C H A P T E R 5

STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

CONSCIOUSNESS

• “The process by which the brain creates a model of internal and external experience.”• The part of the mind that we can potentially retrieve a

fact, an idea, an emotion, or a memory, and recombine them in the process of, “thinking.”

• This part of the mind helps us combine both reality and fantasy.

CONSCIOUSNESS

• Core Concept:• Consciousness can take many forms, while other mental

processes occur simultaneously outside our awareness.

• What is does for us:• Restricts our attention.• Combines sensation with learning and memory.• Allows us to create a mental model of the world that we

can manipulate.

COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

• A field composed of variety of specialties—but they are all interested in how the brain processes information and creates conscious experience.• They believe the brain acts like a “biological

computing device with vast resources—capable of creating the complex universe of imagination and experience, we think of as consciousness.

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

Conscious

Preconscious

Unconscious

Nonconscious

CONSCIOUSNESS/NONCONSCIOUS

• Consciousness: Brain process of which we are aware• Takes on a variety of roles• But, consciousness must focus sequentially.• Meaning, first on one thing, then on to another.• Consciousness is not good at multi-tasking.

• Nonconscious- any brain process that does not involve conscious processes• Is very good at multi-tasking. (walking, chewing gum, and

breathing.)

TOOLS FOR STUDYING CONSCIOUSNESS

• High-tech tools, such as the MRI, PET, EEG have opened new windows through which researchers can look into the brain to see which regions are activated, but these high-tech forms can answer, HOW.

MENTAL ROTATION

• An experiment done by Roger Shepard and Jacqueline Metzler in 1971/• Wanted to see if “people turn things over” when

comparing objects.• They reasoned that if the mind actually rotates

these images when comparing them, people will take longer to answer.• This is exactly what they found. Mentally we rotate

objects in our minds to compare and contrast them.

ZOOMING IN WITH THE MIND

• Stephen Kosslyn found that we can use our conscious minds to “zoom in” on the details of our mental images.• He first asked people to think of objects,

such as an elephant or a cat. • Then he’d ask questions like, “Is it a black cat?”

“Does it have a long tail?”• He recorded how long it took the subjects to

respond.• He found that the smaller the detail he asked for,

the longer the subjects needed for a response

EXPERIMENTS

• Both of these experiments suggests that we consciously manipulate our visual images in much the same way that we might manipulate physical objects in the outside world.

LEVELS OF A CONSCIOUS MIND

• Restriction• Combination• Manipulation

RESTRICTION

• Consciousness restricts our attention.• Because it works serially, it limits what you think about.• This keeps your brain from being overwhelmed by

stimulation.• Example- You stop reading and focus on the music playing in

the background.

COMBINATION

• Consciousness provides a mental “meeting place” where sensation combines with memory, emotion, motives, and other psychological processes.• Consciousness is a canvas where we create a meaningful

picture from stimulation from our external and internal worlds.• Ex- connects the emotion of joy with seeing an old friend’s

face.

MANIPULATION

• We can use a conscious model of our world that draws on memory, bringing both the past and future into awareness.• We can think and plan by manipulating our mental world

to evaluate alternative responses and imagine how effective they will be.

• Example: Keeps you from being too honest with a friend wearing clothes you don’t like.

LEVELS OF THE NONCONSCIOUS MIND

• Preconscious• Unconscious

LEVELS OF CONSCIOUSNESS

• Preconscious – Information that is not currently in consciousness, but can be brought into consciousness if attention is called to it.• Unconscious –

Many levels of processing that occur without awareness.

PRECONSCIOUS

• Memories of events, (a date last week, facts, etc) can return to consciousness with relative ease when something cues their recall.• Otherwise, the lay in the background of our mind,

just beyond boundary of consciousness till needed.

UNCONSCIOUS

• “Cognition occurring without awareness.”• Consists of many levels of processing that occur without

awareness, like brain systems to breathing.• Example: You follow the same route to school everyday,

but you don’t have to think about every turn you take.

UNCONSCIOUS

•D E F _ _ _

• What is this word?• Defend• Define• Defeat

PRIMING

• A technique psychologist use to that have some influence on the answers people give with their being conscious that they were influenced.

CYCLES OF CONSCIOUSNESS

• Consciousness changes in cycles that correspond to our biological rhythms and to the patterns of stimulation in our environment.

DAYDREAMING

• Turns our attention inward to memories, expectations, and desires—often with vivid mental imagery.• Occurs most often when people are alone,

relaxed, or bored.• It is normal, young adults report the most

frequent daydreams.• Can be healthy and help solve

problems/concerns.

DAYDREAMS

• They can feature persistent and unwelcome wishes, worries, or fantasies.• Deliberate efforts to suppress unwanted thoughts are

likely to backfire.• Trying to get a song out of your head.

• “White Bear Experiment”• Students were asked to speak on a tape recorder about

anything that came to mind. Their only instruction was to not say “white bear”.

• Students said “white bear” about once every minute.

DAYDREAMS

• Trying to suppress a thought or put something out of your mind can result in an obsession with the very thought you are trying to forget.• The best thing to do is to allow your mind to roam

freely, thoughts usually become less intrusive and finally cease.

DAYDREAMS VS. NIGHT DREAMS

• Daydreams are less vivid• Less mysterious• And do not occur under the influence of biological

cycles.

SLEEP

• If you live to be 90, you will have slept for nearly 30 years!

• Has become a vibrant field of study so we can understand our natural biological clocks.

CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS

• All creatures fall under the influence of nature’s changes, especially the pattern of light and darkness.• Circadian Rhythms: bodily patterns that

repeat approximately every 24 hours.• Internal control of these recurring rhythms

reside in a “biological clock”• Biological clock- sets the internal control of

metabolism, heart rate, body temp.

BIOLOGICAL CLOCKS

• Most people settle into a circadian cycle of about 25 hours.• But under more “normal” circumstances,

the pattern undergoes daily readjustment by our exposure to light and by our habitual routines.• Anything that throws off your biological

clock affects how you feel and behave.• Example: Nurses switching from day shifts to night shifts.

MAIN EVENTS OF SLEEP

• Sleep has been a mystery for most of human history—until 1952.• Eugene Aserinsky decided to make recordings of his

sons brave waves and muscle movements of the eye.• He was one of the first to witness and record the events

that happen while we are sleeping.

SLEEP STAGES

• We don’t just fall down and get tired and go to sleep.• Sleep is much more complicated than that, there

is multiple stages to sleep.

SLEEP STAGES

REM SLEEP

• REM sleep (Rapid Eye Movement)• During this stage, the brain fires furiously,

blood pressure zooms upward, eyes move rapidly, breathing and heart rate are accelerated…all within a PARALYZED body! • This paralyzed body is called, sleep

paralysis.

• REM sleep occurs about every 90 minutes. Throughout the night they last longer.• REM is associated with dreaming.

NREM

Non-Rapid Eye Movement- Normally occurs in deeper stages of sleep.

-Brain is still active, providing partial thoughts, images, and stories. (but stories aren’t organized)-Reoccurring periods of deeper levels of sleep.

BRAIN WAVES

• Beta Waves- Rapid brain waves appear when a person is awake

• Alpha Waves: Fairly relaxed brain waves that occur during stage 1, just before we go to sleep.

• Delta Waves: Slow, lazy, deep sleep brain waves.

SLEEP CYCLE ON AN EEG

• Stage 1- EEG displays some slower (theta) activity, along with fast brain (beta) waves similar to waves we see while we are awake.

• Stage 2- Generally shows slower “sleep spindles”– short bursts of fast electrical activity

• Stage 3 and 4- Sleeper enters a progressively deeper state of relaxed sleep. Heart rate and breathing slow down, brain waves slow dramatically , delta waves appear for the first time.

• Stage 4- Deepest sleep, but at the end of the cycle, brain activity increases and the sleeper starts back through the cycles.

SLEEP CYCLES

• As the sleeper re-enters stage 1, the sleeper now enters REM sleep for the FIRST time.• Over the course of an average night sleep, most

people go through sleep stages 4-6 times.• In each successive cycle, the amount of time in

deep sleep (stages 3-4) decreases and the amount of time spent in REM increases.• Our 1st round of REM lasts about 10 mins. Our last REM

period can last up to an hour.

REM REBOUND

• REM rebound occurs when a person is deprived of a substantial amount of REM sleep.-The first time we go to sleep after being deprived of REM sleep, both the length and number of our dreams increases as well as the dramatics. (in order to make up for missed dreams)

VIEWS OF THE FUNCTION OF SLEEP

• View 1. Evolutionary Psychologist- sleep may have evolved because it enables animals to conserve energy and stay out of harms way.• View 2. - Sleep aids mental functioning for

problem solving and memory.• View 3.- Sleep may have a restorative function

for the body and mind.

NEED FOR SLEEP

• The amount of sleep we require is linked to our personal characteristics & habits. • Those who sleep longer than average tend to be more

nervous, worrisome, artistic, creative, and nonconforming.

• Short sleepers tend to be more energetic and extroverted.

• The amount of physical activity or working out a person does effects the amount of sleep needed.

DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVE

• Sleep duration and the shape of sleep cycle change over one’s lifetimes.• Newborns sleep about 16 hours a day, with half that time

devoted to REM sleep.• During childhood the amount of sleep gradually declines.• Young adults typically sleep 7-8 hours with about 20%

REM.• By old age, we sleep less with only about 15% of REM

SLEEP DEBT

• A sleep deficiency caused by not getting the amount of sleep that one requires for optimal functioning.• Normally people do not realize this is happening.• People wake up and feel energized, but then it catches

up with them,• With chronic sleep debt you are never as mentally

efficient and alert as you should be.

DREAMS

• We know that the brain and brain stem are involved in dreaming. But, scientist want to know what function do dreams have?• Biological view- dreams maybe necessary for healthy

brain functioning.• Cognitive View- see dreams as meaningful mental

event, serving pressing cognitive needs or reflecting on important events or fantasies in the dreamers world.

• Other views- Argue that dreams are merely the brain’s random activity during sleep—and therefore have no special meaning.

FREUD AND DREAMS AS MEANINGFUL EVENTS

• Two Main Theories:• 1. To guard sleep.• Believed dreams play their guardian role by relieving psychic

tensions created during the day.

• 2. Serve as sources of wish fulfillment• Allow the dreamer to work through harmless unconscious

desires.

FREUD AND DREAMS

• Latent Content- He analyzed his patients dreams because he thought he was able to find clues about their inner thoughts and forbidden impulses. He believed dreams were symbolic expressions of our unconscious conflicts.• Manifest Content- story line of a dream is taken

at face value without interpretation.

DREAMS VARY BY CULTURE, GENDER, & AGE

• With research, a more objective approach to dream diagnosis has been made. Dreams are said to vary by:• Culture• Gender• Age

AGE EXAMPLE

• Children are more likely to dream about animals. In their dreams, these animals are more likely to be large and threatening. • College students are more likely to dream as

animals as pets.• Adults don’t often dream of animals.• May mean that children feel in less control of their

world than adults do.

GENDER EXAMPLE

• Woman are more likely to dream children.• Men are more likely to dream of weapons,

aggression, and tools.• Example: 40% of women dream about the sea or bodies

of water, while only 27% of men do.• Falling or being chased occurs about equally for males

and females.• Occur frequently btw normal males and females:

romance, violence, talking to a dead friend or family member, embarrassing moments.

CULTURE EXAMPLE

• In Ghana– dreams often feature attacks by cows.

• Americans– frequently dream of public embarrassment.

DREAMS AND RECENT EXPERIENCE

The content of our dreams frequently connect with recent experience.

• Ex- if you are struggling with your taxes all day, you are most likely to dream about taxes at night. Especially during your first REM sleep.

• Typically the 1st dream of the night connects with with events from the previous day. Then dreaming in the 2nd REM tend to build on that dream theme.

• The final dream that emerges may have a connection, but normally the last dream is most likely to be remembered so we might not see the connection to the previous day.

DREAMS AND COGNITION

• This may happen in REM to help remember and solve problems.• Also helps us to weave experiences into old and

new memories.

DREAMS AS RANDOM ACTIVITY

• Activation Synthesis Theory- says that dreams result when the sleeping brain tries to make sense of its own spontaneous bursts of activity.• In this view, dreams have their origin in periodic

neural discharges emitted by the sleeping brain stem.• As this energy is released, it sweeps over the cerebral

cortex and the sleeper can feel impressions of sensation, memory, motivation, emotion, and movement.

• These images might not be logically connected but the brains tries to make sense of the stimulation received by “pulling together” the messages and SYNTHESIZING.

DREAM CONTENT

• Normally, we dream about our normal day:

• Family, friends, school, daily events.• Dreams also contain our worries and fears.• Often dreams contain arguments, but in our dreams, we

are normally always RIGHT in our arguments.

BIZARRE DREAMS

• Bizarre Dreams also occur! • Normally the core of the of the dream is reasonable, but

the story winds up happening in a weird place or with people you don’t expect.

• We suspect these strange combos to occur from the random electrical firing, putting things together we would normally not. • Ex- Ugly Uncle Harry, is playing the handsome leading role in

a love story!You should only be concerned about these bizarre dreams if the occur over and over and if they are bothering you

DREAMS

• Two frightening experiences can happen during sleep!

•1. Nightmares•2. Night Terrors

NIGHTMARES

• Nightmares happen during REM sleep.• They are infrequent and only about 5% have

nightmares on a weekly basis.• Nightmares normally occur when people have

missed REM periods of sleep from drinking too much alcohol, or not getting enough sleep.• Nightmares occur because REM sleep is blocked!

NIGHT TERRORS

• Night Terror: a horrible dream that is VIVID and REAL.• Night Terrors occur during NREM sleep, not REM

sleep. This is why they are so terrible.• The body is caught off guard and is not prepared for the

dream.• The physical overload sets of major bodily changes.• Breathing rate zooms upward, a person feels “choked”,

heart rate takes off to 170+beats per min• Night terrors create a feeling of panic or fear of dying.• The sleeper usually springs up in bed, sweating, scared,

and sick.

NIGHT TERRORS

• Are fairly common in young children because the dreams seem to be connected to a maturing mind.• Young children should not be treated, since it is

fairly normal and will only become more scared by going to a doctor.• If night terrors occur frequently to a middle school

age teen or older, they should seek help because this could be a red flag for a brain disorder.

SLEEP DISORDERS

• Walking and Talking• Nothing is wrong with you if you walk or talk during

sleep.• On one side of your brain, there are specific areas that

control body movements and sleep. While dreaming, if one of these electrical bursts, stimulate that side of your brain, you can begin to walk or talk.

• This normally occurs during stage 4 or of deep NREM sleep.

• People are not really awake, so communicating does no good.

SLEEP DISORDERS

• Insomnia• About 10% of Americans have trouble sleeping.

Most of these problems are self created.• However….some people struggle with Insomnia.

The inability to get enough sleep.• The 2 most common causes are:• 1. Getting out of your normal circadian cycle• 2. Taking drugs or drinking alcohol before bed

SLEEP DISORDERS

• Narcolepsy• In this disorder, an individual can go into “instant

REM sleep” ANYWHERE, ANYTIME.• It’s a rare disorder, but is very dangerous, since

the person immediately loses consciousness. • Treatment is mandatory and prescribed medicine

normally helps• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X0h2nleWTwI

SLEEP DISORDERS

• Sleep Apnea• Apnea- means “not breathing”• This is a disorder while sleeping, someone stops

breathing and keeps waking up.• The person doesn’t know why this keeps

happening!

HYPNOSIS & MEDIATION

• An altered state of consciousness occurs when some aspect of normal consciousness is modified by mental, behavioral, or chemical means.• Hypnosis • Meditation• Psychoactive drug states

HYPNOSIS

• Hypnosis – Induced state of altered awareness, characterized by heightened suggestibility and deep relaxation• Hypnotizability –

Degree to which an individual is responsive to hypnotic suggestions

• A state of relaxation in which attention is focused on certain objects, acts, or feelings.

• “Cures” come from the power of suggestion.

PRACTICAL USE OF HYPNOSIS

• Hypnosis can have practical uses for:• Researchers• Psychological treatment• Medical and dental treatment• Hypnotic analgesia –

Diminished sensitivity to pain while under hypnosis

MEDIATION

• Form of consciousness change induced by focusing on a repetitive behavior, assuming certain body positions and minimizing external stimulation.• A form of self-control, in which the outside world is cut off

from consciousness. • The person may use “filters or switches” to turn off the

outside world. • They normally concentrate on a steady sound to put the

brain in a “neutral position” to feel at ease.• EX- YOGA

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUG STATES

• Chemicals that affect mental processes and behavior by their effects on the nervous system• These drugs impair the brain mechanisms that

usually help us make good decisions.• The mostly widely abused drugs, all stimulate the

brains “reward circuits”.• Evolutionary Psychologist believe that our brain was

built to feel “pleasure” in many substances (ex sweet foods). Cocaine and Heroin trick the brain by exploiting these same mechanisms, making our bodies believe this drug is good for us.

HALLUCINOGENS

• Produce changes in our consciousness by altering perceptions, creating hallucinations, and blurring the line between self and the external world. • Commonly used hallucinogens: LSD, PCP. These drugs

produce a strange dissociation reaction, in which users feel removed from parts of his/her personality.

OPIATES

• Highly addictive drugs that suppress physical sensation and response to stimulation (including pain).• These drugs include morphine, heroin, and codeine all

made from opium poppy.• From a medical standpoint these drugs are effective in

relieving pain.• Patients who are supervised rarely become addicted• Opiates effect the part of the brain that are involved in

pleasure.• Morphine, Codeine, Heroin, Methadone

DEPRESSANTS

• Drugs that slow the mental and physical activity of the body by inhibiting activity in the Central Nervous System.• Ex- Sedation pills, anxiety pills, and alcohol.• Depressants tend to slow down the mental and physical

activity of the body.• In appropriate doses these drugs can reduce pain or

anxiety. But if abused, these drugs impair reflexes and judgments.

STIMULANTS

• Contrast to depressants, these drugs STIMULATE (speed up) the CNS. The result is a boost in both mental and physical activity.• These drugs can boost mental and physical

activity, increase concentration, and reduce hyper activity if used in the RIGHT way.• They can also be used to prevent narcolepsy

STIMULANTS

• Recreational users of stimulants seek other purposes for the drug.• Increased self confidence, greater energy, and stronger

feeling of pleasure.• Ex- Speed/Crack Meth: produces a swift high, that wears

off quickly.• Ecstasy- popular in the “Rave” culture. Leads to

exhaustion, dehydration, and impairs memory.

STIMULANTS

• Caffeine and Nicotine• Coffee for example have a measurable effect on heart

rate, blood circulation, and signaling to the brain.• Nicotine- found in tobacco, has similar effects but even

quicker.• Both are highly addictive• Caffeine has less negative repercussions if used in

moderation.

NICOTINE

• Nicotine is dangerous for 2 reasons:• 1. Is highly addictive• 2. Is associated with health problems, like cancer.

• Smoking is the leading cause of preventable diseases. 350,000 deaths result annually from smoking.

PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS

• These drugs can alter the functioning of neurons in your brain and as a consequence can change your consciousness.• Once in your brain, the block neural signals so the

drastically block the brains communication center—which then alters perception, memory, mood, and behavior

DEPENDENCE AND ADDICTION

• The more a drug is overused, the drug has a reduced effect on the taker—tolerance.• Hand in hand with tolerance is physical

dependence—a process in which the body adjusts to and come to need the drug.• This occurs because the drug has been in the

person’s system for so long that the taker craves the drug. Withholding from the drug brings withdrawals.

DEPENDENCE AND ADDICTION

• Addiction: occurs when the person continues to use a drug in the face of adverse effects on his/her life—often despite repeated attempts to stop.• Withdrawal- involves uncomfortable physical

and mental symptoms that occur when drug use is stopped.• Psychological dependence- A desire to obtain

or use a drug, even though there is no physical dependence.