chapter 5 perception, cognition, and emotion
TRANSCRIPT
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Perception, Cognition, and Emotion
CHAPTER FIVE
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Perception, Cognition, and
Emotion in Negotiation
The basic building blocks of all social
encounters are:
Perception
Cognition
Framing Cognitive biases
Emotion
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Perception
Perception is:
The process by which individuals connect
to their environment.
A sense-making process
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The Role of Perception
The process of ascribing meaning to messages and events is strongly influenced
by the perceivers current state of mind, role, and comprehension of earlier
communications
People interpret their environment in order to respond appropriately
The complexity of environments makes it impossible to process all of theinformation
People develop shortcuts to process information and these shortcuts create
perceptual errors
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Perceptual Distortion
Four major perceptual errors:
Stereotyping
Halo effects
Selective perception
Projection
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Stereotyping and Halo Effects
Stereotyping: Is a very common distortion
Occurs when an individual assigns attributes to
another solely on the basis of the others membershipin a particular social or demographic category
Halo effects:
Are similar to stereotypes Occur when an individual generalizes about a variety
of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute
of an individual
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Selective Perception
and Projection
Selective perception: Perpetuates stereotypes or halo effects
The perceiver singles out information that supports aprior belief but filters out contrary information
Projection:
Arises out of a need to protect ones own self-concept People assign to others the characteristics or feelings
that they possess themselves
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Framing
Frames: Represent the subjective mechanism through which
people evaluate and make sense out of situations
Lead people to pursue or avoid subsequent actions Focus, shape and organize the world around us
Make sense of complex realities
Define a person, event or process
Impart meaning and significance
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Types of Frames
Substantive
Outcome
Aspiration Process
Identity
Characterization
Loss-Gain
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How Frames Work in Negotiation
Negotiators can use more than one frame
Mismatches in frames between parties are sources
of conflict
Particular types of frames may lead to particular
types of arguments
Specific frames may be likely to be used with
certain types of issues Parties are likely to assume a particular frame
because of various factors
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Interests, Rights, and Power
Parties in conflict use one of three frames:
Interests: people talk about their positions but
often what is at stake is their underlying interests
Rights: people may be concerned about who is
right that is, who has legitimacy, who is
correct, and what is fair
Power: people may wish to resolve a conflict onthe basis of who is stronger
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Approaches to Negotiation
Goal
Interests Rights Power
Approach
Self-interest
Dispute resolution
Understanding othersconcerns
Fairness
Justice
Winning
Respect
Temporal focus
Distributive
strategies (pie
slicing)
Integrative
strategies (pie
expansion)
Implications for
future negotiations
and relationship
Present (what needs and
interests do we have rightnow?)
Past (what has been dictated
by the past?)
Future (what steps can I
take in the future tooverpower others?)
Compromise Often produces a winner
and a loser; thus, unequal
distribution
Often produces a
winner and a loser;
thus, unequal distribution
Most likely to expand the pie
via addressing parties
underlying needs
Difficult to expand the pie
unless focus is on interests
Difficult to expand the
pie unless focus is on
interests
Resentment
Possible retaliation
Revenge
Possible court action Greater understanding
Satisfaction
Stability of agreement
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The Frame of an Issue Changes as
the Negotiation Evolves Negotiators tend to argue for stock issuesor
concerns that are raised every time the parties
negotiate Each party attempts to make the best possible
casefor his or her preferred position orperspective
Frames may define major shifts and transitionsin a complex overall negotiation
Multiple agenda itemsoperate to shape issuedevelopment
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Some Advice about Problem
Framing for Negotiators Frames shape what the parties define as the key
issues and how they talk about them
Both parties have frames Frames are controllable, at least to some degree
Conversations change and transform frames in
ways negotiators may not be able to predict but
may be able to control
Certain frames are more likely than others to
lead to certain types of processes and outcomes
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Cognitive Biases in Negotiation
Negotiators have a tendency to make
systematic errors when they process
information. These errors, collectively
labeled cognitive biases, tend to impede
negotiator performance.
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Cognitive Biases
Irrational escalation
of commitment
Mythical fixed-pie
beliefs Anchoring and
adjustment
Issue framing andrisk
Availability of
information
The winners curse
Overconfidence
The law of small
numbers Self-serving biases
Endowment effect
Ignoring otherscognitions
Reactive devaluation
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Irrational Escalation of Commitment
and Mythical Fixed-Pie Beliefs
Irrational escalation of commitment
Negotiators maintain commitment to a course of
action even when that commitment constitutesirrational behavior
Mythical fixed-pie beliefs
Negotiators assume that all negotiations (not just
some) involve a fixed pie
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Anchoring and Adjustment
and Issue Framing and Risk Anchoring and adjustment
The effect of the standard (anchor) against which
subsequent adjustments (gains or losses) aremeasured
The anchor might be based on faulty or incomplete
information, thus be misleading
Issue framing and risk Frames can lead people to seek, avoid, or be neutral
about risk in decision making and negotiation
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Availability of Information
and the Winners Curse Availability of information
Operates when information that is presented in vivid
or attention-getting ways becomes easy to recall. Becomes central and critical in evaluating events and
options
The winners curse
The tendency to settle quickly on an item and thensubsequently feel discomfort about a win that comes
too easily
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Overconfidence and
The Law of Small Numbers Overconfidence
The tendency of negotiators to believe that their
ability to be correct or accurate is greater than isactually true
The law of small numbers The tendency of people to draw conclusions from
small sample sizes
The smaller sample, the greater the possibility thatpast lessons will be erroneously used to infer whatwill happen in the future
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Confidence or Overconfidence?
We came to Iceland to advance the cause of peace.. .and though we put on the table the most far-reaching arms control proposal in history, theGeneral Secretary rejected it.
President Ronald Reagan to reporters,following completion of presummit arms control discussions
in Reykjavik, Iceland, on October 12,1986.
I proposed an urgent meeting here because we had
something to propose. . .The Americans came to thismeeting empty handed.Secretary General Mikhail Gorbachev,
Describing the same meeting to reporters.
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Self-Serving Biases
and Endowment Effect Self-serving biases
People often explain another persons behavior bymaking attributions, either to the person or to the
situation
Endowment effect The tendency to overvalue something you own or
believe you possess
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Ignoring Others Cognitions
and Reactive Devaluation Ignoring others cognitions
Negotiators dont bother to ask about the other partys
perceptions and thoughts This leaves them to work with incomplete information,
and thus produces faulty results
Reactive devaluation The process of devaluing the other partys
concessions simply because the other party madethem
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Managing Misperceptions and
Cognitive Biases in Negotiation
The best advice that negotiators can follow
is: Be aware of the negative aspects of these
biases
Discuss them in a structured manner within the
team and with counterparts
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Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation
The distinction between mood and
emotion is based on three characteristics:
Specificity
Intensity
Duration
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Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation
Negotiations create both positive and negative
emotions
Positive emotions generally have positive
consequences for negotiations
They are more likely to lead the parties toward more
integrative processes
They also create a positive attitude toward the other
side
They promote persistence
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Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation
Aspects of the negotiation process can lead to
positive emotions
Positive feelings result from fair procedures during
negotiation Positive feelings result from favorable social
comparison
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Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation
Negative emotions generally have negative
consequences for negotiations
They may lead parties to define the situation as
competitive or distributive They may undermine a negotiators ability to analyze the
situation accurately, which adversely affects individual
outcomes
They may lead parties to escalate the conflict They may lead parties to retaliate and may thwart
integrative outcomes
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Mood, Emotion, and Negotiation
Aspects of the negotiation process can lead tonegative emotions Negative emotions may result from a competitive
mindset
Negative emotions may result from an impasse
Effects of positive and negative emotion Positive emotions may generate negative outcomes
Negative feelings may elicit beneficial outcomes
Emotions can be used strategically asnegotiation gambits