chapter 5 income concepts. the purpose of income reporting income is used… 1as the basis of one of...
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER 5
INCOME CONCEPTS
The Purpose of Income Reporting
Income is used… 1 as the basis of one of the principal forms of taxation.2 in public reports as a measure of the success of a corporation’s
operations.3 as a criterion for the determination of the availability of dividends.4 by rate-regulating authorities for investigating whether those rates are
fair and reasonable.5 as a guide to trustees charged with distributing income to a life tenant
while preserving the principal for a remainderman.6 as a guide to management of an enterprise in the conduct of its affairs.
Importance of Income Reporting
The EMH and stock prices Economic Vs. Accounting Income
Related sciences concerned with the activities of business firms use similar variables differences over the timing and measurement of income
Relative importance of income statement (accounting) and balance sheet (economics)
Income
Statement
Balance Sheet
In an Attempt to Reconcile
What is the nature of income?
When should income be reported?
What is the Nature of Income?
Three possibilities Psychic
Satisfaction of human wants
Real Increase in economic wealth
Money Increases in monetary value
The concept of well-offness or capital maintenance Problems
Because of the difficulties in measuring real income - Accountants have adopted a transactions approach to income recognition
Capital Maintenance Concepts
Financial capital
maintenance - money amount -
transactions based
Physical capital
maintenance - productive
capacity
Difference is in the treatment of holding gains
Current Value Accounting
The concept of physical capital maintenance requires assets and liabilities to be stated at their current values
Approaches:1 Entry price or replacement cost
2 Exit value or selling price
3 Discounted present value
Income RecognitionCriticisms of the transactions approachPossible alternatives
– Edwards and Bell1 Current operating profit
2 Realizable cost savings
3 Realized cost savings
4 Realized capital gains
– Sprouse
The concept of measurable change
Measurement
What is measurement?Problems with the measurement unitArbitrary decisions
Accounting for Inflation
Instability of the accounting measuring unit is due to the effects of inflation or deflation
General purchasing power adjustments
Revenue Recognition
The income producing activities cycle Revenue recognition criteria
1. The revenue has been earned 2. The revenue has been “realized” or is “realizable
SAB No. 101 criteria1. Persuasive evidence of an arrangement exists 2. Delivery has occurred 3. The vendor’s fee is fixed or determinable 4. Collectibility is probable.
Recognition Realization
Revenue Recognition
The crucial event testAs a result revenue is generally recognized at
the point of salemay be advanced or delayed due to surrounding
circumstances 1 During production2 At close of production3 Services performed4 Cash5 Occurrence of some event5 Special recognition circumstances
Recent Developments
FASB-IASB Short-term International Convergence Project
Conflicts in SFAC Nos. 5 and 6Practical and conceptual reasons to address
revenue recognitionProject approach based on changes in assets
and liabilities consistent with SFAC No. 6SEC Staff Accounting Bulletin No. 101
Recent Developments: Other Issues
Delayed or advanced revenue recognitionRevenue recognized
During production process At completion of production As services are performed As cash is received On occurrence of some event
Matching
Cost
Loss
Expense
Product VS Period
Costs
Matching
Cost
Leads to or Results In
Asset
Used up Resulting in
Revenue
Used up Resulting in No
Revenue
Expense Loss
Concepts Affecting Revenue Recognition
Conservatism
Materiality
Earnings Quality, Earnings Management and Fraudulent Financial Reporting
Earnings quality The correlation between a company’s
accounting and economic income The existence of the previously discussed issues has
led some to the conclusion that economic income is a better predictor of cash flows.
Assessing earnings quality
Earnings Quality, Earnings Management and Fraudulent Financial Reporting Assessing earnings quality:
1 Compare the accounting principles employed by the company with those generally used in the industry and by competitions. Do the principles used by the company inflate
earnings?2 Review recent changes in accounting principles and
changes in estimates to determine if they inflate earnings.
3 Determine if discretionary expenditures, such as advertising, have been postponed by comparing them to previous periods.
4 Attempt to assess whether some expenses, such as warranty expense, are not reflected on the income statement.
5 Determine the replacement cost of inventories and other assets. Assess whether the company generating sufficient cash flow to replace its assets?
6 Review the notes to financial statements to determine if loss contingencies exist that might reduce future earnings and cash flows.
Earnings Quality, Earnings Management and Fraudulent Financial Reporting
7 Review the relationship between sales and receivables to determine if receivables are increasing more rapidly than sales.
8 Review the management discussion and analysis section of the annual report and the auditor's opinion to determine management's opinion of the company's future and to identify any major accounting issues
Earnings Quality, Earnings Management and Fraudulent Financial Reporting
Earnings management The attempt to influence short-term reported income
Earnings Quality, Earnings Management and Fraudulent Financial Reporting
Arthur Levitt has outlined five earnings management techniques that he described as threatening the integrity of financial reporting:
1. Taking a bath2. Creative acquisition accounting3. Cookie jar reserves4. Abusing the materiality concept5. Improper revenue recognition
Distinction Between Conservative, Neutral, Aggressive and Fraudulent Earnings Management1. Conservative
accounting
2. Neutral earnings
3. Aggressive accounting
4. Fraudulent accounting
Overly aggressive recognition of loss or reserve provisions
Overvaluation of acquired in process research and development activities
Earnings that result from using a neutral perspective
Understating loss or reserve provisions
Recording sales before they satisfy the earned and measurability criteria
Recording fictitious sales
Backdating sales invoices
Overstating inventory
Red flags of possible fraudulent reporting:1. A predominantly insider board of
directors
2. Management compensation tied to its stock price
3. Frequent changes of auditors
4. Rapid turnover of key personnel
5. Deteriorating earnings
6. Unusually rapid growth
7. Lack of working capital
Red flags of possible fraudulent reporting:
8. The need to increase the stock price to meet analysts’ earnings projections
9. Extremely high levels of debt
10. Cash shortages
11. Significant off-balance sheet financing arrangements
12. Doubt about the company’s ability to continue as a going concern
13. SEC or other regulatory investigations
14. Unfavorable industry economic conditions
15. Suspension or delisting from a stock exchange
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Prepared by Kathryn Yarbrough, MBA