It focuses on strengthening key muscles and has become popular in gyms in recent years with many taking it up as a fitness and/or well-being aid. We explains how to get the most from participating in pilates.

Steps

1. Use it to improve your posture. Pilates helps to re-align the spine and if you practice it regularly it will improve core strength. Good posture has a positive knock on effect in many areas of you life, you will find yourself walking taller and will appear more confident, improving the messages you give to others through body language.


2. Try pilates to relive back pain. Another desirable side effect of good posture is relief from many types of back pain. Back pain is often caused by sedentary lifestyles, leading to weak ‘core’ muscles, or mistreatment of the spine in our daily lives - i.e. time spent in front of a computer. Regular pilates sessions will increase spinal mobility for many people and really help with general aches and pains.

3. Use pilates to slim down your silhouette. By training in pilates you learn to engage your stomach muscles as second nature which can have a dramatic effect on your physical appearance. Pilates enthusiasts agree that a combination of factors implemented in their training have given them a slimmer, more toned appearance.

4. Improve your focus and awareness. A combination of precise and sometimes challenging movements help to improve focus and ‘re-introduce’ you to your body when practicing pilates. This new found awareness can have a positive knock on effect and will help you to make good choices in the way that you move, for example when lifting and bending, throughout your day-to-day life.

5. Enjoy pilates for relaxation. As with most forms of physical exercise pilates aids with general relaxation but it is particularly good at helping you to release tension in a gentle and accessible way.

How to Do Sheershasana

Shershasana means topsy turvy pose (Sheersha means top or head). This activity has to be learned in a gradual, systematic and a careful manner and practiced in a judicious manner to get its optimum health benefits.

Steps

1. Get up in morning. Make sure that the bowels are evacuated completely and satisfactorily. Do not eat anything till at least half an hour after finishing the sheershasana.

2. If possible take bath. 3. Take a towel or a napkin and fold in such way that you can keep take it as a

soft and firm support under your head. 4. Sit in a squatting position. 5. Keep the folded towel in front. 6. Then interlock your fingers and keep your hands on the folded towel with

palms facing upwards. Bend and keep your head on the towel. 7. Stretch your legs in the knees. 8. Gradually bring the feet closer to you head. 9. You will experience increase in the weight on your head. 10. This is called bhooshirasana. 11. Do this much only for about a week.


12. After a week when you will be able to lift the legs, comfortably, do so. 13. The legs may lifted half way. 14. After two weeks or so you can easily lift the legs completely and make them

straight.

Tips

• Do not start alone. • Do not start if you are too heavy. • Do not practice after eating. • Do not practice after alcohol. • Do not give jerks or assume the pose suddenly. • This is a very useful yoga pose but you should do it entirely by your choice and to

verify the benefits and not with blind belief. • Sheershasana helps to aid and ease the blood circulation because of gravity

[Circulation is against gravity in erect posture]. • Sheershsana also helps to prevent tendencies to prolapse of pelvic organs such as

uterus. • Sheershasana also helps to improve the circulation to the apical regions of the

lungs, which do not get adequate blood supply in erect position.

Warnings

• Do not practice in pregnancy, lesion of neck, high blood pressure, high int-raoccular pressure, glaucoma.

• Do not start suddenly and without guidance. • Do not start on a hard surface and or in the vicinity of sharp objects. • Do no teach or practice in very young [infancy] and very old [senility around 60

yrs] age.

Things You'll Need

• A towel • Space of about 10 x10 ft

chapter 5 aerobic exercise

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