chapter 5. developmental psychology developmental psychology – the study of how organisms change...
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PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 5
Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology –The study of how organisms change over time as the result of biological and environmental influences
Development is a process of growth and change brought about by an interaction of heredity and the environment
The Nature-Nurture Interaction Nature-nurture issue –
Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes
Twin studies – Developmental investigations in which twins, especially identical twins, are compared in the search for genetic and environmental effects When separated at birth they often display similarities
in habit, lifestyle, intelligence, and personality Jim Twins
The Nature-Nurture Interaction Identical twins–
A pair who started life as a single fertilized egg, monozygotic, which later split into two distinct individuals
Fraternal twins– A pair who started life as two separate fertilized eggs that happened to share the same womb
Adoption studies – Studies in which the adopted child’s characteristics are compared to those of the biological family and the adoptive family
Gradual versus Abrupt Change Developmental stages – Periods of
life initiated by significant transitions or changes in physical or psychological functioning Continuity – Gradual Discontinuity - Stage-like
Age
Per
form
ance
Discontinuity viewContinuity view
Periods of Pregnancy
Germinal period - first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
Embryonic period - the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.
Fetal period- time from about 8 weeks after conception until birth (development of fetus)
Periods of Pregnancy
Periods of Pregnancy Placenta –An organ that develops between the
embryo/fetus and the mother Critical periods - times during which
certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant.
Teratogen - any factor that can cause a birth defect. Fetal alcohol syndrome- leading cause of
mental retardation Smoking X-rays Lead Disease
Psychological Traits in Your Genes
While psychological traits are formed by interaction of heredity and the environment, many traits have a strong genetic influence
Newborns have innate abilities for finding nourishment, interacting with others, and avoiding harmful situations; the developing abilities of infants and children rely on learning
Neonatal Period(from birth to one month) Sensory abilities- all senses are functioning,
vision is limited for first 4-6 weeks Infants use these abilities to learn
Motor abilities Rooting reflex- food source Sucking reflex Grasping reflex Stepping Reflex Babinski Reflex- rub bottom of foot the toes fan
out and curl back in Moro reflex (startle reflex)- pulling arms and legs
into the body then extending them out
Maturation Maturation refers to development that largely
unfolds on it’s own. All humans (especially infants) develop in the same orderly way. (we stand before we walk, babble before we talk, use nouns before adjectives…) The time can vary depending on the person
Maturation sets the course of development, experience adjusts it.
Motor Development
The sequence of motor development is nearly the same in all parts of the world. 90% of all babies will begin walking by
15 months. Roll over, sit up unsupported, crawl, walk
etc.
Identical twins typically begin sitting up and walking on nearly the same day.
EX.- t-ball; hitting and throwing pretty equal among players
Toilet Training
NO MATTER WHAT, THE BABY NEEDS THE PHYSICAL MATURATION TO HOLD HIS OR HER BLADDER OR BOWEL MOVEMENTS BEFORE TOILET TRAINING.
NO TRAINING WILL WORK IF THE CHILD IS NOT PHYSICALLY READY.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development –the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory scheme (plural schemas) This field is Dominated by a
man named Jean Piaget. He was developing IQ tests and
noticed that many children got the same answers wrong.
Thought to himself, “maybe these kids are not stupid, but instead think differently than adults.”
Piaget’s Important Concepts Children are active thinkers, always
trying to make sense of the world. To make sense of the world, they
develop schemas. Schema- a concept or framework that
organizes and interprets information formed through experiences with objects and events
Piaget’s Important Concepts Assimilation – Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existing schema Ex. Child sees a cougar for the first time and points
and says “doggie” because they have a dog at home
Accommodation –Mental process that restructures existing schemas so that new information is better understood Ex. Child now knows that cougars are bigger and have
different features- accommodating their original schema (four legs, furry, inside a house, etc.)
Piaget’s Stage Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor stage – first stage in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment. Birth to 2 years
At 4 to 8 months of age, the child will learn that she can make things move by banging them and shaking them Object Permanence - the knowledge that an object
exists even when it is not in sight.
Piaget’s Stage Theory Preoperational stage – second stage in
which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world; begin to pretend play (Approx. ages 2 to 6 or 7)
Think Symbolically- one thing can represent something else
Egocentrism - the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes.
Centration - in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.
Irreversibility - in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action.
Piaget’s Stage Theory Concrete Operational stage - third
stage of cognitive development in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking. (about 7 to 11 years old) marked by logical thinking, mental
representations, mathematical transformations, and mastery of conservation
Conservation - in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature.
Piaget’s Stage Theory
Formal Operational Stage - Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking. (11 and beyond) Abstract thinking, moral reasoning and
hypothetical situations Consider future possibilities and imaginary
scenarios
God is love. Love is Blind. Stevie Wonder is Blind. Stevie Wonder is god.
Lev Vygotsky’s Theory Impact of the social context on
a child’s cognitive growth
Scaffolding - process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - The difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance Reach the top of this range when
given instruction
Social and Emotional Development
Socialization –The lifelong process of shaping an individual’s behavior patterns, values, standards, skills, attitudes and motives to conform to those regarded as desirable in a particular society (Commonly referred to as manners, beliefs or customs)
Temperament - the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth. Easy - regular, adaptable, and happy Difficult - irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable Slow to warm up - need to adjust gradually to
change.
Attachment Attachment - the emotional bond
between an infant and the primary caregiver. Measured with Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation. Humans have an inborn need for attachment
Secure - willing to explore, upset when mother departs but easily soothed upon her return.
Avoidant – unattached; explore without “touching base”, can attach to stranger
Ambivalent/Resistant - insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return.
Disorganized-disoriented – insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; seemed fearful, dazed, and depressed.
Strange Situation
Deprivation of Attachment
John Bowlby’s types of Anxiety Separation Anxiety- distress at being separated from
parents or caregiver Stranger Anxiety- distress upon encountering new,
unfamiliar people Early attachments form the basis for our adult
relationships
Critical periods exist for attachment and bonding just like language development. If those critical periods pass without adequate attachment, it can rewire a child’s brain with lifelong consequences.
Harry Harlow’s Contact Comfort Contact Comfort- human newborns
need physical touch and nurturance
Video
Social and Emotional Development
Imprinting- rigid attachment process during an organisms critical period, usually immediately after birth, as if it is their mother Konrad Lorenz- baby ducklings
Transitional Object- blanket
Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Parenting styles-Most approaches
to child rearing fall into one of the following four styles:1. Authoritarian parents-establish rules and
expectations; expect obedience; punishment
2. Authoritative parents- establish rules but also listen to input from children; reinforcement and punishment
Correlate with positive outcomes for children
3. Permissive parents- parents submit to their children; children given freedom
4. Neglectful or Uninvolved parents
The Transitions of Adolescence Adolescence – Developmental period beginning
at puberty and ending at adulthood the period of life from about age 13 to the early
twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult.
Puberty - the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak. Period of about four years when we become sexually
mature Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics
Rites of passage – Social rituals that mark the transition between developmental stages, especially between childhood and adulthood
Cognitive Development in Adolescence Formal operational stage –
Piaget’s final stage of cognitive growth (abstract and complex thought)
Hormones rise to high levels This leads to sensation seeking and risk taking, and
preoccupation with body image and sex
The frontal lobes undergo a “remodel”
Emerging Adulthood- transitional period between adolescence and adulthood 18 traditionally meant you were an adult; college
has changed this and delayed responsibilities
Social Identity in Adolescence Identity crisis- sense of self
changes and is shaped by the question “who am I ?” which is often answered by the group memberships we hold.
The increasing influence of peers- diminishing parent influence
We talk, dress, and act more like our peers than our parents.
Egocentric Thinking (David Elkind)
Personal fable - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm.
Imaginary audience - type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.
Lawrence Kohlberg’s Moral Development Moral development —growth in the ability to tell
right from wrong, control impulses, and act ethically. Preconventional level— 4-10 (preoperational stage
of cognitive development) Do the right thing stage 1—avoid punishment, obey authority stage 2—further self-interests, gain reward
Conventional level— 10-13 (concrete operational stage of cognitive development or formal operational stage for most people) Social Conventions stage 3—conform, live up to expectations of others stage 4—maintain law and order, do your duty
Postconventional level— over 13 (reached by only some people in the formal operational stage) Internal Judgments stage 5—social contract, to promote the society's welfare stage 6—to promote justice
Developing Morality- Lawrence Kohlberg
“The Heinz Dilemma”- would you steal a drug in order to save a life?
Debating Kohlberg’s Moral Development
Criticized by Carol Gilligan Felt he missed the fact that males and
females view moral dilemmas differently Men- more absolute and justice-based Women- more relationship-based and
caring
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesAge
(Years)Stage Psychosocial Crisis Environmental
Influence
0-1 1/2 Infancy Trust vs. Mistrust Maternal
2-3 Early childhood Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Both parents or adult substitutes
3-6 Preschool Initiative vs. Guilt Parents, family and friends
6-12 Middle Childhood Industry vs. Inferiority School
12-20 Adolescence Identity vs. Role confusion
Peers
20-40 Young adulthood Intimacy vs. Isolation Spouse, lover, friends
40-60 Middle age Generativity vs. Stagnation
Family, society
Over 60 Old age Integrity vs. Despair All humans
Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Age/Period Principal Challenge
0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust
1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt
3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt
6 years to puberty Industry vs. inferiority
Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion
Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation
Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation
Late adulthood Integrity vs. despair