chapter 5 understanding logic and recognizing logical...
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CHAPTER 5UnderstandingLogicandRecognizingLogicalFallacies
ATISSUEHowFreeShouldFreeSpeechBe?Askalmostanyonewhatmakesasocietyfreeandoneoftheanswerswillbefreespeech.Thefreeexpressionofideasisintegraltofreedomitself,andprotectingthatfreedomispartofademocraticgovernment’sjob:inasense,thismeansthatmostpeopleseefreespeechasoneofthecornerstonesofequality.Everyone’sopinioncan,andindeedmust,beheard.
Butwhathappenswhenthoseopinionsareoffensive,orevendangerous?Iffreespeechhaslimits,isitstillfree?Whenweconsiderthequestionabstractly,it’sveryeasytosayno.Howcanitbefreeiftherearelimitstohowfreeitis,andwhogetstodecidethoselimits?It’sdangeroustogiveanyonethatkindofauthority.Afterall,thereisnoshortageofhistoricalevidencelinkingcensorshipwithtyranny.Whenwethinkoflimitingfreespeech,wethinkoftotalitarianregimes,likeNaziGermany.
ButwhathappenswhenthepeoplearguingfortherighttobeheardareNazisthemselves?InplaceslikeIsraelandFrance,wherethelegacyofNaziGermanyisstillalltooreal,therearesomethingsyousimplycannotsay.Anti-Semiticlanguageisconsidered“hatespeech,”andthosewhoperpetuateitfacestifffines,ifnotimprisonment.ItmightseemoutrageoustothoseofuswholiveintheUnitedStates.IfyouliveinIsrael,however,chancesarethatthelegacyoftheHolocaustisnotthatfaraway.AndtherearepeopleinFrancewhocanstillrememberthedayNazitroopsmarchedintoParis.Shouldtheyhavetolistentowhatneo-Nazishavetosay?
OnAmericancollegecampuses,freespeechisoftenconsideredfundamentaltoaliberaleducation,andinmanyways,encounteringideasthatmakeyoufeeluncomfortableisanecessarypartofacollegeeducation.Butthequestionoffreespeechiseasytoanswerwhenit’stheoretical:whentheissueismadetangiblebyracistlanguageorbyadiscussionofatraumaticexperience,itbecomesmuchmoredifficulttonavigate.Forexample,shouldAfrican-Americanstudentshavetolistento“then-word”inadiscussionofHuckleberryFinn?Shouldanineteen-year-oldrapesurvivorhavetositthroughadiscussionofrapeinAmericanliterature?Advocatesofunlimitedfreespeech
respondtotheseobjectionsbypointingoutthatcensorshipisaslipperyslope:onceyoucanpenalizeapersonforsayingsomethinghateful,therewillbenoendtothesubjectsthatwillbeoff-limits.
Laterinthischapter,youwillbeaskedtothinkmoreaboutthisissue.Youwillbegivenseveralsourcestoconsiderandaskedtowritealogicalargumentthattakesapositiononhowfreefreespeechshouldbe.
ThewordlogiccomesfromtheGreekwordlogos,roughlytranslatedas“word,”“thought,”“principle,”or“reason.”Logicisconcernedwiththeprinciplesofcorrectreasoning.Bystudyinglogic,youlearntherulesthatdeterminethevalidityofarguments.Inotherwords,logicenablesyoutotellwhetheraconclusioncorrectlyfollowsfromasetofstatementsorassumptions.
Whyshouldyoustudylogic?Oneansweristhatlogicenablesyoutomakevalidpointsanddrawsoundconclusions.Anunderstandingoflogicalsoenablesyoutoevaluatetheargumentsofothers.Whenyouunderstandthebasicprinciplesoflogic,youknowhowtotellthedifferencebetweenastrongargumentandaweakargument—betweenonethatiswellreasonedandonethatisnot.Thisabilitycanhelpyoucutthroughthetangleofjumbledthoughtthatcharacterizesmanyoftheargumentsyouencounterdaily—ontelevision,radio,andtheInternet;inthepress;andfromfriends.Finally,logicenablesyoutocommunicateclearlyandforcefully.Understandingthecharacteristicsofgoodargumentshelpsyoutopresentyourownideasinacoherentandevencompellingway.
KobeBryant,whoplayedfortheLosAngelesLakers,arguingwitharefereeMarkRalston/Getty
Specificrulesdeterminethecriteriayouusetodevelop(andtoevaluate)argumentslogically.Forthisreason,youshouldbecomefamiliarwiththebasicprinciplesofdeductiveandinductivereasoning—twoimportantwaysinformationisorganizedinargumentativeessays.(Keepinmindthatasingleargumentativeessaymightcontainbothdeductivereasoningandinductivereasoning.Forthesakeofclarity,however,wewilldiscussthemseparately.)
ThomasJefferson©RMN-GrandPalais/ArtResource,NY
WhatIsDeductiveReasoning?Mostofususedeductivereasoningeveryday—athome,inschool,onthejob,andinourcommunities—usuallywithoutevenrealizingit.
Deductivereasoningbeginswithpremises—statementsorassumptionsonwhichanargumentisbasedorfromwhichconclusionsaredrawn.Deductivereasoningmovesfromgeneralstatements,orpremises,tospecificconclusions.Theprocessofdeductionhastraditionallybeenillustratedwithasyllogism,whichconsistsofamajorpremise,aminorpremise,andaconclusion:
MAJORPREMISE AllAmericansareguaranteedfreedomofspeechbytheConstitution.MINORPREMISE SarahisanAmerican.CONCLUSION Therefore,Sarahisguaranteedfreedomofspeech.
Asyllogismbeginswithamajorpremise—ageneralstatementthatrelatestwoterms.Itthenmovestoaminorpremise—anexampleofthestatementthatwasmadeinthemajorpremise.Ifthesetwopremisesarelinkedcorrectly,aconclusionthatissupportedbythetwopremiseslogicallyfollows.(Noticethattheconclusioninthesyllogismabovecontainsnotermsthatdonotappearinthemajorandminorpremises.)Thestrengthofdeductivereasoningisthatifreadersacceptthemajorandminorpremises,theconclusionmustnecessarilyfollow.
ThomasJeffersonuseddeductivereasoningintheDeclarationofIndependence.When,in1776,theContinentalCongressaskedhimtodraftthisdocument,JeffersonknewthathehadtowriteapowerfulargumentthatwouldconvincetheworldthattheAmericancolonieswerejustifiedinbreakingawayfromEngland.Heknewhowcompellingadeductiveargumentcouldbe,andsoheorganizedtheDeclarationofIndependencetoreflectthetraditionalstructureofdeductivelogic.Itcontainsamajorpremise,aminorpremise(supportedbyevidence),andaconclusion.Expressedasasyllogism,hereistheargumentthatJeffersonused:
MAJORPREMISE
Whenagovernmentoppressespeople,thepeoplehavearighttorebelagainstthatgovernment.
MINORPREMISE
ThegovernmentofEnglandoppressestheAmericanpeople.
CONCLUSION Therefore,theAmericanpeoplehavetherighttorebelagainstthegovernmentofEngland.
Inpractice,deductiveargumentsaremorecomplicatedthanthesimplethree-partsyllogism
suggests.Still,itisimportanttounderstandthebasicstructureofasyllogismbecauseasyllogismenablesyoutomapoutyourargument,totestit,andtoseeifitmakessense.
ConstructingSoundSyllogismsAsyllogismisvalidwhenitsconclusionfollowslogicallyfromitspremises.Asyllogismistruewhenthepremisesareconsistentwiththefacts.Tobesound,asyllogismmustbebothvalidandtrue.
Considerthefollowingvalidsyllogism:
MAJORPREMISE Allstateuniversitiesmustaccommodatedisabledstudents.MINORPREMISE UCLAisastateuniversity.CONCLUSION Therefore,UCLAmustaccommodatedisabledstudents.
Inthevalidsyllogismabove,boththemajorpremiseandtheminorpremisearefactualstatements.Ifboththesepremisesaretrue,thentheconclusionmustalsobetrue.Becausethesyllogismisbothvalidandtrue,itisalsosound.
However,asyllogismcanbevalidwithoutbeingtrue.Forexample,lookatthefollowingsyllogism:
MAJORPREMISE Allrecipientsofsupportservicesarewealthy.MINORPREMISE Dillonisarecipientofsupportservices.CONCLUSION Therefore,Dilloniswealthy.
Asillogicalasitmayseem,thissyllogismisvalid:itsconclusionfollowslogicallyfromitspremises.Themajorpremisestatesthatrecipientsofsupportservices—allsuchrecipients—arewealthy.However,thispremiseisclearlyfalse:somerecipientsofsupportservicesmaybewealthy,butmoreareprobablynot.Forthisreason,eventhoughthesyllogismisvalid,itisnottrue.
Keepinmindthatvalidityisatestofanargument’sstructure,notofitssoundness.Evenifasyllogism’smajorandminorpremisesaretrue,itsconclusionmaynotnecessarilybevalid.
Considerthefollowingexamplesofinvalidsyllogisms.
SyllogismwithanIllogicalMiddleTermAsyllogismwithanillogicalmiddletermcannotbevalid.Themiddletermofasyllogismisthetermthatoccursinboththemajorandminorpremisesbutnotintheconclusion.(Itlinksthemajortermandtheminortermtogetherinthesyllogism.)Amiddletermofavalidsyllogismmustrefertoallmembersofthedesignatedclassorgroup—forexample,alldogs,allpeople,
allmen,orallwomen.Considerthefollowinginvalidsyllogism:
MAJORPREMISE Alldogsaremammals.MINORPREMISE Somemammalsareporpoises.CONCLUSION Therefore,someporpoisesaredogs.
Cartoonstock.com
Eventhoughthestatementsinthemajorandminorpremisesaretrue,thesyllogismisnotvalid.Mammalsisthemiddletermbecauseitappearsinboththemajorandminorpremises.However,becausethemiddletermmammaldoesnotrefertoallmammals,itcannotlogicallyleadtoa
validconclusion.Inthesyllogismthatfollows,themiddletermdoesrefertoallmembersofthedesignated
group,sothesyllogismisvalid:
MAJORPREMISE Alldogsaremammals.MINORPREMISE Ralphisadog.CONCLUSION Therefore,Ralphisamammal.
SyllogismwithaKeyTermWhoseMeaningShiftsAsyllogismthatcontainsakeytermwhosemeaningshiftscannotbevalid.Forthisreason,themeaningofakeytermmustremainconsistentthroughoutthesyllogism.
Considerthefollowinginvalidsyllogism:
MAJORPREMISE Onlymaniscapableofanalyticalreasoning.MINORPREMISE Annaisnotaman.CONCLUSION Therefore,Annaisnotcapableofanalyticalreasoning.
Inthemajorpremise,manreferstomankind—thatis,toallhumanbeings.Intheminorpremise,however,manreferstomales.Inthefollowingvalidsyllogism,thekeytermsremainconsistent:
MAJORPREMISE Alleducatedhumanbeingsarecapableofanalyticalreasoning.MINORPREMISE Annaisaneducatedhumanbeing.CONCLUSION Therefore,Annaiscapableofanalyticalreasoning.
SyllogismwithNegativePremiseIfeitherpremiseinasyllogismisnegative,thentheconclusionmustalsobenegative.
Thefollowingsyllogismisnotvalid:
MAJORPREMISE Onlysenatorscanvoteonlegislation.MINORPREMISE Nostudentsaresenators.CONCLUSION Therefore,studentscanvoteonlegislation.
Becauseoneofthepremisesofthesyllogismaboveisnegative(“Nostudentsaresenators”),theonlypossiblevalidconclusionmustalsobenegative(“Therefore,nostudentscanvoteonlegislation”).
Ifbothpremisesarenegative,however,thesyllogismcannothaveavalidconclusion:
MAJORPREMISE Disabledstudentsmaynotbedeniedspecialhelp.
MINORPREMISE Jenisnotadisabledstudent.CONCLUSION Therefore,Jenmaynotbedeniedspecialhelp.
Inthesyllogismabove,bothpremisesarenegative.Forthisreason,thesyllogismcannothaveavalidconclusion.(HowcanJendeservespecialhelpifsheisnotadisabledstudent?)Tohaveavalidconclusion,thissyllogismmusthaveonlyonenegativepremise:
MAJORPREMISE Disabledstudentsmaynotbedeniedspecialhelp.MINORPREMISE Jenisadisabledstudent.CONCLUSION Therefore,Jenmaynotbedeniedspecialhelp.
RecognizingEnthymemesAnenthymemeisasyllogismwithoneortwopartsofitsargument—usually,themajorpremise—missing.Ineverydaylife,weoftenleaveoutpartsofarguments—mostofthetimebecausewethinktheyaresoobvious(orclearlyimplied)thattheydon’tneedtobestated.Weassumethatthepeoplehearingorreadingtheargumentswilleasilybeabletofillinthemissingparts.
Manyenthymemesarepresentedasaconclusionplusareason.Considerthefollowingenthymeme:
Roberthaslied,sohecannotbetrusted.
Inthestatementabove,theminorpremiseandtheconclusionarestated,butthemajorpremiseisonlyimplied.Oncethemissingtermhasbeensupplied,thelogicalstructureoftheenthymemebecomesclear:
MAJORPREMISE Peoplewholiecannotbetrusted.MINORPREMISE Roberthaslied.CONCLUSION Therefore,Robertcannotbetrusted.
Itisimportanttoidentifyenthymemesinargumentsyoureadbecausesomewriters,knowingthatreadersoftenacceptenthymemesuncritically,usethemintentionallytounfairlyinfluencereaders.
Considerthisenthymeme:
BecauseLizreceivesatuitiongrant,sheshouldwork.
Althoughsomereadersmightchallengethisstatement,otherswillacceptituncritically.Whenyousupplythemissingpremise,however,theunderlyingassumptionsoftheenthymemebecomeclear—andopentoquestion:
MAJORPREMISE Allstudentswhoreceivetuitiongrantsshouldwork.MINORPREMISE Lizreceivesatuitiongrant.CONCLUSION Therefore,Lizshouldwork.
Perhapssomepeoplewhoreceivetuitiongrantsshouldwork,butshouldeveryone?Whatabout
thosewhoareillorwhohavedisabilities?Whataboutthosewhoparticipateinvarsitysportsorhaveunpaidinternships?Theenthymemeoversimplifiestheissueandshouldnotbeacceptedatfacevalue.
Atfirstglance,thefollowingenthymememightseemtomakesense:
NorthKoreaisruledbyadictator,soitshouldbeinvaded.
However,considerthesameenthymemewiththemissingtermsupplied:
MAJORPREMISE Allcountriesgovernedbydictatorsshouldbeinvaded.MINORPREMISE NorthKoreaisacountrygovernedbyadictator.CONCLUSION Therefore,NorthKoreashouldbeinvaded.
Oncethemissingmajorpremisehasbeensupplied,theflawsintheargumentbecomeclear.Shouldallnationsgovernedbydictatorsbeinvaded?Whoshoulddotheinvading?Whowouldmakethisdecision?Whatwouldbetheconsequencesofsuchapolicy?Asthisenthymemeillustrates,ifthemajorpremiseofadeductiveargumentisquestionable,thentherestoftheargumentwillalsobeflawed.
Bumper-StickerThinking
Bumperstickersoftentaketheformofenthymemes:
Self-controlbeatsbirthcontrol.
Peaceispatriotic.
Awoman’splaceisintheHouse…andintheSenate.
Bancrueltraps.
Evolutionisatheory—kindoflikegravity.
Iworkandpaytaxessowealthypeopledon’thaveto.
TheBiblesaysit,Ibelieveit,thatsettlesit.
Nooneneedsaminkcoatexceptamink.
Celebratediversity.
Mostoften,bumperstickersstatejusttheconclusionofanargumentandomitboththemajorandminorpremises.Carefulreaders,however,willsupplythemissingpremisesandthusdeterminewhethertheargumentissound.
Bumperstickersonacar.©DaveG.Houser/Corbis.
EXERCISE5.1Readthefollowingparagraph.Then,restateitsmainargumentasasyllogism.
DrunkDrivingShouldBeLegalized
Inorderingstatestoenforcetougherdrunkdrivingstandardsbymakingitacrimetodrivewithablood-alcoholconcentrationof.08percentorhigher,governmenthasbeenpermitted to criminalize the content of drivers’ blood instead of their actions. Theassumption that a driver who has been drinking automatically presents a danger tosociety even when no harm has been caused is a blatant violation of civil liberties.Governmentshouldnotbeconcernedwiththeprobabilityandpropensityofadrinkingdriver to cause an accident; rather, laws should deal only with actions that damagepersonorproperty.Untiltheyactuallycommitacrime,drunkdriversshouldbeliberatedfromtheforceofthelaw.(From“LegalizeDrunkDriving,”byLlewellynH.RockwellJr.,WorldNetDaily.com)
EXERCISE5.2Readthefollowingparagraphs.Then,answerthequestionsthatfollow.
AnimalsAreEqualtoHumans
According to the United Nations, a person may not be killed, exploited, cruellytreated,intimidated,orimprisonedfornogoodreason.Putanotherway,peopleshouldbeabletoliveinpeace,accordingtotheirownneedsandpreferences.
Who should have these rights? Do they apply to people of all races? Children?Peoplewhoarebraindamagedorsenile?Thedeclarationmakesitclearthatbasicrightsapplytoeveryone.Tomakeaslaveofsomeonewhoisintellectuallyhandicappedorofa
differentraceisnomorejustifiablethantomakeaslaveofanyoneelse.The reason why these rights apply to everyone is simple: regardless of our
differences, we all experience a life with its mosaic of thoughts and feelings. Thisappliesequallytotheprincessandthehobo,thebrainsurgeonandthedunce.Ourvalueasindividualsarisesfromthiscapacitytoexperiencelife,notbecauseofanyintelligenceorusefulnesstoothers.Everypersonhasaninherentvalue,anddeservestobetreatedwithrespectinordertomakethemostoftheiruniquelifeexperience.(Excerptedfrom“HumanandAnimalRights,”byAnimalLiberation.org)
1. Whatunstatedassumptionsaboutthesubjectdoesthewritermake?Doesthewriterexpectreaderstoaccepttheseassumptions?Howcanyoutell?
2. Whatkindofsupportingevidencedoesthewriterprovide?
3. Whatisthemajorpremiseofthisargument?
4. Expresstheargumentthatispresentedintheseparagraphsasasyllogism.
5. Evaluatethesyllogismyouconstructed.Isittrue?Isitvalid?Isitsound?
EXERCISE5.3Readthefollowingfivearguments,anddeterminewhethereachissound.(Tohelpyouevaluatethearguments,youmaywanttotryarrangingthemassyllogisms.)
1. Allhumansaremortal.Maxishuman.Therefore,Maxismortal.
2. Alisonshouldordereggsoroatmealforbreakfast.Shewon’tordereggs,sosheshouldorderoatmeal.
3. Allreptilesarecold-blooded.Geckosarereptiles.Therefore,geckosarecold-blooded.
4. Alltriangleshavethreeequalsides.Thefigureontheboardisatriangle.Therefore,itmusthavethreeequalsides.
EXERCISE5.4Readthefollowingtenenthymemes,whichcomefrombumperstickers.Supplythemissingpremises,andthenevaluatethelogicofeachargument.
1. Ifyouloveyourpet,don’teatmeat.
2. Waristerrorism.
3. Realmendon’taskfordirections.
4. Immigrationisthesincerestformofflattery.
5. IeatlocalbecauseIcan.
6. Don’tblameme;Ivotedfortheotherguy.
7. Ireadbannedbooks.
8. Loveistheonlysolution.
9. It’sachild,notachoice.
10. Think.It’spatriotic.
WritingDeductiveArgumentsDeductiveargumentsbeginwithageneralprincipleandreachaspecificconclusion.Theydevelopthatprinciplewithlogicalargumentsthataresupportedbyevidence—facts,observations,theopinionsofexperts,andsoon.Keepinmindthatnosinglestructureissuitableforalldeductive(orinductive)arguments.Differentissuesanddifferentaudienceswilldeterminehowyouarrangeyourideas.
Ingeneral,deductiveessayscanbestructuredinthefollowingway:
INTRODUCTION PresentsanoverviewoftheissueStatesthethesisBODY Presentsevidence:point1insupportofthethesis
Presentsevidence:point2insupportofthethesisPresentsevidence:point3insupportofthethesisRefutestheargumentsagainstthethesis
CONCLUSION BringsargumenttoacloseConcludingstatementreinforcesthethesis
EXERCISE5.5Thefollowingstudentessay,“CollegeShouldBeforEveryone,”includesalltheelementsofadeductiveargument.Thestudentwhowrotethisessaywasrespondingtothequestion,“Shouldeveryonebeencouragedtogotocollege?”Afteryoureadtheessay,answerthequestionsonpages136–137,consultingtheoutlineonpage133ifnecessary.
CRYSTALSANCHEZ
COLLEGESHOULDBEFOREVERYONEUntilthemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,collegewaslargelyfortherich.TheG.I.Bill,
whichpaidfortheeducationofveteransreturningfromWorldWarII,helpedtochangethissituation.By1956,nearlyhalfofthosewhohadservedinWorldWarII,almost7.8millionpeople,hadtakenadvantageofthisbenefit(U.S.DepartmentofVeteransAffairs).Eventoday,however,collegegraduatesarestillaminorityofthepopulation.AccordingtotheU.S.CensusBureau,only27.5percentofAmericansagetwenty-fiveorolderhaveabachelor’sdegree.In
manyways,thissituationisnotgoodforthecountry.Whyshouldcollegebejustfortheprivilegedfew?Becauseacollegeeducationprovidesimportantbenefits,suchasincreasedwagesforourcitizensandastrongerdemocracyforournation,everyU.S.citizenshouldhavetheopportunitytoattendcollege. 1
OverviewofissueThesisstatement
Onereasoneveryoneshouldhavetheopportunitytogotocollegeisthatacollegeeducationgivespeopleachancetodiscoverwhattheyaregoodat.Itishardforpeopletoknowiftheyareinterestedinstatisticsorpublicpolicyormarketingunlesstheyhavethechancetoexplorethesesubjects.College—andonlycollege—cangivethemthisopportunity.Whereelsecanapersonbeexposedtoalargenumberofcoursestaughtbyexpertsinavarietyofdisciplines?Suchexposurecanopennewareasofinterestandleadtoamuchwidersetofcareeroptions—andthustoabetterlife(Stout).Withoutcollege,mostpeoplehavelimitedoptionsandneverrealizetheirtruepotential.Althoughlifeandworkexperiencescanteachapersonalotofthings,thebesteducationisthebroadkindthatcollegeoffers. 2
Evidence:Point1
Anotherreasoneveryoneshouldhavetheopportunitytogotocollegeisthatmoreandmorejobsarebeingphasedoutormovedoverseas.AmericansshouldgotocollegetodeveloptheskillsthattheywillneedtogetthebestjobsthatwillremainintheUnitedStates.Overthelastfewdecades,midleveljobshavebeensteadilydisappearing.Ifthistrendcontinues,theAmericanworkforcewillbedividedintwo.Onepartwillconsistoflow-wage,low-skillservicejobs,suchasthoseinfoodpreparationandretailsales,andtheotherpartwillbehigh-skill,high-wagejobs,suchasthoseinmanagementandprofessionalfieldslikebusinessandengineering.Accordingtoarecentreport,tocompeteinthefuturejobmarket,Americanswillneedtheskillsthatcollegesteach.Futureworkerswillneedtobeproblemsolverswhocanthinkbothcriticallyandcreativelyandwhocanadapttounpredictablesituations.Theywillalsoneedaglobalawareness,knowledgeofmanyculturesanddisciplines,andtheabilitytocommunicateindifferentformsofmedia.Tomastertheseskills,Americanshavetobecollegeeducated(“TenSkillsfortheFutureWorkforce”). 3
Evidence:Point2
Perhapsthebestreasoneveryoneshouldhavetheopportunitytogotocollegeisthateducationisanessentialcomponentofademocraticsociety.Thosewithouttheabilitytounderstandandanalyzenewsreportsarenotcapableofcontributingtothesocial,political,andeconomicgrowthofthecountry.Democracyrequiresinformedcitizenswhowillbeabletoanalyzecomplicatedissuesinareassuchasfinance,education,andpublichealth;weighcompetingclaimsofthoserunningforpublicoffice;andassessthejobperformanceofelectedofficials.Byprovidingstudentswiththeopportunitytostudysubjectssuchashistory,philosophy,English,andpoliticalscience,collegesanduniversitieshelpthemtoacquirethecritical-thinkingskillsthattheywillneedtoparticipatefullyinAmericandemocracy. 4
Evidence:Point3
Somepeopleopposetheideathateveryoneshouldhavetheopportunitytoattendcollege.Oneobjectionisthateducationalresourcesarelimited.Somesaythatifstudentsentercollegesingreatnumberstheywilloverwhelmthehigher-educationsystem(Stout).Thisargumentexaggeratestheproblem.Aswithanyotherproduct,ifdemandrises,supplywillrisetomeetthatdemand.Inaddition,withtoday’sextensivedistance-learningoptionsandtheavailabilityofopeneducationalresources—free,high-quality,digitalmaterials—itwillbepossibletoeducatelargenumbersofstudentsatareasonablecost(“OpenEducationalResources”).Anotherobjectiontoencouragingeveryonetoattendcollegeisthatunderpreparedstudentswillrequiresomuchhelpthattheywilltaketimeandattentionawayfrombetterstudents.Thisargumentisactuallyaredherring.°Mostschoolsalreadyprovideresources,suchastutoringandwritingcenters,forstudentswhoneedthem.Withsomeadditionalfunding,theseschoolscouldexpandtheservicestheyalreadyprovide.Thiscourseofactionwillbeexpensive,butitisalotlessexpensivethanleavingmillionsofyoungpeopleunpreparedforjobsofthefuture. 5
RefutationofopposingargumentsAnirrelevantsideissueusedasadiversion
AcollegeeducationgavethereturningveteransofWorldWarIImanyopportunitiesandincreasedtheirvaluetothenation.Today,acollegeeducationcoulddothesameformanycitizens.Thiscountryhasanobligationtoofferallstudentsaccesstoanaffordableandusefuleducation.Notonlywillthestudentsbenefitpersonally,butthenationwillalso.Ifwedonotadequatelypreparestudentsforthefuture,thenwewillallsuffertheconsequences. 6
Concludingstatement
WorksCited
“OpenEducationalResources.”CenterforAmericanProgress,7Feb.2012,www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/news/2012/02/07/11114/open-educational-resources/.
Stout,Chris.“TopFiveReasonsWhyYouShouldChoosetoGotoCollege.”EzineArticles,2008,ezinearticles.com/?Top-Five-Reasons-Why-You-Should-Choose-To-Go-To-College&id=384395.
“TenSkillsfortheFutureWorkforce.”TheAtlantic,22June2011,www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2011/06/ten-skills-for-future-work/473484/.
UnitedStates,CensusBureau.“Bachelor’sDegreeAttainmentTops30PercentfortheFirstTime,CensusBureauReports.”USCensusBureauNewsroom,23Feb.2012,www.census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/education/cb12-33.html.
---,DepartmentofVeteransAffairs.“BornofControversy:TheGIBillofRights.”GIBillHistory,20Oct.2008,www.va.gov/opa/publications/celebrate/gi-bill.pdf.
IdentifyingtheElementsofaDeductiveArgument
1. Paraphrasethisessay’sthesis.
2. Whatargumentsdoesthewriterpresentasevidencetosupportherthesis?Whichdoyouthinkisthestrongestargument?Whichistheweakest?
3. Whatopposingargumentsdoesthewriteraddress?Whatotheropposingargumentscouldshehaveaddressed?
4. Whatpointsdoestheconclusionemphasize?Doyouthinkthatanyotherpointsshouldbeemphasized?
5. Constructasyllogismthatexpressestheessay’sargument.Then,checkyoursyllogismtomakesureitissound.
WhatIsInductiveReasoning?Inductivereasoningbeginswithspecificobservations(orevidence)andgoesontodrawageneralconclusion.Youcanseehowinductionworksbylookingatthefollowinglistofobservations:
Nearly80percentofoceanpollutioncomesfromrunoff.
Runoffpollutioncanmakeoceanwaterunsafeforfishandpeople.
Insomeareas,runoffpollutionhasforcedbeachestobeclosed.
Drinkingwatercanbecontaminatedbyrunoff.
MorethanonethirdofshellfishgrowinginwatersintheUnitedStatesarecontaminatedbyrunoff.
Eachyear,millionsofdollarsarespenttorestorepollutedareas.
Thereisacausalrelationshipbetweenagriculturalrunoffandwater-borneorganismsthatdamagefish.
Afterstudyingtheseobservations,youcanuseinductivereasoningtoreachtheconclusionthatrunoffpollution(rainwaterthatbecomespollutedafteritcomesincontactwithearth-boundpollutantssuchasfertilizer,petwaste,sewage,andpesticides)isaproblemthatmustbeaddressed.
Signwarningofcontaminatedwater©KristaKennella/ZUMAPRESS
Childrenlearnabouttheworldbyusinginductivereasoning.Forexample,veryyoungchildrenseethatiftheypushalightswitchup,thelightsinaroomgoon.Iftheyrepeatthisactionoverandover,theyreachtheconclusionthateverytimetheypushaswitch,thelightswillgoon.Ofcourse,thisconclusiondoesnotalwaysfollow.Forexample,thelightbulbmaybeburnedoutortheswitchmaybedamaged.Evenso,theirconclusionusuallyholdstrue.Childrenalsouseinductiontogeneralizeaboutwhatissafeandwhatisdangerous.Ifeverytimetheymeetadog,theencounterispleasant,theybegintothinkthatalldogsarefriendly.Ifatsomepoint,however,adogsnapsatthem,theyquestionthestrengthoftheirconclusionandmodifytheirbehavioraccordingly.
Scientistsalsouseinduction.In1620,SirFrancisBaconfirstproposedthescientificmethod—awayofusinginductiontofindanswerstoquestions.Whenusingthescientificmethod,aresearcherproposesahypothesisandthenmakesaseriesofobservationstotestthishypothesis.Basedontheseobservations,theresearcherarrivesataconclusionthatconfirms,modifies,ordisprovesthehypothesis.
ReachingInductiveConclusions
Herearesomeofthewaysyoucanuseinductivereasoningtoreachconclusions:
Particulartogeneral:Thisformofinductionoccurswhenyoureachageneralconclusion
basedonparticularpiecesofevidence.Forexample,supposeyouwalkintoabathroomandseethatthemirrorsarefogged.Youalsonoticethatthebathtubhasdropsofwateronitssidesandthatthebathroomflooriswet.Inaddition,youseeadamptoweldrapedoverthesink.Puttingalltheseobservationstogether,youconcludethatsomeonehasrecentlytakenabath.(Detectivesuseinductionwhengatheringcluestosolveacrime.)
Generaltogeneral:Thisformofinductionoccurswhenyoudrawaconclusionbasedontheconsistencyofyourobservations.Forexample,ifyoudeterminethatAppleInc.hasmadegoodproductsforalongtime,youconcludeitwillcontinuetomakegoodproducts.
Generaltoparticular:Thisformofinductionoccurswhenyoudrawaconclusionbasedonwhatyougenerallyknowtobetrue.Forexample,ifyoubelievethatcarsmadebytheFordMotorCompanyarereliable,thenyouconcludethataFordFocuswillbeareliablecar.
Particulartoparticular:Thisformofinductionoccurswhenyouassumethatbecausesomethingworksinonesituation,itwillalsoworkinanothersimilarsituation.Forexample,ifKrazyGluefixedthebrokenhandleofonecup,thenyouconcludeitwillprobablyfixthebrokenhandleofanothercup.
MakingInferencesUnlikededuction,whichreachesaconclusionbasedoninformationprovidedbythemajorandminorpremises,inductionuseswhatyouknowtomakeastatementaboutsomethingthatyoudon’tknow.Whiledeductiveargumentscanbejudgedinabsoluteterms(theyareeithervalidorinvalid),inductiveargumentsarejudgedinrelativeterms(theyareeitherstrongorweak).
Youreachaninductiveconclusionbymakinganinference—astatementaboutwhatisunknownbasedonwhatisknown.(Inotherwords,youlookattheevidenceandtrytofigureoutwhatisgoingon.)Forthisreason,thereisalwaysagapbetweenyourobservationsandyourconclusion.Tobridgethisgap,youhavetomakeaninductiveleap—astretchoftheimaginationthatenablesyoutodrawanacceptableconclusion.Therefore,inductiveconclusionsarenevercertain(asdeductiveconclusionsare)butonlyprobable.Themoreevidenceyouprovide,thestrongerandmoreprobableyourconclusions(andyourargument)are.
Public-opinionpollsillustratehowinferencesareusedtoreachinductiveconclusions.Politiciansandnewsorganizationsroutinelyusepublic-opinionpollstoassesssupport(orlackofsupport)foraparticularpolicy,proposal,orpoliticalcandidate.Aftersurveyingasamplepopulation—registeredvoters,forexample—pollstersreachconclusionsbasedontheirresponses.Inotherwords,byaskingquestionsandstudyingtheresponsesofasamplegroupofpeople,pollstersmakeinferencesaboutthelargergroup—forexample,whichpoliticalcandidateisaheadandbyhowmuch.Howsolidtheseinferencesaredependstoagreatextentonthesamplepopulationsthepollsterssurvey.Inanelection,forexample,apollofrandomlychosenindividualswillbelessaccuratethanapollofregisteredvotersorlikelyvoters.Inaddition,otherfactors(suchasthesizeofthesampleandthewayquestionsareworded)candeterminetherelativestrengthoftheinductiveconclusion.
Aswithallinferences,agapexistsbetweenapoll’sdata—theresponsestothequestions—andtheconclusion.Thelargerandmorerepresentativethesample,thesmallertheinductiveleapnecessarytoreachaconclusionandthemoreaccuratethepoll.Ifthegapbetweenthedataandtheconclusionistoobig,however,thepollsterswillbeaccusedofmakingahastygeneralization(seep.150).Remember,nomatterhowmuchsupportyoupresent,aninductiveconclusionisonlyprobable,nevercertain.Thebestyoucandoispresentaconvincingcaseandhopethatyouraudiencewillacceptit.
ConstructingStrongInductiveArgumentsWhenyouuseinductivereasoning,yourconclusionisonlyasstrongastheevidence—thefacts,details,orexamples—thatyouusetosupportit.Forthisreason,youshouldbeonthelookoutforthefollowingproblemsthatcanoccurwhenyoutrytoreachaninductiveconclusion.
GeneralizationTooBroadTheconclusionyoustatecannotgobeyondthescopeofyourevidence.Yourevidencemustsupportyourgeneralization.Forinstance,youcannotsurveyjustthreeinternationalstudentsinyourschoolandconcludethattheschooldoesnotgofarenoughtoaccommodateinternationalstudents.Toreachsuchaconclusion,youwouldhavetoconsideralargenumberofinternationalstudents.
InsufficientEvidenceTheevidenceonwhichyoubaseaninductiveconclusionmustberepresentative,notatypicalorbiased.Forexample,youcannotconcludethatstudentsaresatisfiedwiththecourseofferingsatyourschoolbysamplingjustfirst-yearstudents.Tobevalid,yourconclusionshouldbebasedonresponsesfromacrosssectionofstudentsfromallyears.
IrrelevantEvidenceYourevidencehastosupportyourconclusion.Ifitdoesnot,itisirrelevant.Forexample,ifyouassertthatmanyadjunctfacultymembersmakesubstantialcontributionstoyourschool,yoursupportingexamplesmustbeadjunctfaculty,nottenuredorjuniorfaculty.
ExceptionstotheRuleThereisalwaysachancethatyouwilloverlookanexceptionthatmayaffectthestrengthofyourconclusion.Forexample,noteveryonewhohasadisabilityneedsspecialaccommodations,andnoteveryonewhorequiresspecialaccommodationsneedsthesameservices.Forthisreason,youshouldavoidusingwordslikeevery,all,andalwaysandinsteadusewordslikemost,many,andusually.
EXERCISE5.6
Readthefollowingarguments,anddecidewhethereachisadeductiveargumentoraninductiveargumentandwrite“D”or“I”onthelinesbelow.
1. Freedomofspeechisacentralprincipleofourformofgovernment.Forthisreason,studentsshouldbeallowedtowearT-shirtsthatcallforthelegalizationofmarijuana.________
2. TheChevyCruzeEcogetstwenty-sevenmilesagalloninthecityandforty-sixmilesagallononthehighway.TheHondaAccordgetstwenty-sevenmilesagalloninthecityandthirty-sixmilesagallononthehighway.Therefore,itmakesmoresenseformetobuytheChevyCruzeEco.________
3. InEdgarAllanPoe’sshortstory“TheCaskofAmontillado,”MontresorflattersFortunato.Helureshimtohisvaultswherehestoreswine.MontresorthengetsFortunatodrunkandchainshimtothewallofacrypt.Finally,Montresoruncoversapileofbuildingmaterialandwallsuptheentrancetothecrypt.Clearly,MontresorhascarefullyplannedtomurderFortunatoforaverylongtime.________
4. Allpeopleshouldhavetherighttodiewithdignity.Garrettisaterminallyillpatient,soheshouldhaveaccesstodoctor-assistedsuicide.________
5. Lastweek,wefoundunacceptablyhighlevelsofpollutionintheocean.OnMonday,wealsofoundhighlevelsofpollution.Today,wefoundevenhigherlevelsofpollution.Weshouldclosetheoceanbeachestoswimmersuntilwecanfindthesourceofthisproblem.________
EXERCISE5.7Readthefollowingarguments.Then,decidewhethertheyaredeductiveorinductive.Iftheyareinductivearguments,evaluatetheirstrength.Iftheyaredeductivearguments,evaluatetheirsoundness.
1. TheFarmer’sAlmanacsaysthatthiswinterwillbeverycold.TheNationalWeatherServicealsopredictsthatthiswinterwillbeverycold.So,thisshouldbeacoldwinter.
2. ManywalledtownsinEuropedonotletpeopledrivecarsintotheircenters.SanGimignanoisawalledtowninEurope.Itislikelythatwewillnotbeabletodriveourcarintoitscenter.
3. Thewindowatthebackofthehouseisbroken.Thereisabaseballonthefloor.Afewminutesago,Isawtwoboysplayingcatchinaneighbor’syard.Theymusthavethrowntheballthroughthewindow.
4. EverytimeIgotothebeachIgetsunburned.IguessIshouldstopgoingtothebeach.
5. Allmyinstructorshaveadvanceddegrees.GeorgeMartinisoneofmyinstructors.Therefore,GeorgeMartinhasanadvanceddegree.
6. Mylasttwoboyfriendscheatedonme.Allmenareterrible.
7. IreadastudypublishedbyapharmaceuticalcompanythatsaidthatAccutanewassafe.Maybethegovernmentwastooquicktopullthisdrugoffthemarket.
8. Chaseisnotverygood-looking,andhedressesbadly.Idon’tknowhowhecanbeagoodarchitect.
9. Nofictionalcharacterhaseverhadafanclub.HarryPotterdoes,butheistheexception.
10. Twoweeksago,myinstructorrefusedtoacceptalatepaper.Shedidthesamethinglastweek.Yesterday,shealsotoldsomeonethatbecausehispaperwaslate,shewouldn’tacceptit.I’dbettergetmypaperinontime.
EXERCISE5.8Readtheinductiveparagraphbelow,writtenbystudentPoojaVaidya,andanswerthequestionsthatfollowit.
Yearsago,whenmyfriendtookmetoagamebetweenthePhiladelphiaEaglesandtheDallasCowboysinPhiladelphia,IlearnedalittlebitaboutAmericanfootballandalotabout thebehaviorof football fans.Manyof thePhiladelphia fansweredressed ingreen andwhite football jerseys, eachwith a player’s name andnumber on the back.OnefanhadhisfacepaintedgreenandworeagreencapewithalargewhiteEonit.Heran up and down the aisles in his section and led cheers.When the teamwas ahead,everyonejoinedin.Whentheteamfellbehind,thisfanliterallyfellonhisknees,cried,and begged the people in the stands to support the Eagles. (After the game, severalpeopleaskedhimforhisautograph.)Agroupofsixfanssatwithoutshirts.Theyworegreenwigs,andeachhadoneletteroftheteam’snamepaintedonhisbarechest.Eventhough the temperaturewas below freezing, none of these fans ever put on his shirt.Beforethegame,manyfanshadbeendrinkingattailgatepartiesintheparkinglot,andasthegameprogressed,theycontinuedtodrinkbeerinthestadium.Bythebeginningofthe second half, fights were breaking out all over the stadium. Guards grabbed thepeoplewhowerefightingandescortedthemtoaholdingareaunderthestadiumwhereajudgeheld“EaglesCourt.”Atonepoint,afanwearingaDallasjerseytriedtositdownintherowbehindme.SomeoftheEaglesfansweresothreateningthatthepolicehadtoescorttheDallasfanoutofthestandsforhisownprotection.Whenthegameendedinan Eagles victory, the fans sang the team’s fight song as they left the stadium. IconcludedthatformanyEaglesfans,adayatthestadiumisanopportunitytoengageinbehaviorthatinanyothercontextwouldbeunacceptableandevenabnormal.
1. Whichofthefollowingstatementscouldyounotconcludefromthisparagraph?
a. AllEaglesfansactinoutrageouswaysatgames.
b. Atfootballgames,thefansinthestandscanbeasviolentastheplayersonthefield.
c. Theatmosphereatthestadiumcausesotherwisenormalpeopletoactabnormally.
d. Spectatorsportsencouragefanstoactinabnormalways.
e. Somepeoplegetsocaughtupintheexcitementofagamethattheyactinuncharacteristicways.
2. Paraphrasethewriter’sconclusion.Whatevidenceisprovidedtosupportthisconclusion?
3. Whatadditionalevidencecouldthewriterhaveprovided?Isthisadditionalevidencenecessary,ordoestheconclusionstandwithoutit?
4. Thewritermakesaninductiveleaptoreachtheparagraph’sconclusion.Doyouthinkthisleapistoogreat?
5. Doesthisparagraphmakeastronginductiveargument?Whyorwhynot?
PhiladelphiaEaglesfans©ChrisGraythen/GettyImagesSports
WritingInductiveArgumentsInductiveargumentsbeginwithevidence(specificfacts,observations,expertopinion,andsoon),drawinferencesfromtheevidence,andreachaconclusionbymakinganinductiveleap.Keepinmindthatinductiveargumentsareonlyasstrongasthelinkbetweentheevidenceandtheconclusion,sothestrongerthislinkis,thestrongertheargumentwillbe.
Inductiveessaysfrequentlyhavethefollowingstructure:
INTRODUCTION PresentstheissueStatesthethesis
BODY Presentsevidence:facts,observations,expertopinion,andsoonDrawsinferencesfromtheevidenceRefutestheargumentsagainstthethesis
CONCLUSION BringsargumenttoacloseConcludingstatementreinforcesthethesis
EXERCISE5.9Thefollowingessayincludesalltheelementsofaninductiveargument.Afteryoureadtheessay,answerthequestionsonpage146,consultingtheoutlineaboveifnecessary.
ThisessayappearedinSlateonSeptember2,2006.
WILLIAMSALETAN
PLEASEDONOTFEEDTHEHUMANSDug
In1894,CongressestablishedLaborDaytohonorthosewho“fromrudenaturehavedelved°andcarvedallthegrandeurwebehold.”Inthecenturysince,thegrandeurofhumanachievementhasmultiplied.Overthepastfourdecades,globalpopulationhasdoubled,butfoodoutput,drivenbyincreasesinproductivity,hasoutpacedit.Poverty,infantmortality,andhungerarereceding.Forthefirsttimeinourplanet’shistory,aspeciesnolongerlivesatthemercyofscarcity.Wehavelearnedtofeedourselves. 1
We’velearnedsowell,infact,thatwe’regettingfat.NotjusttheUnitedStatesorEurope,butthewholeworld.Egyptian,Mexican,andSouthAfricanwomenarenowasfatasAmericans.FarmoreFilipinoadultsarenowoverweightthanunderweight.InChina,oneinfiveadultsistooheavy,andtherateofoverweightchildrenis28timeshigherthanitwastwodecadesago.InThailand,Kuwait,andTunisia,obesity,diabetes,andheartdiseasearesoaring. 2
Hungerisfarfromconquered.Butsince1990,theglobalrateofmalnutritionhasdeclinedanaverageof1.7percentayear.BasedondatafromtheWorldHealthOrganizationandtheU.N.FoodandAgricultureOrganization,foreverytwopeoplewhoaremalnourished,threearenowoverweightorobese.Amongwomen,eveninmostAfricancountries,overweighthassurpassedunderweight.Thebalanceofperilisshifting. 3
Fatisnolongerarichman’sdisease.Formiddle-andhigh-incomeAmericans,theobesityrateis29percent.Forlow-incomeAmericans,it’s35percent.Amongmiddle-andhigh-incomekidsaged15to17,therateofoverweightis14percent.Amonglow-incomekidsinthesameagebracket,it’s23percent.Globally,weighthastendedtorisewithincome.ButastudyinVancouver,Canada,publishedthreemonthsago,foundthatpreschoolersin“food-insecure”householdsweretwiceaslikelyasotherkidstobeoverweightorobese.InBraziliancities,thepoorhavebecomefatterthantherich. 4
Technologically,thisisatriumph.Intheearlydaysofourspecies,eventherichstarved.BarryPopkin,anutritionalepidemiologistattheUniversityofNorthCarolina,divideshistoryintoseveralepochs.Inthehunter-gathererera,ifwedidn’tfindfood,wedied.Intheagriculturalera,ifourcropsperished,wedied.Intheindustrialera,faminereceded,butinfectiousdiseaseskilledus.Nowwe’veachievedsuchcontrolovernaturethatwe’redyingnotofstarvationorinfection,butofabundance.Natureisn’tkillingus.We’rekillingourselves. 5
Youdon’thavetogohungryanymore;wecanfillyouwithfatsandcarbsmorecheaplythanever.Youdon’thavetochaseyourfood;wecanbringittoyou.Youdon’thavetocookit;wecandeliveritready-to-eat.Youdon’thavetoeatitbeforeitspoils;wecanpumpitfullofpreservativessoitlastsforever.Youdon’tevenhavetostopwhenyou’refull.We’vegotsomuchfoodtosell,wewantyoutokeepeating. 6
WhathappenedinAmericaishappeningeverywhere,onlyfaster.Fewerfarmers’markets,moreprocessedfood.Fewerwholegrains,morerefinedones.Moresweeteners,salt,andtransfats.Cheapermeat,moreanimalfat.Lesscooking,moreeatingout.Biggerportions,moresnacks. 7
KentuckyFriedChickenandPizzaHutarespreadingacrosstheplanet.Coca-Colaisinmorethan200countries.HalfofMcDonald’sbusinessisoverseas.InChina,animal-fatintakehastripledin20years.By2020,meatconsumptionindevelopingcountrieswillgrowby106millionmetrictons,outstrippinggrowthindevelopedcountriesbyafactorofmorethanfive.Fortyyearsago,toaffordahigh-fatdiet,yourcountryneededagrossnationalproductpercapitaofnearly$1,500.Nowthepriceishalfthat.Younolongerhavetoberichtodiearichman’sdeath. 8
Soon,it’llbeapoorman’sdeath.TherichhaveWholeFoods,gyms,andpersonaltrainers.Thepoorhave7-Eleven,Popeye’s,andstreetsunsafeforwalking.Whenmoney’stight,youfeedyourkidsatWendy’sandstockuponmacaroniandcheese.Atalunchbuffet,youdowhat
yourancestorsdid:storeallthefatyoucan. 9That’sthepunchline:Technologyhaschangedeverythingbutus.Weevolvedtosurvive
scarcity.Wecravefat.We’requicktogainweightandslowtoloseit.Doublewhatyouserveus,andwe’lldoublewhatweeat.Thankstotechnology,thedeprivationthatmadethesetraitsusefulisgone.Soisthelinkbetweenflavorsandnutrients.Themodernfoodindustrycansellyousweetnesswithoutfruit,saltwithoutprotein,creaminesswithoutmilk.Wecanfattenyouandstarveyouatthesametime. 10
“Weevolvedtosurvivescarcity.”
Andthat’sjustthedietsideoftheequation.Beforetechnology,adultmenhadtoexpendabout3,000caloriesaday.Nowtheyexpendabout2,000.LookatthenewSegwayscooter.Theoriginalmodelrelievedyouoftheneedtowalk,pedal,orbalance.Withthenewone,youdon’tevenhavetoturnthehandlebarsorstartitmanually.Intheory,Segwayisreplacingthecar.Inpractice,it’sreplacingthebody. 11
Incountryaftercountry,servicejobsarereplacinghardlabor.ThefolkswhofieldyourcustomerservicecallsinBangalorearesittingatdesks.NearlyeveryoneinChinahasatelevisionset.RememberwhenChineserodebikes?Inthepastsixyears,thenumberofcarstherehasgrownfromsixmillionto20million.MorethanoneinsevenChinesehasamotorizedvehicle,andhouseholdswithsuchvehicleshaveanobesityrate80percenthigherthantheirpeers. 12
Theanswertothesetrendsissimple.Wehavetoexercisemoreandchangethefoodweeat,donate,andsubsidize.Nextyear,forexample,theU.S.Women,Infants,andChildrenprogram,whichsubsidizesgroceriesforimpoverishedyoungsters,willbegintopayforfruitsandvegetables.For32years,theprogramhasfedtoddlerseggsandcheesebutnotonevegetable.Andwewonderwhypoorkidsarefat. 13
Thehardpartischangingourmentality.Wehaveadistortedbodyimage.We’resousedtonothavingenough,asaspecies,thatwecan’tbelievetheproblemistoomuch.FromChinatoAfricatoLatinAmerica,peoplearetryingtofattentheirkids.IjustgotbackfromavacationwithmyJewishmotherandJewishmother-in-law.TheytoldmeIneedtoeatmore. 14
Theotherthingblindingusisliberalguilt.We’resocaughtupintheideaofgivingthatwecan’tseetheimportanceofchangingbehaviorratherthanfillingbellies.Weknowbetterthantofeedbutteredpopcorntozooanimals,yetwesendittoafoodbankandcallourselveshumanitarians.Maybeweshouldaskwhatourfellowhumansactuallyneed. 15
IdentifyingtheElementsofanInductiveArgument1. Whatisthisessay’sthesis?Restateitinyourownwords.
2. WhydoyouthinkSaletanplacesthethesiswherehedoes?
3. WhatevidencedoesSaletanusetosupporthisconclusion?
4. WhatinductiveleapdoesSaletanmaketoreachhisconclusion?Doyouthinkheshouldhaveincludedmoreevidence?
5. Overall,doyouthinkSaletan’sinductiveargumentisrelativelystrongorweak?Explain.
RecognizingLogicalFallaciesWhenyouwriteargumentsincollege,youfollowcertainrulesthatensurefairness.Noteveryonewhowritesargumentsisfairorthorough,however.Sometimesyouwillencounterargumentsinwhichwritersattacktheopposition’sintelligenceorpatriotismandbasetheirargumentsonquestionable(orevenfalse)assumptions.Asconvincingastheseargumentscansometimesseem,theyarenotvalidbecausetheycontainfallacies—errorsinreasoningthatunderminethelogicofanargument.Familiarizingyourselfwiththemostcommonlogicalfallaciescanhelpyoutoevaluatetheargumentsofothersandtoconstructbetter,moreeffectiveargumentsofyourown.
Thefollowingpagesdefineandillustratesomelogicalfallaciesthatyoushouldlearntorecognizeandavoid.
BeggingtheQuestionThefallacyofbeggingthequestionassumesthatastatementisself-evident(ortrue)when
itactuallyrequiresproof.Aconclusionbasedonsuchassumptionscannotbevalid.Forexample,someonewhoisveryreligiouscouldstructureanargumentthefollowingway:
MAJORPREMISE EverythingintheBibleistrue.MINORPREMISE TheBiblesaysthatNoahbuiltanark.CONCLUSION Therefore,Noah’sArkreallyexisted.
Apersoncanaccepttheconclusionofthissyllogismonlyifheorshealsoacceptsthemajorpremise,whichhasnotbeenproventrue.Somepeoplemightfindthislineofreasoningconvincing,butotherswouldnot—eveniftheywerereligious.
Beggingthequestionoccursanytimesomeonepresentsadebatablestatementasifitweretrue.Forexample,lookatthefollowingstatement:
Youhaveunfairlylimitedmyrightoffreespeechbyrefusingtoprintmyeditorialinthecollegenewspaper.
Thisstatementbegsthequestionbecauseitassumeswhatitshouldbeproving—thatrefusingtoprintaneditorialviolatesaperson’srighttofreespeech.
CircularReasoning
Closelyrelatedtobeggingthequestion,circularreasoningoccurswhensomeonesupportsastatementbyrestatingitindifferentterms.Considerthefollowingstatement:
Stealingiswrongbecauseitisillegal.
Waterfall,byM.C.Escher.Theartworkcreatestheillusionofwaterflowinguphillandinacircle.Circularreasoningoccurswhentheconclusionofanargumentisthesameasoneofthepremises.M.C.Escher’s“Waterfall”©2012TheM.C.EscherCompany-Holland.Allrightsreserved.www.mcescher.com.
Theconclusionofthestatementonthepreviouspageisessentiallythesameasitsbeginning:stealing(whichisillegal)isagainstthelaw.Inotherwords,theargumentgoesinacircle.
Herearesomeotherexamplesofcircularreasoning:Lincolnwasagreatpresidentbecauseheisthebestpresidentweeverhad.
IamforequalrightsforwomenbecauseIamafeminist.
Illegalimmigrantsshouldbedeportedbecausetheyarebreakingthelaw.
Allofthestatementsabovehaveonethingincommon:theyattempttosupportastatementbysimplyrepeatingthestatementindifferentwords.
WeakAnalogyAnanalogyisacomparisonbetweentwoitems(orconcepts)—onefamiliarandoneunfamiliar.Whenyoumakeananalogy,youexplaintheunfamiliaritembycomparingittothefamiliaritem.
Althoughanalogiescanbeeffectiveinarguments,theyhavelimitations.Forexample,asenatorwhoopposedagovernmentbailoutofthefinancialindustryin2008madethefollowingargument:
Thisbailout isdoomedfromthestart. It’s likepouringmilk intoa leakingbucket.Aslongasyoukeeppouringmilk,thebucketstaysfull.Butwhenyoustop,themilkrunsouttheholeinthebottomofthebucket.Whatwe’redoingisthrowingmoneyintoabigbucket and not fixing the hole. We have to find the underlying problems that havecausedthispartofoureconomytogetintroubleandpasslegislationtosolvethem.
Theproblemwithusinganalogiessuchasthisoneisthatanalogiesareneverperfect.Thereisalwaysadifferencebetweenthetwothingsbeingcompared.Thelargerthisdifference,theweakertheanalogy—andtheweakertheargumentthatitsupports.Forexample,someonecouldpointouttothesenatorthatthefinancialindustry—andbyextension,thewholeeconomy—ismuchmorecomplexandmultifacetedthanaleakingbucket.Toanalyzetheeconomy,thesenatorwouldhavetoexpandhisdiscussionbeyondthissingleanalogy(whichcannotcarrytheweightoftheentireargument)aswellassupplytheevidencetosupporthiscontentionthatthebailoutwasamistakefromthestart.
AdHominemFallacy(PersonalAttack)TheadhominemFallacyoccurswhensomeoneattacksthecharacterorthemotivesofapersoninsteadoffocusingontheissues.Thislineofreasoningisillogicalbecauseitfocusesattentiononthepersonmakingtheargument,sidesteppingtheargumentitself.
Considerthefollowingstatement:
Dr.Thomson,I’mnotsurewhyweshouldbelieveanythingyouhavetosayaboutthiscommunityhealthcenter.Lastyear,youleftyourhusbandforanotherman.
TheaboveattackonDr.Thomson’scharacterisirrelevant;ithasnothingtodowithherideasaboutthecommunityhealthcenter.Sometimes,however,aperson’scharactermayhaveadirectrelationtotheissue.Forexample,ifDr.Thomsonhadinvestedinacompanythatsuppliedmedicalequipmenttothehealthcenter,thisfactwouldhavebeenrelevanttotheissueathand.
Theadhominemfallacyalsooccurswhenyouattempttoundermineanargumentbyassociatingitwithindividualswhoareeasilyattacked.Forexample,considerthisstatement:
Ithinkyourplantoprovideuniversalheathcareisinteresting.I’msureMarxandLeninwouldagreewithyou.
Insteadoffocusingonthespecificprovisionsofthehealth-careplan,theoppositionunfairly
associatesitwiththeideasofKarlMarxandVladimirLenin,twowell-knownCommunists.
AdhominemattackagainstCharlesDarwin,originatorofthetheoryofevolutionbynaturalselectionTheGrangerCollection
CreatingaStrawManThisfallacymostlikelygotitsnamefromtheuseofstrawdummiesinmilitaryandboxingtraining.Whenwriterscreateastrawman,theypresentaweakargumentthatcaneasilyberefuted.Insteadofattackingtherealissue,theyfocusonaweakerissueandgivetheimpression
thattheyhaveeffectivelyrefutedanopponent’sargument.Frequently,thestrawmanisanextremeoroversimplifiedversionoftheopponent’sactualposition.Forexample,duringadebateaboutraisingtheminimumwage,asenatormadethefollowingcomment:
Thosewhoopposeraisingtheminimumwageareheartless.Theyobviouslydon’tcareifchildrenstarve.
©SOTK2011/Alamy
Insteadoffocusingontheminimumwage,thesenatormisrepresentstheopposingpositionsothatitappearscruel.Asthisexampleshows,thestrawmanfallacyisdishonestbecauseitintentionallydistortsanopponent’spositiontomisleadreaders.
HastyorSweepingGeneralization(JumpingtoaConclusion)Ahastyorsweepinggeneralization(alsocalledjumpingtoaconclusion)occurswhensomeonereachesaconclusionthatisbasedontoolittleevidence.Manypeoplecommitthisfallacywithoutrealizingit.Forexample,whenRichardNixonwaselectedpresidentin1972,filmcriticPaulineKaelissupposedtohaveremarked,“Howcanthatbe?NooneIknowvotedforNixon!”ThegeneralideabehindthisstatementisthatifKael’sacquaintancesdidn’tvoteforNixon,thenneitherdidmostotherpeople.Thisassumptionisflawedbecauseitisbasedonasmallsample.
Sometimespeoplemakehastygeneralizationsbecausetheystronglyfavoronepointofviewoveranother.Atothertimes,ahastygeneralizationissimplytheresultofsloppythinking.For
example,itiseasierforastudenttosimplysaythataninstructorisanunusuallyhardgraderthantosurveytheinstructor’sclassestoseeifthisconclusioniswarranted(ortoconsiderotherreasonsforhisorherpoorperformanceinacourse).
Either/OrFallacy(FalseDilemma)Theeither/orfallacy(alsocalledafalsedilemma)occurswhenapersonsaysthattherearejusttwochoiceswhenthereareactuallymore.Inmanycases,thepersoncommittingthisfallacytriestoforceaconclusionbypresentingjusttwochoices,oneofwhichisclearlymoredesirablethantheother.(Parentsdothiswithyoungchildrenallthetime:“Eatyourcarrots,orgotobed.”)
Politiciansfrequentlyengageinthisfallacy.Forexample,accordingtosomepoliticians,youareeitherpro-lifeorpro-choice,pro-guncontroloranti-guncontrol,pro-stem-cellresearchoranti-stem-cellresearch.Manypeople,however,areactuallysomewhereinthemiddle,takingamuchmorenuancedapproachtocomplicatedissues.
Considerthefollowingstatement:
Ican’tbelieveyouvotedagainstthebilltobuildawallalongthesouthernborderoftheUnitedStates.Eitheryou’reforprotectingourborder,oryou’reagainstit.
Thisstatementisanexampleoftheeither/orfallacy.Thepersonwhovotedagainstthebillmightbeagainstthewallbutnotagainstallimmigrationrestrictions.Thepersonmightfavorlooserestrictionsforsomepeople(forexample,migrantworkers)andstrongrestrictionsforothers(forexample,drugsmugglers).Bylimitingtheoptionstojusttwo,thespeakeroversimplifiesthesituationandattemptstoforcethelistenertoacceptafallaciousargument.
Theeither/orfallacyoccurswhenawriterpresentsjusttwochoiceswhenthereareactuallymore.©Ferhat/Shutterstock.com
EquivocationThefallacyofequivocationoccurswhenakeytermhasonemeaninginonepartofanargumentandanothermeaninginanotherpart.(Whenatermisusedunequivocally,ithasthesamemeaningthroughouttheargument.)Considerthefollowingoldjoke:
Thesignsaid,“Fineforparkinghere,”sobecauseitwasfine,Iparkedthere.
Obviously,thewordfinehastwodifferentmeaningsinthissentence.Thefirsttimeitisused,itmeans“moneypaidasapenalty.”Thesecondtime,itmeans“good”or“satisfactory.”
Mostwordshavemorethanonemeaning,soitisimportantnottoconfusethevariousmeanings.Foranargumenttowork,akeytermhastohavethesamemeaningeverytimeitappearsintheargument.Ifthemeaningshiftsduringthecourseoftheargument,thentheargumentcannotbesound.
Considerthefollowingstatement:
Thisissupposedtobeafreecountry,butnothingworthhavingiseverfree.
Inthisstatement,themeaningofakeytermshifts.Thefirsttimethewordfreeisused,itmeans“notunderthecontrolofanother.”Thesecondtime,itmeans“withoutcharge.”
RedHerringThisfallacygetsitsnamefromthepracticeofdraggingasmokedfishacrossthetrailofafoxtomaskitsscentduringafoxhunt.Asaresult,thehoundslosethescentandarethrownoffthetrack.Theredherringfallacyoccurswhenapersonraisesanirrelevantsideissuetodivertattentionfromtherealissue.Usedskillfully,thisfallacycandistractanaudienceandchangethefocusofanargument.
Politicalcampaignsaregoodsourcesofexamplesoftheredherringfallacy.Considerthisexamplefromthe2016presidentialrace:
IknowthatDonaldTrumpsaysthatheisforthe“littleguy,”buthelivesinathree-storypenthouseinthemiddleofManhattan.HowcanwebelievethathispolicieswillhelptheaverageAmerican?
ThefocusofhisargumentshouldhavebeenonTrump’spolicies,notonthefactthathelivesinapenthouse.
Hereisanotherredherringfallacyfromthe2016politicalcampaign:
HillaryClintonwantsus tovote forher,butshewillbesixty-ninewhenshebecomespresident.Ithinkthatthisisaproblem.
Again,thefocusoftheseremarksshouldhavebeenonClinton’squalifications,notonherage.
SlipperySlopeTheslippery-slopefallacyoccurswhenapersonarguesthatonethingwillinevitablyresultfromanother.(Othernamesfortheslippery-slopefallacyarethefoot-in-the-doorfallacyand
thefloodgatesfallacy.)Boththesenamessuggestthatonceyoupermitcertainacts,youinevitablypermitadditionalactsthateventuallyleadtodisastrousconsequences.Typically,theslippery-slopefallacypresentsaseriesofincreasinglyunacceptableeventsthatleadtoaninevitable,unpleasantconclusion.(Usually,thereisnoevidencethatsuchasequencewillactuallyoccur.)
Weencounterexamplesoftheslippery-slopefallacyalmostdaily.Duringadebateonsame-sexmarriage,forexample,anopponentadvancedthislineofreasoning:
Ifweallowgaymarriage, then there isnothing tostoppolygamy.Andonceweallowthis,wherewillitstop?Willwehavetolegalizeincest—orevenbestiality?
Whetherornotyousupportsame-sexmarriage,youshouldrecognizethefallacyofthisslippery-slopereasoning.Bythelastsentenceofthepassageabove,theassertionshavebecomesooutrageousthattheyapproachparody.Peoplecancertainlydebatethisissue,butnotinsuchadishonestandhighlyemotionalway.
YouAlso(TuQuoque)Theyoualsofallacyassertsthatastatementisfalsebecauseitisinconsistentwithwhatthespeakerhassaidordone.Inotherwords,apersonisattackedfordoingwhatheorsheisarguingagainst.Parentsoftenencounterthisfallacywhentheyarguewiththeirteenagechildren.Byintroducinganirrelevantpoint—“Youdidittoo”—thechildrenattempttodistractparentsandputthemonthedefensive:
Howcanyoutellmenottosmokewhenyouusedtosmoke?
Don’tyellatmefordrinking.Ibetyouhadafewbeersbeforeyouweretwenty-one.
WhydoIhavetobehomebymidnight?Didn’tyoustayoutlatewhenyouweremyage?
Argumentssuchastheseareirrelevant.Peoplefailtofollowtheirownadvice,butthatdoesnotmeanthattheirpointshavenomerit.(Ofcourse,notfollowingtheirownadvicedoesunderminetheircredibility.)
Bewaretheslippery-slopefallacy©LonC.Diehl/Photoedit,Inc.
AppealtoDoubtfulAuthorityWritersofresearchpapersfrequentlyusetheideasofrecognizedauthoritiestostrengthentheirarguments.However,thesourcesofferedasevidenceneedtobebothrespectedandcredible.Theappealtodoubtfulauthorityoccurswhenpeopleusetheideasofnonexpertstosupporttheirarguments.
Noteveryonewhospeaksasanexpertisactuallyanauthorityonaparticularissue.Forexample,whenmoviestarsorrecordingartistsgivetheiropinionsaboutpolitics,climatechange,orforeignaffairs—thingstheymayknowlittleabout—theyarenotspeakingasexperts;therefore,theyhavenoauthority.(Theyareexperts,however,whentheydiscussthefilmormusicindustries.)Asimilarsituationoccurswiththepunditswhoappearontelevisionnewsshows.Someoftheseindividualshavesolidcredentialsinthefieldstheydiscuss,butothersofferopinionseventhoughtheyknowlittleaboutthesubjects.Unfortunately,manyviewersacceptthepronouncementsofthese“experts”uncriticallyandthinkitisacceptabletocitethem
tosupporttheirownarguments.Howdoyoudeterminewhetherapersonyoureadaboutorhearisreallyanauthority?First,
makesurethatthepersonactuallyhasexpertiseinthefieldheorsheisdiscussing.YoucandothisbycheckinghisorhercredentialsontheInternet.Second,makesurethatthepersonisnotbiased.Nooneisentirelyfreefrombias,butthebiasshouldnotbesoextremethatitunderminestheperson’sauthority.Finally,makesurethatyoucanconfirmwhattheso-calledexpertsaysorwrites.Checkoneortwopiecesofinformationinothersources,suchasabasicreferencetextorencyclopedia.Determineifothers—especiallyrecognizedexpertsinthefield—confirmthisinformation.Iftherearemajorpointsofdiscrepancy,digfurthertomakesureyouaredealingwithalegitimateauthority.
Comedian/actorAmySchumerboostshercredibilityontheissueofguncontrolbyappearingwithhercousin,SenatorCharlesSchumer.©AndrewBurton/GettyImages
MisuseofStatisticsThemisuseofstatisticsoccurswhendataaremisrepresented.Statisticscanbeusedpersuasivelyinanargument,butsometimestheyaredistorted—intentionallyorunintentionally—tomakeapoint.Forexample,aclassicadfortoothpasteclaimsthatfouroutoffivedentistsrecommendCresttoothpaste.Whattheadneglectstomentionisthenumberofdentistswhowerequestioned.Ifthecompanysurveyedseveralthousanddentists,thenthisstatisticwouldbemeaningful.Ifthecompanysurveyedonlyten,however,itwouldnotbe.
Misleadingstatisticscanbemuchsubtler(andmuchmorecomplicated)thantheexample
above.Forexample,oneyear,therewere16,653alcohol-relateddeathsintheUnitedStates.AccordingtotheNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA),12,892ofthese16,653alcohol-relateddeathsinvolvedatleastonedriverorpassengerwhowaslegallydrunk.Ofthe12,892deaths,7,326werethedriversthemselves,and1,594werelegallydrunkpedestrians.Theremaining3,972fatalitieswerenonintoxicateddrivers,passengers,ornonoccupants.These3,972fatalitiescallthetotalnumberintoquestionbecausetheNHTSAdoesnotindicatewhichdriverswereatfault.Inotherwords,ifasoberdriverranaredlightandkilledalegallydrunkdriver,theNHTSAclassifiedthisdeathasalcohol-related.Forthisreason,theoriginalnumberofalcohol-relateddeaths—16,653—issomewhatmisleading.(Thestatisticbecomesevenmorequestionablewhenyouconsiderthatapersonisautomaticallyclassifiedasintoxicatedifheorsherefusestotakeasobrietytest.)
Cartoonstock.com
PostHoc,ErgoPropterHoc(AfterThis,ThereforeBecauseofThis)Theposthocfallacyassertsthatbecausetwoeventsoccurcloselyintime,oneeventmustcausetheother.Professionalathletescommittheposthocfallacyallthetime.Forexample,onemajorleaguepitcherwearsthesameshirteverytimehehasanimportantgame.Becausehehaswon
severalbiggameswhilewearingthisshirt,hebelievesitbringshimluck.Manyeventsseemtofollowasequentialpatterneventhoughtheyactuallydonot.For
example,somepeoplerefusetogetaflushotbecausetheysaythatthelasttimetheygotone,theycamedownwiththeflu.Eventhoughthereisnoscientificbasisforthislink,manypeopleinsistthatitistrue.(Themoreprobableexplanationforthissituationisthatthefluvaccinationtakesatleasttwoweekstotakeeffect,soitispossibleforsomeonetobeinfectedbythefluvirusbeforethevaccinestartsworking.)
Anotherhealth-relatedissuealsoillustratestheposthocfallacy.Recently,theU.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(FDA)studiedseveralnaturalsupplementsthatclaimtocurethecommoncold.Becausethestudyshowedthattheseproductswerenoteffective,theFDAorderedthemanufacturerstostopmakingfalseclaims.Despitethisfact,however,manypeoplestillbuytheseproducts.Whenquestioned,theysaythemedicationsactuallywork.Again,theexplanationforthisphenomenonissimple.Mostcoldslastjustafewdays.AstheFDApointedoutinitsreport,peoplewhotookthemedicationswouldhavebegunfeelingbetterwithorwithoutthem.
NonSequitur(ItDoesNotFollow)Thenonsequiturfallacyoccurswhenaconclusiondoesnotfollowfromthepremises.Frequently,theconclusionissupportedbyweakorirrelevantevidence—orbynoevidenceatall.Considerthefollowingstatement:
Megandrivesanexpensivecar,soshemustbeearningalotofmoney.
Meganmightdriveanexpensivecar,butthisisnotevidencethatshehasahighsalary.Shecould,forexample,beleasingthecarorpayingitoffoverafive-yearperiod,oritcouldhavebeenagift.
Nonsequitursarecommoninpoliticalarguments.Considerthisstatement:
Gangs,drugs,andextremeviolenceplaguetoday’sprisons.Theonlywaytoaddressthisissueistoreleaseallnonviolentoffendersassoonaspossible.
Thisassessmentoftheprisonsystemmaybeaccurate,butitdoesn’tfollowthatbecauseofthissituation,allnonviolentoffendersshouldbereleasedimmediately.
Scientificargumentsalsocontainnonsequiturs.Considerthefollowingstatementthatwasmadeduringadebateonclimatechange:
Recently, the polar ice caps have thickened, and the temperature of the oceans hasstabilized.Obviously,wedon’tneedtodomoretoaddressclimatechange.
AnonsequiturfallacyNONSEQUITUR©2006WileyInk,Inc.Dist.ByUNIVERSALUCLICK.Reprintedwithpermission.Allrightsreserved.
Evenifyouacceptthefactsofthisargument,youneedtoseemoreevidencebeforeyoucanconcludethatnoactionagainstclimatechangeisnecessary.Forexample,thecoolingtrendcouldbetemporary,orotherareasoftheearthcouldstillbegrowingwarmer.
BandwagonFallacyThebandwagonfallacyoccurswhenyoutrytoconvincepeoplethatsomethingistruebecauseitiswidelyheldtobetrue.Itiseasytoseetheproblemwiththislineofreasoning.Hundredsofyearsago,mostpeoplebelievedthatthesunrevolvedaroundtheearthandthattheearthwasflat.Asweknow,thefactthatmanypeopleheldthesebeliefsdidnotmakethemtrue.
Theunderlyingassumptionofthebandwagonfallacyisthatthemorepeoplewhobelievesomething,themorelikelyitistobetrue.Withoutsupportingevidence,however,thisformofargumentcannotbevalid.Forexample,considerthefollowingstatementmadebyadriverwhowasstoppedbythepoliceforspeeding:
Officer,Ididn’tdoanythingwrong.Everyonearoundmewasgoingthesamespeed.
Asthepoliceofficerwasquicktopointout,thedriver’sargumentmissedthepoint:hewasdoingfifty-fivemilesanhourinathirty-five-mile-an-hourzone,andthefactthatotherdriverswerealsospeedingwasirrelevant.Ifthedriverhadbeenabletodemonstratethatthepoliceofficerwasmistaken—thathewasdrivingmoreslowlyorthatthespeedlimitwasactuallysixtymilesanhour—thenhisargumentwouldhavehadmerit.Inthiscase,thefactthatotherdriversweregoingthesamespeedwouldberelevantbecauseitwouldsupporthiscontention.
ThebandwagonfallacyCartoonstock.com
Sincemostpeoplewanttogoalongwiththecrowd,thebandwagonfallacycanbeveryeffective.Forthisreason,advertisersuseitallthetime.Forexample,abookpublisherwillsaythatabookhasbeenontheNewYorkTimesbestsellerlistfortenweeks,andapharmaceutical
companywillsaythatitsbrandofaspirinoutsellsotherbrandsfourtoone.Theseappealsareirrelevant,however,becausetheydon’taddressthecentralquestions:Isthebookactuallyworthreading?Isonebrandofaspirinreallybetterthanotherbrands?
EXERCISE5.10Determinewhichofthefollowingstatementsarelogicalargumentsandwhicharefallacies.Ifthestatementisnotlogical,identifythefallacythatbestapplies.
1. AlmostallthestudentsItalkedtosaidthattheydidn’tlikethesenator.I’msurehe’lllosetheelectiononTuesday.
2. Thiscarhasanoisyengine;therefore,itmustcreatealotofpollution.
3. Idon’tknowhowProfessorResnickcanbesuchahardgrader.He’salwayslateforclass.
4. AvoteforthebilltolimitgunsalesinthecityisavoteagainsttheSecondAmendment.
5. It’sonlyfairtopayyourfairshareoftaxes.
6. Ihadaninternshipatagovernmentagencylastsummer,andnoonethereworkedveryhard.Governmentworkersarelazy.
7. It’saclearprincipleoflawthatpeoplearenotallowedtoyell“Fire!”inacrowdedtheater.Bypermittingprotestorstoholdarallydowntown,JudgeCohenisallowingthemtodojustthat.
8. Ofcoursethispersonisguilty.Hewouldn’tbeinjailifheweren’tacriminal.
9. Schoolsarelikefamilies;therefore,teachers(likeparents)shouldbeallowedtodisciplinetheirkids.
10. Everybodyknowsthatstayingoutintheraincanmakeyousick.
11. Whenwehadadraftinthe1960s,thecrimeratewaslow.Weshouldbringbackthedraft.
12. I’mnotadoctor,butIplayoneonTV.IrecommendVicksFormula44coughsyrup.
13. Somepeoplearecomplainingaboutpublicschools,sotheremustbeaproblem.
14. Ifyouaren’tpartofthesolution,you’repartoftheproblem.
15. Allpeoplearemortal.Jamesisaperson.Therefore,Jamesismortal.
16. Idon’tknowwhyyougavemeanFforhandinginsomeoneelse’sessay.Didn’tyouevercopysomethingfromsomeoneelse?
17. First,thegovernmentstopsusfrombuyingassaultrifles.Then,itlimitsthenumberofhandgunswecanbuy.Whatwillcomenext?Soon,they’lltrytotakeawayallourguns.
18. Shakespearewastheworld’sgreatestplaywright;therefore,Macbethmustbeagreatplay.
19. Lastmonth,Iboughtanewcomputer.Yesterday,Iinstalledsomenewsoftware.Thismorning,mycomputerwouldn’tstartup.Thenewsoftwaremustbecausingtheproblem.
20. EllenDeGeneresisagainsttestingpharmaceuticalandcosmeticsproductsonanimals,andthat’sgoodenoughforme.
EXERCISE5.11Readthefollowingessay,andidentifyasmanylogicalfallaciesinitasyoucan.Makesureyouidentifyeachfallacybynameandareabletoexplaintheflawsinthewriter’sarguments.
ThisessayisfromBuchanan.org,whereitappearedonOctober31,1994.
PATRICKJ.BUCHANAN
IMMIGRATIONTIME-OUTProposition187“isanoutrage.Itisunconstitutional.Itisnativist.Itisracist.”
—AlHunt,CapitalGang,CNNThatoutburstbymycolumnistcolleague,aboutCalifornia’sProp.187—whichwouldcutoffsocialwelfarebenefitstoillegalaliens—suggeststhatthissavagequarrelisaboutmorethanjustmoney.Indeed,therootsofthisdisputeoverProp.187aregroundedinthewarringideasthatweAmericansholdaboutthedeepest,mostdivisiveissuesofourtime:ethnicity,nation,culture. 1
WhatdowewanttheAmericaoftheyears2000,2020,and2050tobelike?Dowehavetherighttoshapethecharacterofthecountryourgrandchildrenwilllivein?Oristhattobedecidedbywhoever,outsideAmerica,decidestocomehere? 2
By2050,weareinstructedbythechancelloroftheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,ChangLin-Tin,“themajorityofAmericanswilltracetheirrootstoLatinAmerica,Africa,Asia,theMiddleEast,andPacificIslands.” 3
Now,anymanorwoman,ofanynationorancestrycancomehere—andbecomeagoodAmerican. 4
Weknowthatfromourhistory.Butbymyarithmetic,thechancellorissayingHispanics,Asians,andAfricanswillincreasetheirpresentnumberof65millionbyatleast100millionin60years,apopulationgrowthlargerthanallofMexicotoday. 5
WhatwillthatmeanforAmerica?Well,SouthTexasandSouthernCaliforniawillbealmostexclusivelyHispanic.Eachwillhavetensofmillionsofpeoplewhoselinguistic,historic,andculturalrootsareinMexico.LikeEasternUkraine,where10millionRussian-speaking“Ukrainians”nowlookimpatientlytoMoscow,notKiev,astheirculturalcapital,Americacouldsee,inadecade,demandsforQuebec-likestatusforSouthernCalifornia.Alreadythereisarumblingamongmilitantsforoutrightsecession.AseaofMexicanflagswasprominentinthatL.A.rallyagainstProp.187,andMexicanofficialsareopenlyurgingtheirkinsmeninCaliforniatovoteitdown. 6
Ifnocutoffisimposedonsocialbenefitsforthosewhobreachourborders,andbreakour
laws,themessagewillgoouttoadesperateworld:Americaiswideopen.Allyouneeddoisgetthere,andgetin. 7
Consequenceswillensue.Crowdingtogetherimmigrantandminoritypopulationsinourmajorcitiesmustbringgreaterconflict.Wesawthatinthe1992L.A.riot.BlacksandHispanicshavelatelycollidedinD.C.’sAdams-Morganneighborhood,supposedlythemosttolerantandprogressivesectionofWashington.Theissue:bilingualeducation.Unlike20yearsago,ethnicconflictistodayonalmosteveryfrontpage. 8
BeforeMr.Chang’svisionisrealized,theUnitedStateswillhaveatleasttwoofficiallanguages.Today’ssteadyoutmigrationof“Anglos”or“Euro-Americans,”aswhitesarenowcalled,fromSouthernFloridaandSouthernCalifornia,willcontinue.The50stateswillneedconstantredrawingofpoliticallinestoensureproportionalrepresentation.Alreadywehavecreatedthefirst“apartheiddistricts”inAmerica’sSouth. 9
EthnicmilitancyandsolidarityareontheriseintheUnitedStates;theoldinstitutionsofassimilationarenotdoingtheirworkastheyoncedid;theMeltingPotisinneedofrepair.Oncampusesweheardemandsforseparatedorms,eatingrooms,clubs,etc.,byblack,white,Hispanic,andAsianstudents.Ifthisiswherethecampusisheaded,whereareourcitiesgoing? 10
“Ethnicmilitancyandsolidarityareontherise.”
IfAmericaistosurviveas“onenation,onepeople,”weneedtocalla“time-out”onimmigration,toassimilatethetensofmillionswhohavelatelyarrived.Weneedtogettoknowoneanother,tolivetogether,tolearntogetherAmerica’slanguage,history,culture,andtraditionsoftolerance,tobecomeanewnationalfamily,beforeweaddahundredmillionmore.Andweneedsoontobringdownthecurtainonthisideaofhyphenated-Americanism. 11
Ifwelackthecouragetomakethedecisions—astowhatourcountrywilllooklikein2050—otherswillmakethosedecisionsforus,notallofwhomshareourloveoftheAmericathatseemstobefadingaway. 12
EXERCISE5.12Choose three of the fallacies that you identified in “Immigration Time- Out” forExercise5.11.Rewriteeachstatementintheformofalogicalargument.
Formorepractice,seetheLearningCurveonReasoningandLogicalFallaciesintheLaunchpadforPracticalArgument.
READINGANDWRITINGABOUTTHEISSUEHowFreeShouldFreeSpeechBe?
PrintedbypermissionoftheNormanRockwellFamilyAgency.Copyright1943theNormanRockwellFamilyEntities.
Gobacktopage123,andrereadtheAtIssueboxthatgivesbackgroundonhowfreefreespeechshouldbe.Asthefollowingsourcesillustrate,thisquestionhasanumberofpossibleanswers.
Asyoureadthissourcematerial,youwillbeaskedtoanswerquestionsandtocompletesomesimpleactivities.Thisworkwillhelpyouunderstandboththecontentandthestructureofthesources.Whenyouarefinished,youwillbereadytowriteanargument—eitherinductiveordeductive—thattakesanewpositiononhowfreefreespeechshouldactuallybe.
SOURCES
ThaneRosenbaum,“ShouldNeo-NazisBeAllowedFreeSpeech?,”p.165
SolStern,“TheUnfreeSpeechMovement,”p.168
AmericanAssociationofUniversityProfessors,“OnFreedomofExpressionandCampusSpeechCodes,”p.172
WendyKaminer,“ProgressiveIdeasHaveKilledFreeSpeechonCampus,”
p.175
JudithShulevitz,“InCollegeandHidingfromScaryIdeas,”p.178
EricPosner,“UniversitiesAreRighttoCrackDownonSpeechandBehavior,”p.183
ThisarticleoriginallyappearedonTheDailyBeast.comonJanuary1,2014.
THANEROSENBAUM
SHOULDNEO-NAZISBEALLOWEDFREESPEECH?Overthepastseveralweeks,freespeechhasgottencostlier—atleastinFranceandIsrael. 1
InFrance,DieudonneM’BalaM’Bala,ananti-Semiticstand-upcomicinfamousforpopularizingthequenelle,aninvertedNazisalute,wasbannedfromperformingintwocities.M’BalaM’Balahasbeenrepeatedlyfinedforhatespeech,andthiswasnotthefirsttimehisactwasperceivedasathreattopublicorder. 2
Meanwhile,Israel’sparliamentissoontopassabilloutlawingthewordNazifornon-educationalpurposes.Indeed,anysluragainstanotherthatinvokestheThirdReichcouldlandthespeakerinjailforsixmonthswithafineof$29,000.TheIsraelisareconcernedaboutboththeriseofanti-Semitismglobally,andthetrivializationoftheHolocaust—evenlocally. 3
ToAmericans,theseactionsinFranceandIsraelseempositivelyun-democratic.TheFirstAmendmentwouldneverprohibitthequenelle,regardlessofitssymbolicmeaning.AndanyloverofSeinfeldwouldregardbanningthe“SoupNazi”episodeasscandalouslyun-American.Afterall,in1977afederalcourtupheldtherightofneo-Nazistogoose-steprightthroughthetownofSkokie,Illinois,whichhadadisproportionatelylargenumberofHolocaustsurvivorsasresidents.Andmorerecently,theSupremeCourtupheldtherightofachurchgroupopposedtogaysservinginthemilitarytopicketthefuneralofadeadmarinewithsignsthatread,“GodHatesFags.” 4
WhilewhatishappeninginFranceandIsraeliswhollyforeigntoAmericans,perhapsit’stimetoconsiderwhethertheseandothercountriesmayberight.PerhapsAmerica’sfixationonfreespeechhasgonetoofar. 5
Actually,theUnitedStatesisanoutlieramongdemocraciesingrantingsuchgenerousfreespeechguarantees.SixEuropeancountries,alongwithBrazil,prohibittheuseofNazisymbolsandflags.ManymorecountrieshaveoutlawedHolocaustdenial.Indeed,evenencouragingracialdiscriminationinFranceisacrime.Inpluralisticnationslikethesewithclashingcultures
andhistoricaltragediesnotsharedbyall,mutualrespectandcivilityhelpskeepthepeaceandavoidsunnecessarymentaltrauma. 6
Yet,evenintheUnitedStates,freespeechisnotunlimited.Certainproscribedcategorieshavealwaysexisted—libel,slanderanddefamation,obscenity,“fightingwords,”andthe“incitementofimminentlawlessness”—wheretheFirstAmendmentdoesnotprotectthespeaker,wheretherighttospeakiscurtailedforreasonsofgeneralwelfareandpublicsafety.Thereisnofreedomtoshout“fire”inacrowdedtheater.Hatecrimestatutesexistinmanyjurisdictionswherebias-motivatedcrimesaregivenmoreseverepenalties.In2003,theSupremeCourtheldthatspeechintendedtointimidate,suchascrossburning,mightnotreceiveFirstAmendmentprotection. 7
Yet,theconfusionisthatinplacinglimitsonspeechweprivilegephysicaloveremotionalharm.Indeed,wehaveanentirelegalsystem,andanattitudetowardspeech,thattakesitscuefromanurseryrhyme:“Sticksandstonescanbreakmybonesbutnamescanneverhurtme.” 8
Allofusknow,however,anddespitewhatwetellourchildren,namesdo,indeed,hurt.AndrecentstudiesinuniversitiessuchasPurdue,UCLA,Michigan,Toronto,Arizona,Maryland,andMacquarieUniversityinNewSouthWalesshow,amongotherthings,throughbrainscansandcontrolledstudieswithparticipantswhoweresubjectedtobothphysicalandemotionalpain,thatemotionalharmisequalinintensitytothatexperiencedbythebody,andisevenmorelong-lastingandtraumatic.Physicalpainsubsides;emotionalpain,whenrecalled,isrelived. 9
Painhasasharedcircuitryinthehumanbrain,anditmakesnodistinctionbetweenbeinghitinthefaceandlosingface(orhavingabrokenheart)asaresultofbereavement,betrayal,socialexclusion,andgraveinsult.Emotionaldistresscan,infact,makethebodysick.Indeed,researchhasshownthatpainreliefmedicationcanworkequallywellforbothphysicalandemotionalinjury. 10
Weimposespeedlimitsondrivingandregulatefoodanddrugsbecauseweknowthatthecostsofnotdoingsocanleadtoaccidentsandharm.Whyshouldspeechbeexemptfrompublicwelfareconcernswhenitssocialcostscanbeevenmoreinjurious? 11
“Weimposespeedlimitsondrivingandregulatefoodanddrugsbecauseweknowthatthecostsofnotdoingsocanleadtoaccidentsandharm.”
Inthemarketplaceofideas,thereisadifferencebetweentryingtopersuadeandtryingtoinjure.Onecanobjecttogaysinthemilitarywithoutruiningtheonemomentafatherhastoburyhisson;neo-NaziscanlongfortheThirdReichwithoutre-traumatizingHitler’svictims;onecanopposeAffirmativeActionwithoutburningacrossonanAfrican-American’slawn. 12
Ofcourse,everythingisamatterofdegree.Juriesarefacedwithsimilarambiguitieswhenitcomestophysicalinjury.Nooneknowsforcertainwhethertheplaintiffwearinganeckbracecan’tactuallyruntheNewYorkMarathon.Wetoleratethefakeslipandfall,butwefeelabsolutelyhelplessinevaluatingwhetherwordsandgesturesintendedtoharmactuallydocause
harm.Jurorsareascapableofworkingthroughtheseuncertaintiesintheareaofemotionalharmsastheyareintherealmofphysicalinjury. 13
Freespeechshouldnotstandinthewayofcommondecency.Norightshouldbesofreelyandrecklesslyexercisedthatitbecomesanimpedimenttocivilsociety,makingitsothatothersaremadetofeellessfree,theirprivatespaceandpeaceinvaded,theirsensitivitiescruellytrampledupon. 14
ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Rosenbaumwaitsuntiltheendofparagraph6tostatehisthesis.Why?Whatinformation
doesheincludeinparagraphs1–5?Howdoesthismaterialsetthestagefortherestoftheessay?
2. Rosenbaumdevelopshisargumentwithbothinductiveanddeductivereasoning.Wheredoesheuseeachstrategy?
3. WhatevidencedoesRosenbaumusetosupporthisthesis?Shouldhehaveincludedmoreevidence?Ifso,whatkind?
4. Inparagraph11,Rosenbaummakesacomparisonbetweenregulatingfreespeechandregulatingdrivingandfoodanddrugs.Howstrongisthisanalogy?Atwhatpoints(ifany)doesthiscomparisonbreakdown?
5. WheredoesRosenbaumaddressargumentsagainsthisposition?Doesherefutethesearguments?Whatotheropposingargumentscouldhehaveaddressed?
6. WhatpointdoesRosenbaumreinforceinhisconclusion?Whatotherpointscouldhehaveemphasized?
Thisop-edoriginallyranintheWallStreetJournalonSeptember24,2014.
SOLSTERN
THEUNFREESPEECHMOVEMENTThisfalltheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyiscelebratingthe50thanniversaryoftheFreeSpeechMovement,astudent-ledprotestagainstcampusrestrictionsonpoliticalactivitiesthatmadeheadlinesandinspiredimitatorsaroundthecountry.IplayedasmallpartintheFreeSpeechMovement,andsomeofthosereturningforthereunionwereoncemyfriends,butIwon’tbejoiningthem. 1
Thoughthemovementpromisedgreaterintellectualandpoliticalfreedomoncampus,theresulthasbeentheopposite.ThegreatironyisthatwhileBerkeleynowhonorsthememoryoftheFreeSpeechMovement,itexercisesmorethoughtcontroloverstudentsthanthehatedinstitutionthatweroseupagainsthalfacenturyago. 2
Weearly-1960sradicalsbelievedourselvesanointedasanew“tellitlikeitis”generation.
Wepromisedtotranscendthe“smellyoldorthodoxies”(inGeorgeOrwell’sphrase)ofColdWarliberalismandclass-based,authoritarianleftism.Leadingstudentsintotheuniversityadministrationbuildingforthefirstmassprotest,MarioSavio,theFreeSpeechMovement’sbrilliantleaderfromQueens,NewYork,famouslysaid:“There’satimewhentheoperationofthemachinebecomessoodious—makesyousosickatheart—thatyoucan’ttakepart….Andyou’vegottoindicatetothepeoplewhorunit,tothepeoplewhoownitthatunlessyou’refree,themachinewillbepreventedfromworkingatall.” 3
TheBerkeley“machine”nowpromotesFreeSpeechMovementkitsch.ThestepsinfrontofSproulHall,thecentraladministrationbuildingwheremorethan700studentswerearrestedonDec.2,1964,havebeenrenamedtheMarioSavioSteps.OneofthecampusdininghallsiscalledtheFreeSpeechMovementCafe,itswallscoveredwithphotographsandmementosoftheglorioussemesterofstruggle.TheuniversityrequiresfreshmentoreadanadmiringbiographyofSavio,whodiedin1996,writtenbyNewYorkUniversityprofessorandBerkeleygraduateRobertCohen. 4
Yetintellectualdiversityishardlyembraced.Everyundergraduateundergoesaformofindoctrinationwitharequiredcourseonthe“theoreticaloranalyticalissuesrelevanttounderstandingrace,culture,andethnicityinAmericansociety,”administeredbytheuniversity’sDivisionofEquityandInclusion. 5
HowdidthisOrwellianinversionoccur?IthappenedinpartbecausetheFreeSpeechMovement’sfightforfreespeechwasalwaysacharade.Thestrugglewasreallyaboutusingthecampusasabaseforradicalpolitics.Iwasa27-year-oldNewLeftgraduatestudentatthetime.Saviowasa22-year-oldsophomore.HelikedtocomparetheFreeSpeechMovementtothecivil-rightsstruggle—conflatingtheessentiallyliberalBerkeleyadministrationwiththeBullConnorsoftheracistSouth. 6
DuringonedemonstrationSaviosuggestedthatthecampuscopswhohadarrestedaprotestingstudentwere“poorpolicemen”whoonly“haveajobtodo.”Anotherstudentthenshoutedout:“JustlikeEichmann.”“Yeah.Verygood.It’svery,youknow,likeAdolfEichmann,”Savioreplied.“Hehadajobtodo.Hefitintothemachinery.” 7
Irealizedyearslaterthatthismomentmayhavebeenthebeginningofthe1960sradicals’perversionofordinarypoliticallanguage,likethespelling“Amerika”orseeinghopeandprogressinThirdWorlddictatorships. 8
Beforethat1964–65academicyear,mostofusradicalstudentscouldnothaveimaginedacampusrebellion.Whyrevoltagainstaninstitutionthatuntilthenofferedsuchapleasantsanctuary?ButthenBerkeleyadministratorsmadeanincrediblystupiddecisiontoestablishnewrulesregardingpoliticalactivitiesoncampus.StudentclubswerenolongerallowedtosetuptablesinfrontoftheBancroftAvenuecampusentrancetosolicitfundsandrecruitnewmembers. 9
Theclubshadusedthis40-footstripofsidewalkforyearsontheassumptionthatitwasthepropertyoftheCityofBerkeleyandthusconstitutionallyprotectedagainstspeechrestrictions.Buttheuniversityclaimedownershiptojustifythenewrules.Whensomestudentsrefusedtocomply,theadministrationcompoundeditsblunderbyresortingtothecampuspolice.Notsurprisingly,thestudentspushedback,usingcivil-disobediencetacticslearnedfightingforcivilrightsintheSouth. 10
TheFreeSpeechMovementwasbornonOct.1,1964,whenpolicetriedtoarrestarecent
Berkeleygraduate,JackWeinberg,whowasbackoncampusafterasummerasacivil-rightsworkerinMississippi.HehadsetupatableontheBancroftstripfortheBerkeleychapteroftheCongressofRacialEquality(CORE).Dozensofstudentsspontaneouslysatdownaroundthepolicecar,preventingitfromleavingthecampus.A32-hourstandoffensued,withhundredsofstudentscampedaroundthecar. 11
MarioSavio,alsobackfromMississippi,tookoffhisshoes,climbedontotheroofofthepolicecar,andlaunchedintoanimpromptuspeechexplainingwhythestudentshadtoresisttheimmoralnewrules.Thusbeganmonthsofsporadicprotests,theoccupationofSproulHallonDec.2(endedbymassarrests),nationalmediaattention,andBerkeley’seventualcapitulation. 12
Thatshouldhaveendedthematter.Saviosoonleftthepoliticalarena,sayingthathehadnointerestinbecomingapermanentstudentleader.Butothershadmasteredthenewworldofpoliticaltheater,understoodtheweaknessofAmericanliberalism,andsoonturnedtheirireontheVietnamWar. 13
“Butothershadmasteredthenewworldofpoliticaltheater,understoodtheweaknessofAmericanliberalism,andsoonturnedtheirireontheVietnamWar.”
MarioSavioatavictoryrallyontheUniversityofCaliforniacampusinBerkeley(December9,1964)APPhoto.
TheradicalmovementthattheFreeSpeechMovementspawnedeventuallydescendedinto
violenceandmindlessanti-Americanism.Themovementwanedinthe1970sasthewarwounddown—butbythenprotestershadbeguntheirinfiltrationofuniversityfacultiesandadministrationstheyhadoncedecried.“Tenuredradicals,”inNewCriterioneditorRogerKimball’sphrase,nowdominatemostprofessionalorganizationsinthehumanitiesandsocialstudies.Unlikeouroldliberalprofessors,whodealtrespectfullywiththeideasadvancedbymygenerationofNewLeftstudents,today’sradicalprofessorsinsistonideologicalconformityanddon’ttakekindlytodissentbyconservativestudents.Visitsbyspeakerswhomightnottoetheliberalline—recentlyincludingformerSecretaryofStateCondoleezzaRiceandIslamismcriticAyaanHirsiAli—sparkprotestsandletter-writingcampaignsbystudentsintandemwiththeirprofessorsuntilthespeakerwithdrawsortheinvitationiscanceled. 14
OnOct.1atBerkeley,bycontrast,oneofthehonoredspeakersattheFreeSpeechMovementanniversaryrallyonSproulPlazawillbeBettinaAptheker,whoisnowafeminist-studiesprofessorattheUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaCruz. 15
WritingintheBerkeleyalumnimagazineabouttheanniversary,Ms.ApthekernotedthattheFirstAmendmentwas“writtenbywhite,propertiedmeninthe18thcentury,whoneverlikelyimaginedthatitmightapplytowomen,and/orpeopleofcolor,and/orallthosewhowerenotpropertied,andeven,perhaps,notcitizens,and/orundocumentedimmigrants….Inotherwords,freedomofspeechisaConstitutionalguarantee,butwhogetstoexerciseitwithoutthechillingrestraintsofcensuredependsverymuchonone’slocationinthepoliticalandsocialcartography.We[FreeSpeechMovement]veteransweretooyoungandinexperiencedin1964toknowthis,butwedonow,andwespeakwithanewawareness,anewconsciousness,andanewurgencythatthewisdomofatruefreedomisinexorablytiedtowhoexercisespowerandforwhatends.”Readitandweep—fortheFreeSpeechMovementanniversary,fortheidealofanintellectuallyopenuniversity,andforAmerica. 16
ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Inyourownwords,summarizeStern’sthesis.Wheredoeshestateit?
2. Atwhatpoint(orpoints)intheessaydoesSternappealtoethos?Howeffectiveisthisappeal?
3. Inparagraph4,Sternsays,“TheBerkeley‘machine’nowpromotesFreeSpeechMovementkitsch.”First,lookupthemeaningofkitsch.Then,explainwhatSternmeansbythisstatement.
4. Sternsupportshispointswithexamplesdrawnfromhisownexperience.Isthisenough?Whatotherkindsofevidencecouldhehaveused?
5. Inparagraph5,SternsaysthateveryundergraduateatBerkeley“undergoesaformofindoctrination.”Whatdoeshemean?DoesSternmakeavalidpoint,orishebeggingthequestion?
6. WhydoesSterndiscussBettinaApthekerinparagraphs15–16?Couldhebeaccusedofmakinganadhominemattack?Whyorwhynot?
ThiscodecameoutofaJune1992meetingoftheAmericanAssociationofUniversityProfessors.
AMERICANASSOCIATIONOFUNIVERSITYPROFESSORS
ONFREEDOMOFEXPRESSIONANDCAMPUSSPEECHCODESFreedomofthoughtandexpressionisessentialtoanyinstitutionofhigherlearning.Universitiesandcollegesexistnotonlytotransmitexistingknowledge.Equally,theyinterpret,explore,andexpandthatknowledgebytestingtheoldandproposingthenew. 1
Thismissionguideslearningoutsidetheclassroomquiteasmuchasinclass,andofteninspiresvigorousdebateonthosesocial,economic,andpoliticalissuesthatarousethestrongestpassions.Intheprocess,viewswillbeexpressedthatmayseemtomanywrong,distasteful,oroffensive.Suchisthenatureoffreedomtosiftandwinnowideas. 2
Onacampusthatisfreeandopen,noideacanbebannedorforbidden.Noviewpointormessagemaybedeemedsohatefulordisturbingthatitmaynotbeexpressed. 3
“Onacampusthatisfreeandopen,noideacanbebannedorforbidden.”
Universitiesandcollegesarealsocommunities,oftenofaresidentialcharacter.Mostcampuseshaverecentlysoughttobecomemorediverse,andmorereflectiveofthelargercommunity,byattractingstudents,faculty,andstafffromgroupsthatwerehistoricallyexcludedorunderrepresented.Suchgainsastheyhavemadearerecent,modest,andtenuous.Thecampusclimatecanprofoundlyaffectaninstitution’scontinueddiversity.Hostilityorintolerancetopersonswhodifferfromthemajority(especiallyifseeminglycondonedbytheinstitution)mayunderminetheconfidenceofnewmembersofthecommunity.Civilityisalwaysfragileandcaneasilybedestroyed. 4
Inresponsetoverbalassaultsanduseofhatefullanguagesomecampuseshavefeltitnecessarytoforbidtheexpressionofracist,sexist,homophobic,orethnicallydemeaningspeech,alongwithconductorbehaviorthatharasses.Severalreasonsareofferedinsupportofbanningsuchexpression.Individualsandgroupsthathavebeenvictimsofsuchexpressionfeelanunderstandableoutrage.Theyclaimthattheacademicprogressofminorityandmajorityalikemaysufferiffears,tensions,andconflictsspawnedbyslursandinsultscreateanenvironmentinimicaltolearning.Thesearguments,groundedintheneedtofosteranatmosphererespectfulofandwelcometoallpersons,strikeadeeplyresponsivechordintheacademy.But,whilewecanacknowledgeboththeweightoftheseconcernsandthethoughtfulnessofthosepersuadedoftheneedforregulation,rulesthatbanorpunishspeechbaseduponitscontentcannotbejustified.Aninstitutionofhigherlearningfailstofulfillitsmissionifitassertsthepowertoproscribeideas—andracialorethnicslurs,sexistepithets,orhomophobicinsultsalmostalwaysexpressideas,howeverrepugnant.Indeed,byproscribing
anyideas,auniversitysetsanexamplethatprofoundlydisservesitsacademicmission.Somemayseektodefendadistinctionbetweentheregulationofthecontentofspeechandtheregulationofthemanner(orstyle)ofspeech.Wefindthisdistinctionuntenableinpracticebecauseoffensivestyleoropprobriousphrasesmayinfacthavebeenchosenpreciselyfortheirexpressivepower.AstheUnitedStatesSupremeCourthassaidinthecourseofrejectingcriminalsanctionsforoffensivewords:Wordsareoftenchosenasmuchfortheiremotiveastheircognitiveforce.WecannotsanctiontheviewthattheConstitution,whilesolicitousofthecognitivecontentofindividualspeech,haslittleornoregardforthatemotivefunctionwhich,practicallyspeaking,mayoftenbethemoreimportantelementoftheoverallmessagesoughttobecommunicated.Thelinebetweensubstanceandstyleisthustoouncertaintosustainthepressurethatwillinevitablybebroughttobearupondisciplinaryrulesthatattempttoregulatespeech.Proponentsofspeechcodessometimesreplythatthevalueofemotivelanguageofthistypeisofsuchaloworderthat,onbalance,suppressionisjustifiedbytheharmsufferedbythosewhoaredirectlyaffected,andbythegeneraldamagedonetothelearningenvironment.Yetacollegeoruniversitysetsaperilouscourseifitseekstodifferentiatebetweenhigh-valueandlow-valuespeech,ortochoosewhichgroupsaretobeprotectedbycurbingthespeechofothers.Aspeechcodeunavoidablyimpliesaninstitutionalcompetencetodistinguishpermissibleexpressionofhatefulthoughtfromwhatisproscribedasthoughtlesshate.Institutionswouldalsohavetojustifyshieldingsome,butnotother,targetsofoffensivelanguage—nottopoliticalpreference,toreligiousbutnottophilosophicalcreed,orperhapseventosomebutnottootherreligiousaffiliations.Startingdownthispathcreatesanevengreaterriskthatgroupsnotoriginallyprotectedmaylaterdemandsimilarsolicitude—demandstheinstitutionthatbegantheprocessofbanningsomespeechisillequippedtoresist. 5
Distinctionsofthistypeareneitherpracticablenorprincipled;theirveryfragilityunderscoreswhyinstitutionsdevotedtofreedomofthoughtandexpressionoughtnotadoptaninstitutionalizedcoercionofsilence. 6
Moreover,banningspeechoftenavoidsconsiderationofmeansmorecompatiblewiththemissionofanacademicinstitutionbywhichtodealwithincivility,intolerance,offensivespeech,andharassingbehavior: 7
1. Institutionsshouldadoptandinvokearangeofmeasuresthatpenalizeconductandbehavior,ratherthanspeech,suchasrulesagainstdefacingproperty,physicalintimidationorharassment,ordisruptionofcampusactivities.Allmembersofthecampuscommunityshouldbemadeawareofsuchrules,andadministratorsshouldbereadytousetheminpreferencetospeech-directedsanctions.
2. Collegesanduniversitiesshouldstressthemeanstheyusebest—toeducate—includingthedevelopmentofcoursesandothercurricularandco-curricularexperiencesdesignedtoincreasestudentunderstandingandtodeteroffensiveorintolerantspeechorconduct.Suchinstitutionsshould,ofcourse,befree(indeedencouraged)tocondemnmanifestationsofintoleranceanddiscrimination,whetherphysicalorverbal.
3. Thegoverningboardandtheadministrationhaveaspecialdutynotonlytosetanoutstandingexampleoftolerance,butalsotochallengeboldlyandcondemnimmediatelyseriousbreachesofcivility.
4. Membersofthefaculty,too,haveamajorrole;theirvoicesmaybecriticalincondemningintolerance,andtheiractionsmaysetexamplesforunderstanding,makingcleartotheirstudentsthatcivilityandtolerancearehallmarksofeducatedmenandwomen.
5. Studentpersonneladministratorshaveinsomewaysthemostdemandingroleofall,forhatespeechoccursmostoftenindormitories,locker-rooms,cafeterias,andstudentcenters.Personswhoguidethispartofcampuslifeshouldsethighstandardsoftheirownfortoleranceandshouldmakeunmistakablycleartheharmthatuncivilorintolerantspeechinflicts.
Tosomepersonswhosupportspeechcodes,measureslikethese—relyingastheydoonsuasionratherthansanctions—mayseeminadequate.Butfreedomofexpressionrequirestolerationof“ideaswehate,”asJusticeHolmesputit.Theunderlyingprincipledoesnotchangebecausethedemandistosilenceahatefulspeaker,orbecauseitcomesfromwithintheacademy.Freespeechisnotsimplyanaspectoftheeducationalenterprisetobeweighedagainstotherdesirableends.Itistheverypreconditionoftheacademicenterpriseitself. 8
ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Thewritersofthisstatementrelyprimarilyondeductivereasoning.Constructasyllogism
thatincludestheselection’smajorpremise,minorpremise,andconclusion.
2. Atwhataudienceisthisstatementaimed—students,instructors,administrators,orthegeneralpublic?Howdoyouknow?
3. Whatproblemdothewritersaddress?Wheredotheypresenttheirsolution?
4. Inparagraph5,thewritersdiscussthemajorargumentsagainsttheirposition.Whydotheyaddressopposingargumentssoearlyintheselection?Howeffectivelydothewritersrefutethesearguments?
5. Paragraph7isfollowedbyanumberedlist.Whatinformationisinthislist?Whydidthewritersdecidetosetitoffinthisway?
6. Whatdothewritersmeanwhentheysaythatfreespeech“istheverypreconditionoftheacademicexerciseitself”(para.8)?
ThisessayfirstappearedintheWashingtonPostonFebruary20,2015.
WENDYKAMINER
PROGRESSIVEIDEASHAVEKILLEDFREESPEECHONCAMPUSIsanacademicdiscussionoffreespeechpotentiallytraumatic?ArecentpanelforSmith
Collegealumnaeaimedat“challengingtheideologicalechochamber”elicitedthisominous“trigger/contentwarning”whenatranscriptappearedinthecampusnewspaper:“Racism/racialslurs,ableistslurs,antisemiticlanguage,anti-Muslim/Islamophobiclanguage,anti-immigrantlanguage,sexist/misogynisticslurs,referencestorace-basedviolence,referencestoantisemiticviolence.” 1
Nooneonthispanel,inwhichIparticipated,traffickedinslurs.Sowhatpromptedthewarning? 2
SmithPresidentKathleenMcCartneyhadjoked,“We’rejustwildandcrazy,aren’twe?”Inthetranscript,“crazy”wasreplacedbythenotation:“[ableistslur].” 3
OneofmyfellowpanelistsmentionedthattheStateDepartmenthadforatimebannedthewords“jihad,”“Islamist,”and“caliphate”—whichthetranscriptflaggedas“anti-Muslim/Islamophobiclanguage.” 4
IdescribedthecaseofaBrandeisprofessordisciplinedforsaying“wetback”whileexplainingitsuseasapejorative.Thewordwasreplacedinthetranscriptby“[anti-Latin@/anti-immigrantslur].”DiscussingtheteachingofHuckleberryFinn,Iquestionedtheuseofeuphemismssuchas“then-word”and,indoingso,utteredthatforbiddenword.IdescribedwhatIthoughtwastheobviousdifferencebetweenquotingawordinthecontextofdiscussinglanguage,literature,orprejudiceandhurlingitasanepithet. 5
Twoofthepanelistschallengedme.Theaudienceof300to400peoplelistenedtoourspirited,friendlydebate—anddidn’tappearangryorshocked.Butbackoncampus,Iwasquicklybrandedaracist,andIwaschargedintheHuffingtonPostwithcommitting“anexplicitactofracialviolence.”McCartneysubsequentlyapologizedthat“somestudentsandfacultywerehurt”andmadeto“feelunsafe”bymyremarks. 6
Unsafe?Thesedays,whenstudentstalkaboutthreatstotheirsafetyanddemandaccessto“safespaces,”they’reoftentalkingaboutthethreatofun-welcomespeechanddemandingprotectionfromtheemotionaldisturbancessparkedbyunsettlingideas.It’snotjustrapethatsomewomenoncampusfear:It’sdiscussionsofrape.AtBrownUniversity,ascheduleddebatebetweentwofeministsaboutrapeculturewascriticizedfor,astheBrownDailyHeraldputit,undermining“theUniversity’smissiontocreateasafeandsupportiveenvironmentforsurvivors.”Inaschool-widee-mail,BrownPresidentChristinaPaxonemphasizedherbeliefintheexistenceofrapecultureandinvitedstudentstoanalternativelecture,tobegivenatthesametimeasthedebate.AndtheDailyHeraldreportedthatstudentswhofearedbeing“attackedbytheviewpoints”offeredatthedebatecouldinstead“findasafespace”among“sexualassaultpeereducators,womenpeercounselorsandstaff”duringthesametimeslot.Presumablytheyallsharedthesameviewpointsandcouldbetrustednotto“attack”anyonewiththeirideas. 7
Howdidwegethere?Howdidaverbaldefenseoffreespeechbecometantamounttoahatecrimeandoffensivewordsbecometheequivalentofphysicalassaults? 8
Youcancredit—orblame—progressivesforthisenthusiasticembraceofcensorship.Itreflects,inpart,theinfluenceofthreepopularmovementsdatingbackdecades:thefeministanti-porncrusades,thepop-psychologyrecoverymovement,andtheemergenceofmulticulturalismoncollegecampuses. 9
“Howdidaverbaldefenseoffreespeechbecometantamounttoahatecrimeandoffensivewordsbecometheequivalentofphysicalassaults?”
Inthe1980s,lawprofessorCatharineMacKinnonandwriterAndreaDworkinshowedtheway,popularizingaviewoffreespeechasabarriertoequality.Thesetwoimpassionedfeministsframedpornography—itsproduction,distribution,andconsumption—asanassaultonwomen.Theydevisedanoveldefinitionofpornographyasaviolationofwomen’scivilrights,andchampionedamodelanti-pornordinancethatwouldauthorizecivilactionsbyanywoman“aggrieved”bypornography.In1984,thecityofIndianapolisadoptedthemeasure,definingpornographyasa“discriminatorypractice,”butitwasquicklystruckdowninfederalcourtasunconstitutional.“Indianapolisjustifiestheordinanceonthegroundthatpornographyaffectsthoughts,”thecourtnoted.“Thisisthoughtcontrol.” 10
SoMacKinnnonandDworkinlostthatbattle,buttheirsuccessorsarewinningthewar.Theirviewofallegedlyoffensiveordemeaningspeechasacivilrightsviolation,andtheirconflationofwordsandactions,havehelpedshapecampusspeechandharassmentcodesandnurturedprogressivehostilitytowardfreespeech. 11
Therecoverymovement,whichflourishedinthelate’80sandearly’90s,adoptedasimilarlydireviewofunwelcomespeech.Wordswound,anti-pornfeministsandrecoveringco-dependentsagreed.Self-appointedrecoveryexperts,suchasthebest-sellingauthorJohnBradshaw,promotedthebeliefthatmostofusarevictimsofabuse,inoneformoranother.Theybroadenedthedefinitionofabusetoincludearangeofcommon,normalchildhoodexperiences,includingbeingchastisedorignoredbyyourparentsonoccasion.Fromthisperspective,weareallfragileandeasilydamagedbypresumptivelyhurtfulspeech,andcensorshiplookslikeamoralnecessity. 12
Theseideaswerereadilyabsorbedoncollegecampusesembarkingonacommendabledrivefordiversity.Multiculturalistssoughttoprotecthistoricallydisadvantagedstudentsfromspeechconsideredracist,sexist,homophobicorotherwisediscriminatory.Likeabuse,oppressionwasdefinedbroadly.Irememberthefirsttime,intheearly’90s,thatIheardaHarvardstudentdescribeherselfasoppressed,asawomanofcolor.Shehadn’tbeensystematicallydeprivedoffundamentalrightsandliberties.Afterall,she’dbeenadmittedtoHarvard.Butshehadbeenoffendedandunsettledbycertainattitudesandremarks.Didshehavegoodreasontotakeoffense?Thatwasanirrelevantquestion.Populartherapeuticculturedefinedverbal“assaults”andotherformsofdiscriminationbythesubjective,emotionalresponsesofself-proclaimedvictims. 13
Thisrelianceonsubjectivity,intheinterestofequality,isarecipeforarbitrary,discriminatoryenforcementpractices,withfar-reachingeffectsonindividualliberty.Thetendencytotakesubjectiveallegationsofvictimizationatfacevalue—instrumentalincontemporarycensorshipcampaigns—alsoleadstothepresumptionofguiltanddisregardfordueprocessintheprogressiveapproachtoallegedsexualassaultsoncampus. 14
Thisisadangerouslymisguidedapproachtojustice.“Feelingrealities”belonginatherapist’soffice.Incorporatedintolawsandregulations,theyleadtothesoftauthoritarianismthatnowgovernsmanyAmericancampuses.Insteadofadvancingequality,it’steachingfuture
generationsofleadersthe“virtues”ofautocracy. 15
ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. ShouldKaminerhavegivenmorebackgroundinformationabouttheproblemshe
discusses?Whatadditionalinformationcouldshehaveprovided?
2. Kaminerdevotesthefirstsixparagraphsofheressaytodescribingapaneldiscussion.Whydoyouthinkshebeginsheressayinthisway?Howdoesthisdiscussionpreparereadersfortherestoftheessay?
3. Inparagraph8,Kamineraskstwoquestions.Whatisthefunctionofthesequestions?
4. AccordingtoKaminer,whatare“feelingrealities”(para.15)?Inwhatsenseare“feelingrealities”harmful?
5. DoesKaminereverestablishthatthesituationshediscussesiswidespreadenoughtobeaproblem?Couldshebeaccusedofsettingupastrawman?
6. WhatdoesKaminerwanttoaccomplish?Isherpurposetoconvincereadersofsomething?Tomovethemtoaction?Whatisyourreactiontoheressay?
ThisopinionpiecewasoriginallypublishedonMarch21,2015,intheNewYorkTimes.
JUDITHSHULEVITZ
INCOLLEGEANDHIDINGFROMSCARYIDEASKatherineByron,asenioratBrownUniversityandamemberofitsSexualAssaultTask
Force,considersitherdutytomakeBrownasafeplaceforrapevictims,freefromanythingthatmightpromptmemoriesoftrauma. 1
SowhensheheardlastfallthatastudentgrouphadorganizedadebateaboutcampussexualassaultbetweenJessicaValenti,thefounderoffeministing.com,andWendyMcElroy,alibertarian,andthatMs.McElroywaslikelytocriticizetheterm“rapeculture,”Ms.Byronwasalarmed.“Bringinginaspeakerlikethatcouldservetoinvalidatepeople’sexperiences,”shetoldme.Itcouldbe“damaging.” 2
Ms.Byronandsomefellowtaskforcememberssecuredameetingwithadministrators.Notlongafter,Brown’spresident,ChristinaH.Paxson,announcedthattheuniversitywouldholdasimultaneous,competingtalktoprovide“researchandfacts”about“theroleofcultureinsexualassault.”Meanwhile,studentvolunteersputuppostersadvertisingthata“safespace”wouldbeavailableforanyonewhofoundthedebatetooupsetting. 3
Thesafespace,Ms.Byronexplained,wasintendedtogivepeoplewhomightfindcomments“troubling”or“triggering,”aplacetorecuperate.Theroomwasequippedwithcookies,coloringbooks,bubbles,Play-Doh,calmingmusic,pillows,blankets,andavideooffrolickingpuppies,aswellasstudentsandstaffmemberstrainedtodealwithtrauma.Emma
Hall,ajunior,rapesurvivor,and“sexualassaultpeereducator”whohelpedsetuptheroomandworkedinitduringthedebate,estimatesthatacoupleofdozenpeopleusedit.Atonepointshewenttothelecturehall—itwaspacked—butafterawhile,shehadtoreturntothesafespace.“Iwasfeelingbombardedbyalotofviewpointsthatreallygoagainstmydearlyandcloselyheldbeliefs,”Ms.Hallsaid. 4
Safespacesareanexpressionoftheconviction,increasinglyprevalentamongcollegestudents,thattheirschoolsshouldkeepthemfrombeing“bombarded”bydiscomfitingordistressingviewpoints.Thinkofthesafespaceasthelive-actionversionofthebetter-knowntriggerwarning,anoticeputontopofasyllabusoranassignedreadingtoalertstudentstothepresenceofpotentiallydisturbingmaterial. 5
Somepeopletracesafespacesbacktothefeministconsciousness-raisinggroupsofthe1960sand1970s,otherstothegayandlesbianmovementoftheearly1990s.Inmostcases,safespacesareinnocuousgatheringsoflike-mindedpeoplewhoagreetorefrainfromridicule,criticism,orwhattheytermmicroaggressions—subtledisplaysofracialorsexualbias—sothateveryonecanrelaxenoughtoexplorethenuancesof,say,afluidgenderidentity.Aslongasallpartiesconsenttosuchrestrictions,theselittleislandsofself-restraintseemlikeaperfectlyfineidea. 6
Butthenotionthatticklishconversationsmustbescrubbedcleanofcontroversyhasawayofleakingoutandspreading.Onceyoudesignatesomespacesassafe,youimplythattherestareunsafe.Itfollowsthattheyshouldbemadesafer. 7
“Aslongasallpartiesconsenttosuchrestrictions,theselittleislandsofself-restraintseemlikeaperfectlyfineidea.”
ThislogicclearlyinformedacampaignundertakenthisfallbyaColumbiaUniversitystudentgroupcalledEveryoneAlliedAgainstHomophobiathatconsistedofslippingaflierunderthedoorofeverydormroomoncampus.Theheadlineoftheflierstated,“Iwantthisspacetobeasaferspace.”Thetextbelowinstructedstudentstotapetheflierstotheirwindows.Thegroup’svicepresidentthenhadtheflierpublishedintheColumbiaDailySpectator,thestudentnewspaper,alongwithaneditorialassertingthat“makingspacessaferisaboutlearninghowtobekindtoeachother.” 8
AjuniornamedAdamShapirodecidedhedidn’twanthisroomtobeasaferspace.Heprinteduphisownfliercallingitadangerousspaceandhadthat,too,publishedintheColumbiaDailySpectator.“Kindnessalonewon’tallowustogainmoreinsightintotruth,”hewrote.Inaninterview,Mr.Shapirosaid,“Ifthepointofasafespaceistherapyforpeoplewhofeelvictimizedbytraumatization,thatsoundslikeagreatmission.”Butasafe-spacementalityhasbeguninfiltratingclassrooms,hesaid,makingbothprofessorsandstudentsloathtosayanythingthatmighthurtsomeone’sfeelings.“Idon’tseehowyoucanhaveatherapeuticspacethat’salsoanintellectualspace,”hesaid. 9
I’moldenoughtorememberatimewhencollegestudentsobjectedtoprovidingaplatformtocertainspeakersbecausetheyweredeemedpoliticallyunacceptable.Nowstudentsworrywhetheractsofspeechorpiecesofwritingmayputtheminemotionalperil.Twoweeksago,
studentsatNorthwesternUniversitymarchedtoprotestanarticlebyLauraKipnis,aprofessorintheuniversity’sSchoolofCommunication.ProfessorKipnishadcriticized—O.K.,ridiculed—whatshecalledthesexualparanoiapervadingcampuslife. 10
Theprotesterscarriedmattressesanddemandedthattheadministrationcondemntheessay.OnestudentcomplainedthatProfessorKipniswas“erasingtheverytraumaticexperience”ofvictimswhospokeout.Anorganizerofthedemonstrationsaid,“weneedtobesettingasidespacestotalk”about“victimblaming.”LastWednesday,Northwestern’spresident,MortonO.Schapiro,wroteanop-edarticleintheWallStreetJournalaffirminghiscommitmenttoacademicfreedom.Butplentyofothersatuniversitiesarewillingtodignifystudents’fears,citingthreatstotheirstabilityasreasonstocanceldebates,disinvitecommencementspeakers,andapologizeforso-calledmistakes. 11
AtOxfordUniversity’sChristChurchcollegeinNovember,thecollegecensors(a“censor”beingmoreorlesstheOxfordequivalentofanundergraduatedean)canceledadebateonabortionaftercampusfeministsthreatenedtodisruptitbecausebothwould-bedebatersweremen.“I’mrelievedthecensorshavemadethisdecision,”saidthetreasurerofChristChurch’sstudentunion,whohadpressedforthecancellation.“Itclearlymakesthemostsenseforthesafety—bothphysicalandmental—ofthestudentswholiveandworkinChristChurch.” 12
Ayearandahalfago,aHampshireCollegestudentgroupdisinvitedanAfrofunkbandthathadbeenattackedonsocialmediaforhavingtoomanywhitemusicians;thevitriolicdiscussionhadmadestudentsfeel“unsafe.” 13
Lastfall,thepresidentofSmithCollege,KathleenMcCartney,apologizedforcausingstudentsandfacultytobe“hurt”whenshefailedtoobjecttoaracialepithetutteredbyafellowpanelmemberatanalumnaeeventinNewYork.Theoffenderwasthefree-speechadvocateWendyKaminer,whohadbeenarguingagainsttheuseoftheeuphemism“then-word”whenteachingAmericanhistoryorTheAdventuresofHuckleberryFinn.Intheuproarthatfollowed,theStudentGovernmentAssociationwrotealetterdeclaringthat“ifSmithisunsafeforonestudent,itisunsafeforallstudents.” 14
“It’samazingtomethattheycan’tdistinguishbetweenracistspeechandspeechaboutracistspeech,betweenracismanddiscussionsofracism,”Ms.Kaminersaidinanemail. 15
Theconfusionistelling,though.Itshowsthatwhilekeepingcollege-leveldiscussions“safe”mayfeelgoodtothehypersensitive,it’sbadforthemandforeveryoneelse.Peopleoughttogotocollegetosharpentheirwitsandbroadentheirfieldofvision.Shieldthemfromunfamiliarideas,andthey’llneverlearnthedisciplineofseeingtheworldasotherpeopleseeit.They’llbeunpreparedforthesocialandintellectualheadwindsthatwillhitthemassoonastheystepoffthecampuseswhoseclimatestheyhavesocarefullycontrolled.Whatwilltheydowhentheyhearopinionsthey’velearnedtoshrinkfrom?Iftheywanttochangetheworld,howwilltheylearntopersuadepeopletojointhem? 16
Onlyafewofthestudentswantstrongeranti-hate-speechcodes.Mostlytheyaskforthingslikemandatorytrainingsessionsandstricterenforcementofexistingrules.Still,it’sdisconcertingtoseestudentsclamorforakindofintrusivesupervisionthatwouldhaveoutragedstudentsafewgenerationsago.Butthosewerehardiersouls.Nowstudents’needsareanticipatedbyasmallarmyofserviceprofessionals—mentalhealthcounselors,student-lifedeans,andthelike.Thisnewbureaucracymaybeexacerbatingstudents’“self-infantilization,”
asJudithShapiro,theformerpresidentofBarnardCollege,suggestedinanessayforInsideHigherEd. 17
Butwhyarestudentssoeagertoself-infantilize?Theirparentsshouldprobablysharetheblame.EricPosner,aprofessorattheUniversityofChicagoLawSchool,wroteonSlatelastmonththatalthoughuniversitiescossetstudentsmorethantheyusedto,that’swhattheyhavetodo,becausetoday’sundergraduatesaremorepuerilethantheirpredecessors.“Perhapsoverprogrammedchildrenengineeredtothespecificationsofcollegeadmissionsofficesnolongerexperiencetherisksandchallengesthatbreedmaturity,”hewrote.But“ifcollegestudentsarechildren,thentheyshouldbeprotectedlikechildren.” 18
“Theirparentsshouldprobablysharetheblame.”
Anotherreasonstudentsresorttothequasi-medicalizedterminologyoftraumaisthatitforcesadministratorstorespond.Universitiesareinadoublebind.They’rerequiredbytwocivil-rightsstatutes,TitleVIIandTitleIX,toensurethattheircampusesdon’tcreatea“hostileenvironment”forwomenandothergroupssubjecttoharassment.However,universitiesarenotsupposedtogotoofarinsuppressingfreespeech,either.Ifauniversitycancelsatalkorpunishesaprofessorandalawsuitensues,historysuggeststhattheuniversitywilllose.Butifofficialsdon’tcensureordon’tpreventspeechthatmayinflictpsychologicaldamageonamemberofaprotectedclass,theyriskfosteringahostileenvironmentandpromptinganinvestigation.Asaresult,studentswhosaytheyfeelunsafearemorelikelytobeheardthanstudentswhodemandcensorshiponothergrounds. 19
Thetheorythatvulnerablestudentsshouldbeguaranteedpsychologicalsecurityhasrootsinabodyoflegalthoughtelaboratedinthe1980sand1990sandstillreadtoday.Feministandanti-racistlegalscholarsarguedthattheFirstAmendmentshouldnotsafeguardlanguagethatinflictedemotionalinjurythroughracistorsexiststigmatization.Onescholar,MariJ.Matsuda,wasparticularlyinsistentthatcollegestudentsnotbesubjectedto“theviolenceoftheword”becausemanyofthem“areawayfromhomeforthefirsttimeandatavulnerablestageofpsychologicaldevelopment.”Ifthey’retargetedandtheuniversitydoesnothingtohelpthem,theywillbe“lefttotheirownresourcesincopingwiththedamagewrought.”Thatmighthave,shewrote,“lifelongrepercussions.” 20
Perhaps.ButMs.Matsudadoesn’tseemtohaveconsideredthepossibilitythatinsulatingstudentscouldalsomakethem,well,insular.Afewweeksago,ZinebElRhazoui,ajournalistatCharlieHebdo,spokeattheUniversityofChicago,protectedbythesecurityguardsshehastraveledwithsincesupportersoftheIslamicStateissueddeaththreatsagainsther.Duringthequestion-and-answerperiod,aMuslimstudentstooduptoobjecttothenewspaper’sapparentdisrespectforMuslimsandtoexpressherdislikeofthephrase“IamCharlie.” 21
Ms.ElRhazouireplied,somewhatirritably,“BeingCharlieHebdomeanstodiebecauseofadrawing,”andnoteveryonehasthegutstodothat(althoughshedidn’tusethewordguts).Shelivesunderconstantthreat,Ms.ElRhazouisaid.Thestudentansweredthatshefeltthreatened,too. 22
Afewdayslater,aguesteditorialistinthestudentnewspapertookMs.ElRhazouitotask.
Shehadfailedtoensure“thatothersfeltsafeenoughtoexpressdissentingopinions.”Ms.ElRhazoui’s“relativepositionofpower,”thewritercontinued,hadgrantedhera“freepasstomakecondescendingattacksonamemberoftheuniversity.”Inalettertotheeditor,thepresidentandthevicepresidentoftheUniversityofChicagoFrenchClub,whichhadsponsoredthetalk,shotback,saying,“ElRhazouiisanimmigrant,awoman,Arab,ahuman-rightsactivistwhohasknownexile,andajournalistlivinginveryrealfearofdeath.Shewasinvitedtospeakpreciselybecauseherrighttodosois,quiteliterally,underthreat.” 23
You’dbehard-pressedtoavoidtheconclusionthatthestudentandherdefenderhadburrowedsodeepinsidetheircocoons,weresoovercomebytheirownfragility,thattheycouldn’tseethatitwasMs.ElRhazouiwhowasinneedofasaferspace. 24
ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Whatare“safespaces”?AccordingtoShulevitz,whatistheproblemofdesignating“some
spacesassafe”(para.7)?
2. Inparagraph9,ShulevitzquotesAdamShapiro,astudent,whosays,“Idon’tseehowyoucanhaveatherapeuticspacethat’salsoanintellectualspace.”WhatdoesShapiromean?Doyouagreewithhim?
3. DoesShulevitzuseinductiveordeductivereasoningtomakehercase?Whydoyouthinkthatshechosethisstrategy?
4. WheredoesShulevitzdiscussargumentsagainstherposition?Doesshepresenttheseargumentsfairly?Explain.
5. DoesShulevitzappealmainlytoethos,pathos,orlogos?
6. Inparagraph17,Shulevitzsays,“Onlyafewofthestudentswantstrongeranti-hate-speechcodes.”Doesthisadmissionundercutherargument?Whyorwhynot?
ThisessaywaspostedonSlate.comonFebruary12,2015.
ERICPOSNER
UNIVERSITIESARERIGHTTOCRACKDOWNONSPEECHANDBEHAVIORLately,amoralpanicaboutspeechandsexualactivityinuniversitieshasreachedacrescendo.Universitieshavestrengthenedrulesprohibitingoffensivespeechtypicallytargetedatracial,ethnic,andsexualminorities;takenituponthemselvestoissue“triggerwarnings”tostudentswhencoursesoffercontentthatmightupsetthem;bannedsexualactsthatfallshortofrapeundercriminallawbutareontheborderlineofcoercion;andlimiteddueprocessprotectionsofstudentsaccusedofviolatingtheserules. 1
Mostliberalscelebratethesedevelopments,yetwithacertainuneasiness.Fewofthemwant
toapplytheseprotectionstosocietyatlarge.Conservativesandlibertariansareupinarms.Theyseetheserulesasanassaultonfreespeechandindividualliberty.Theythinkuniversitiesaretreatingstudentslikechildren.Andtheyareright.Buttheyhavealsonotconsideredthatthejustificationforthesepoliciesmayliehiddeninplainsight:thatstudentsarechildren.Notintermsofage,butintermsofmaturity.Evenincollege,theymustbeprotectedlikechildrenwhilebeingpreparedtobeadults. 2
Thereisapopular,romanticnotionthatstudentsreceivetheiruniversityeducationthroughfreeandopendebateabouttheissuesoftheday.Nothingcouldbefartherfromthetruth.Studentswhoentercollegeknowhardlyanythingatall—that’swhytheyneedaneducation.Classroomteachersknowstudentswon’tlearnanythingiftheyblabonabouttheiropinions.Teachersaredictatorswhocarefullycontrolwhatstudentssaytooneanother.It’snotjustthatsincereexpressionsofopinionaboutsame-sexmarriageorcampaignfinancereformareoutofplaceinchemistryandmathclass.Theyareoutofplaceeveninphilosophyandpoliticsclasses,wherethegoalistoeducatestudents(usuallyaboutacademictextsandtheories),nottolistentothemspoutoff.Andwhileprofessorssometimesbelievethereispedagogicalvalueinallowingstudentstoexpresstheirpoliticalopinionsinthecontextofsometext,professors(oratleast,goodprofessors)carefullymanipulatetheirstudentssothatthediscussionservespedagogicalends. 3
That’swhythecontretempsaboutarecentincidentatMarquetteUniversityisfarlessalarmingthanlibertariansthink.AninexperiencedinstructorwasteachingaclassonthephilosophyofJohnRawls,andastudentintheclassarguedthatsame-sexmarriagewasconsistentwithRawls’philosophy.Whenanotherstudenttoldtheteacheroutsideofclassthathedisagreed,theteacherrespondedthatshewouldnotpermitastudenttoopposesame-sexmarriageinclassbecausethatmightoffendgaystudents. 4
WhileIbelievethattheteachermishandledthestudent’scomplaint,shewasjustifiedindismissingit.ThepurposeoftheclasswastoteachRawls’theoryofjustice,nottodebatethemeritsofsame-sexmarriage.Thefactthatastudentinjectedsame-sexmarriageintothediscussiondoesnotmeanthattheclasswasrequiredtodiscussit.TheprofessormightreasonablyhavebelievedthatthestudentswouldgainabetterunderstandingofRawls’theoryiftheythoughtabouthowitappliedtoissueslessdivisiveandhencelesslikelytodistractstudentsfromtheacademicmeritsofthetheory. 5
Teachingistricky.Everyoneunderstandsthataclassisafailureifstudentsrefusetolearnbecausetheyfeelbulliedorintimidated,orifideologicalargumentsbreakoutthathavenothingtodowithunderstandinganidea.Itistheresponsibilityoftheprofessortoconducttheclassinsuchawaythatmaximallearningoccurs,notmaximalspeech.That’swhynoteacherwouldpermitstudentstolaunchintoanti-SemiticdiatribesinaclassabouttheHolocaust,howeversincerelythespeakermightthinkthatJewswereresponsiblefortheHolocaustortheHolocaustdidnottakeplace.AndevenateacherlessscrupulousaboutavoidingoffensetogaypeoplewoulddrawalineifastudentintheRawlsclasswantedtoarguethatJimCroworlegalizationofpedophiliaisentailedbytheprinciplesofjustice.Whileadvocatesoffreedomofspeechliketoclaimthatfalsehoodsgetsqueezedoutinthe“marketplaceofideas,”inclassroomstheyjustreceiveanF. 6
“Itistheresponsibilityoftheprofessortoconducttheclassinsuchawaythatmaximallearningoccurs,notmaximalspeech.”
Mostofthedebateaboutspeechcodes,whichfrequentlyprohibitstudentsfrommakingoffensivecommentstooneanother,concernsspeechoutsideofclass.Twopointsshouldbemade.First,studentswhoareunhappywiththecodesandvaluesoncampuscantaketheirviewstoforumsoutsideofcampus—tothetownsquare,forexample.Thecampusisanextensionoftheclassroom,andsowhiletherestrictionsintheclassroomareenforcedlessvigorously,theunderlyingpedagogicalobjectiveofavoidingintimidationremainsintact. 7
Second,andmoreimportant—atleastforlibertarianpartisansofthefreemarket—theuniversitiesaresimplycateringtodemandinthemarketplaceforeducation.Whilecriticssometimesgivetheimpressionthatleftyprofessorsandcluelessadministratorsoriginatedthespeechandsexcodes,thetruthisthatuniversitiesadoptedthembecausethat’swhatmoststudentswant.Ifstudentswanttolearnbiologyandarthistoryinanenvironmentwheretheyneedn’tworryaboutbeingoffendedorraped,whyshouldn’tthey?Aslongasuniversitiesarefreetochoosewhateverrulestheywant,studentswithdifferentviewscansortthemselvesintouniversitieswithdifferentrules.Indeed,studentswhowantthegreatestspeechprotectionscanattendpublicuniversities,which(unlikeprivateuniversities)aregovernedbytheFirstAmendment.Libertariansmightreflectontheironythattheprivatemarket,inwhichtheynormallyputfaith,reflectsapreferenceamongstudentsforspeechrestrictions. 8
Andthisbringsmetothemostimportantoverlookedfactaboutspeechandsexcodedebates.Societyseemstobemovingtheageofmajorityfrom18to21or22.Weareincreasinglytreatingcollege-agestudentsasquasi-childrenwhoneedprotectionfromsomeoflife’sharshrealitieswhiletheycompletethelarvalstageoftheirlives.Manycriticsofthesecodesdiscernthistransformationbutmisinterpretit.Theycomplainthatuniversitiesaretreatingadultslikechildren.Theproblemisthatuniversitieshavebeentreatingchildrenlikeadults. 9
Alotofthecontroversiesaboutcampuslifebecomeclearerfromthisperspective.Youngstersdodumbthings.Theysufferfromlackofimpulsecontrol.Theyfailtosaynotoasexualencountertheydonotwant,ortheymisinterpretanoasyes,orinpublicdebatetheyunderminetheirownargumentsbybeingneedlesslyoffensive.Scientificresearchconfirmsthatbraindevelopmentcontinueswellintoaperson’s20s.Highschoolsareaccustomedtodealingwiththecognitivelimitationsoftheircharges.Theyseetheirmissionasadvancingtheautonomyofstudentsratherthanassumingthatitisalreadyinplace.Theysocializeaswellaseducatechildrentoactcivillybypunishingthemiftheydon’t.Universitieshavegraduallyrealizedthattheymusttakethesameapproachtocollegestudents. 10
Onenaturallywonderswhythishasbecomenecessary.Perhapsoverprogrammedchildrenengineeredtothespecificationsofcollegeadmissionsofficesnolongerexperiencetherisksandchallengesthatbreedmaturity.Ormaybeinourever-moretechnologicallyadvancedsociety,theresponsibilitiesofadulthoodmustbedelayeduntilthecompletionofamoreextendedperiodofeducation. 11
Yetcollegestudentshavenotalwaysenjoyedsomuchautonomy.Themodernfreedomsofcollegestudentsdatebackonlytothe1960s,whenawaveofanti-authoritarianism,inspiredbytheVietnamWarandthecivilrightsmovement,sweptawaystrictcampuscodesinaneraofsingle-sexdorms.Themodernspeechandsexcodeshavesurfacedasthosewatersrecedebacktosea.Whatismostinterestingisthatthisreactioncomesnotfromparentsandadministrators,butfromstudentsthemselves,who,apparentlyrecognizingthattheirparentsandschoolshavenotfullypreparedthemforindependence,wantuniversitiestoresumetheirtraditionalroleinlocoparentis. 12
Ifallthisistrue,thenmaybewecandeclareatruceintheculturewarsovereducation.Ifcollegestudentsarechildren,thentheyshouldbeprotectedlikechildren.Libertariansshouldtakeheartthatthemarketinprivateeducationoffersstudentsadiverseassortmentofideologicalculturesinwhichtheycanbeindoctrinated.Conservativesshouldrejoicethatmoralinstructionandsocialcontrolhavebeenreintroducedtotheuniversitiesaftera40-yeardrought.Bothgroupsshouldbepleasedthatstudentsarekeptfromharm’sway,andkeptfromdoingharm,untiltheyarereadytoaccepttheresponsibilitiesofadults. 13
ATISSUE:HOWFREESHOULDFREESPEECHBE?1. Thisarticlebeginswithaseriesofexamples.Aretheseexamplesself-evident,ordoes
Posnerneedtosupplymorematerial—forexample,sourceinformationorevidencethatthepolicieshementionsarewidespread?
2. Inparagraph2,Posnersays,“Mostliberalscelebratethesedevelopments.”Hethengoesontotalkaboutconservativesandlibertarians.Whatlogicalfallacydoesheseemtobecommitting?
3. Inparagraph3,Posnersays,“Teachersaredictatorswhocarefullycontrolwhatstudentssaytooneanother.”Doyouagree?Howcouldyourefutethisstatement?
4. WhatisPosner’spurposeinwritingthisessay?Doeshewanttopresentinformation,changepeople’sideas,ormovereaderstoaction?Doyouthinkthatheachieveshispurpose?Explain.
5. Posnermakesanumberofunsupportedgeneralstatementsinthisessay.Forexample,inparagraph8,hesaysthatuniversitiesadoptedspeechandsexcodes“becausethat’swhatmoststudentswant.”Identifytwoorthreeofthesegeneralstatements,anddeterminewhatkindsofevidencePosnerwouldneedtosupportthem.
6. Inhisconclusion,Posnerspeculatesonwhyuniversitiesshouldassumetheresponsibilityofsocializingstudents.Doyouagree?Whyorwhynot?
TEMPLATEFORWRITINGADEDUCTIVEARGUMENTWriteaone-paragraphdeductiveargumentinwhichyouargueagainstyourschoolimposingspeechcodes.Followthetemplatebelow,fillingintheblankstocreateyourargument.
OneofthebasicprinciplesoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentistheconstitutionalguaranteeoffreedomofspeech.Withfewexceptions,allAmericans_____________________________._________________________________________________________________________________.Incollege.Forexample,________________________________________________________________________.Byhavingtherighttoexpressthemselvesfreely,____________________________________.Therefore,___________________________________________________________________________________.Noteveryoneagreeswiththisview,however.Somepeoplearguethat____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.Thisargumentmissesthepoint.Whenauniversitylimitsthespeechofsomestudentsbecauseothersmaybeupsetbytheircomments,________________________________.Forthisreason,collegesshould____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.
TEMPLATEFORWRITINGANINDUCTIVEARGUMENTWriteaone-paragraphinductiveargumentinwhichyouargueinfavorofyourschoolimposingspeechcodes.Followthetemplatebelow,fillingintheblankstocreateyourargument.
Thenumberofstudentsdemandingprotectionfromdistastefulideasisgrowingyearly.Somestudentscomplainthat____________________________________________________________________.Thesestudentswant_________________________________.Anumberofstudieshaveshownthatso-calledsafespacesandtriggerwarningsgoalongwaytowardcalmingstudents’fearsandcreatingahospitablelearningenvironment.Forexample,somestudents______________________________________.Asaresult,___________________________.Thebestwayforcollegestodealwiththisproblemisto_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.Freespeechadvocates,however,arguethat___________________________.Althoughthismaybetrue,___________________________.Forthisreason,itwouldmakesenseto_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.
EXERCISE5.13Interviewseveralofyourclassmatesaswellasoneortwoofyourinstructorsabouthowfreefreespeechshouldbe.Then,editthedeductiveandinductiveargumentsyouwroteusingthetemplatesabovesothattheyincludesomeofthesecomments.
EXERCISE5.14Writeanessayinwhichyoutakeapositiononthequestion,“ShouldUniversitiesBeAbletoPlaceLimitsonFreeSpeech?”Makesurethatyouressayisorganizedprimarilyaseitheradeductiveargumentoraninductiveargument.Usethereadingsonpages165–186assourcematerial,andbesuretodocumentallinformationthatyougetfromthesesources.(SeeChapter10forinformationondocumentingsources.)
EXERCISE5.15Reviewthelogicalfallaciesdiscussedonpages147–160.Then,rereadtheessayyouwroteforExercise5.14,andchecktoseeifitcontainsanyfallacies.Underlineanyfallaciesyoufind,andidentifythembyname.Then,rewriteeachstatementsoitexpressesalogicalargument.Finally,reviseyourdrafttoeliminateanyfallaciesyoufound.
EXERCISE5.16
ReviewthefourpillarsofargumentdiscussedinChapter1.Doesyouressayincludeallfourelementsofaneffectiveargument?Addanythingthatismissing.Then,labelthekeyelementsofyouressay.
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