CHAPTER 5The American Revolution

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American Diversity: Divisions between those who supported independence produced amajor division in the population during the Revolution. Also, ethnic groups oftendivided along these lines. By the end of the war many Loyalists left for other parts of theBritish Empire.Globalization: This period marks the first in which America engaged with the outsideworld as an independent political entity. From its appeal to the world in the Declarationof Independence to its alliances with European nations for financial and military aid, thisera was a sharp break with its colonial past.Politics and Citizenship: Politics in America was revolutionized on both the state andnational level by the end of British government in America. State governments withwritten constitutions emerged, and America's first national government as anindependent nation, the Articles of Confederation, helped pave the way for a morepermanent political system.Reform: The American Revolution produced dramatic social as well as political changes .The departure of many of the former elite, the Loyalists, opened up the political andsocial structures to new people. The relative positions of religious denominations shifted,and slave emancipation gained strength in northern states. Women joined inRevolutionary activity and assumed the role of "republican mothers." Native Americanloyalty was divided between the British and the patriots, and in general, NativeAmericans found themselves in a weaker position.War and Diplomacy: The Revolutionary War mobilized the entire population as noprevious war had. George Washington played the prominent role in keeping an army inthe field to resist British forces. Fighting a defensive war, the American forces finallyoutlasted the English political will to fight. America's alliance with France proved criticalto the success of the Revolution.

EXAM TIPFocus on the political, social, and cultural changes resulting from the war in this chapter.There are rarely multiple-choice questions on the military aspects of the war. The essayquestions tend to ask you to analyze the changes brought about by the Revolution.

CHAPTER SUMMARYThe States UnitedIn 1775 the colonies were neither prepared for nor united to fight a war with England. In fact,the Revolution encompassed two struggles: a military conflict with Great Britain and adomestic political struggle. Once fighting began, Americans' opinions ranged from wantingcomplete independence to wanting no change in the imperial relationship. Within a monthof Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental Congress attempted reconciliation withGreat Britain with the Olive Branch Petition. The king's response was to try to stop therebellion by force. The English tried to recruit slaves, Indians, and mercenaries as soldiersand eventually blockaded American ports. Both the congress and the public became moreradical over the course of the first year. Sentiment for independence strengthened, especially

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in January 1776 with the publication of Thomas Paine's widely read pamphlet CommonSense.

As imperial governments crumbled, the colonies established governments apart from Britishauthority. On July 4,1776, the congress adopted a Declaration of Independence. Writtenmainly by Thomas Jefferson, it borrowed heavily from the political theories of John Lockeand the protest rhetoric of the past decade. The Declaration made America a sovereignnation but resistance to independence continued. Loyalists, called Tories by Patriots,remained loyal to the king. The former colonies, now states, began to write constitutions andwere sovereign in the new national government. The Articles of Confederation were ratifiedin 1781 near the end of the war. This new government was purposely designed to create aweak central government with stronger state governments.

America's greatest challenge was keeping a well-equipped army in the field, and paying forit. Foreign nations, particularly France, provided much of the financing for the war. Thegovernment could not force states to provide money or troops and had difficulty sellingbonds. They thus resorted to printing paper money. The result was inflation. Thecontinental army depended heavily on what weapons they were able to capture from theBritish. As the war continued, patriotism faded, and the nation had difficulty raising troops.George Washington, the commander in chief of the Continental Army, was mainlyresponsible for keeping the army and the new nation together.

The War for IndependenceAlthough Britain appeared to have the advantage of a large army and navy, abundantresources, and centralized command, Americans were fighting at home and were committedto their cause. They were able to get substantial foreign aid. English commanders also mademajor errors. From 1775 to 1776, British opinion held that the conflict was a local rebellionaround Boston. General Thomas Gage's army in Boston was besieged by the Americanforces that lost the Battle of Bunker Hill but not before they inflicted heavy casualties on theEnglish. This helped change British perceptions about the conflict. In early 1776, when itbecame apparent that the war was a larger conflict than the British initially realized, theBritish evacuated Boston. Elsewhere, the Americans invaded Canada without success, andthe British met resistance in the South.

During the second phase of the war from 1776 to early 1778, the British were in the bestposition to win. General William Howe moved British forces to New York City. The Patriotswere successful in defeating Hessian troops at Trenton on Christmas Eve in 1776, butotherwise Washington's forces suffered a series of defeats. In 1777 Howe adopted a pincer'sstrategy to divide the United States along the Hudson River, separating New England fromthe rest of the colonies. The plan fell apart when Howe decided to occupy Philadelphiarather than moving up the Hudson Valley to meet General John Burgoyne, whose army wasmoving south into New York from Canada. In October 1777, British forces suffered defeats atOriskany and Bennington, and Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. This proved to be aturning point because it led to an alliance between France and America. British mistakeswere monumental during this period; Burgoyne was left to fight alone and Washington wasallowed to regroup his forces after defeats. Some have questioned Howe's loyalty to theBritish cause.

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When fighting first began America sent diplomats abroad to enlist support, and Franceprovided covert aid. Benjamin Franklin went to France and, aided by the news of the Britishdefeat at Saratoga in 1778,France recognized the United States and provided loans,munitions, and army and naval forces. Spain and the Netherlands also provided aid and allthree nations went to war with England. After maintaining neutrality in past conflicts, thetribes of the Iroquois Confederacy were divided over support for the British or Americans.Some of the Iroquois leaders hoped that an alliance with the British would slow the advanceof Americans onto Indian lands. However, Patriots retaliated by destroying Iroquois villagesand forcing many to flee to Canada.

After the defeat at Saratoga, British public opinion, which was never fully behind the war,forced a limited commitment. In this final phase of the war, the strategy shifted to the Southwhere the British erroneously believed that there was significant Loyalist support. Althoughthe British enjoyed some military successes, they found themselves fighting a guerrilla war.This misguided tactic aroused segments of the American population that previously hadbeen detached from the conflict. The politicization of the populous made the war"revolutionary" and deepened support for the Patriot cause. Accepting failure of thisstrategy, Lord Cornwallis, commander of the southern forces, retreated to Yorktown,Virginia, to rendezvous with a fleet to evacuate his troops. Trapped there by a combinedFranco-American army and the French navy, he surrendered in October 1781.This markedthe end of major fighting, and public opinion in England shifted in favor of a negotiatedpeace. The Treaty of Paris in 1783recognized an independent United States stretching fromCanada to Florida and west to the Mississippi River.

War and SocietyThe Revolution was both a social and political revolution. Many Americans remained loyalto Britain and many were forced to flee the country, some leaving behind large estates andpositions of authority in the former colonies. Although this Loyalist property wasconfiscated, the overall distribution of wealth did not change dramatically. The AnglicanChurch was disestablished, and many Anglican clergy left the United States. Quakerpacifism also weakened that sect's influence in the United States. The position of the CatholicChurch improved as Catholic Patriots such as Charles Carroll and the alliance with CatholicFrance gave Catholicism new validity in America. Maryland's John Carroll became the firstAmerican bishop in 1789.

Tension existed between the ideal of liberty and the reality of slavery. Many southern blackswere exposed to the Revolutionary ideals of liberty. British policy and presence in the Southfreed some slaves, but many more remained in bondage. Some white Southerners wereambivalent toward the Revolution because of slavery. Whites opposed British efforts atemancipation but also feared that Patriot ideology might prompt slave revolts. In the North,revolutionary ideals combined with evangelical Christianity to spread antislaverysentiments. In the South, churches developed a rationale that painted slavery as essential tothe liberty of whites. Indian groups mostly tried to remain neutral in the conflict althoughsome tribes sided with the British. They saw the Americans as more hostile and the British asprotectors from American westward settlement. Some simply took advantage of the situationto attack American settlements on the frontier. Mostly, the war weakened the NativeAmerican tribes. The American victory spurred western settlement and many resentedIndian alliances with the British. Deep divisions developed among tribes, and many found itdifficult to unify to resist further American encroachment on their lands.

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The Revolution had a significant effect on women, who often ran farms and businesses intheir husbands' absence. The war created an unstable population of poor women. As thewar progressed, increasing numbers of women known as camp followers joined the campsof the Patriot army. Although discouraged by many officers, the women provided householdservices to the army and increased morale. The Revolution raised issues about women'srights and role in society. British author Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rightsof Women in 1792 articulated these ideas. There was little change in the legal restrictions ofmarried women. The participation of women in the Revolution led to a new role for them asRepublican mothers who were responsible for teaching the virtues of republicanism to theirchildren.

Freedom from the British Navigation System strengthened the American economy. Newtrading venues opened up in the Caribbean, South America, and later in China. During thewar, privateering was profitable for ship-owners and trade between American states alsoincreased. Entrepreneurial energy was funneled into commerce but not industry.

The Creation of State GovernmentsState governments were the first political creations of the Revolution. They revolvedaround the idea of a republican government with power emanating from virtuouslandowning citizens. Despite this, men without property, blacks, Native Americans, andwomen were denied rights of citizens. The Revolutionary struggle inspired writtenconstitutions with limited executive power and bicameral legislatures. The upper chamberwas to represent the elite, which demonstrates that democracy was not completely accepted.

In the midst of the war, the state governments were having trouble governing, which manyattributed to too much democracy. Massachusetts revised its constitution and significantlystrengthened the power of the executive. This provided a model for the other states. Manystates moved in the direction of complete religious freedom. Virginia adopted ThomasJefferson's Statute of Religious Liberty in 1786, which completely separated church andstate. Slavery, already weak in New England and Pennsylvania, was abolished in somenorthern states, but it continued in the southern states. Racist assumptions about blacks andthe significant financial investment in slaves left many Americans without a viable option toend slavery, even if they had moral reprehension for the institution.

The Search for a National GovernmentAs the war raged with England many sought a weak national government with sovereigntyresting in the states. The result was the Articles of Confederation adopted in 1777 andratified in 1781. This government had little authority over the states and no executive orcourts. It could not regulate trade or tax or raise armies. Each state had a single vote, and amajority of nine was necessary for approval of bills. Its record was mixed during its existencefrom 1781 to 1789. The Confederation commanded little respect in the world. After the warBritain continued to violate aspects of the Treaty of Paris, and full access to English marketswas never achieved. An important accomplishment was resolution of western land issues.The Land Ordinance of 1785 created a system of surveying and selling lands in rectangularsections. In 1787 the Northwest Ordinance provided for settlement and government of theNorthwest Territory, guaranteeing freedom of religion and prohibiting slavery there. Apostwar depression from 1784 to 1787 exposed the economic weakness of the new nation.Without the ability to tax, the Confederation could not pay its debts and states increasedtaxes to pay their debts. Massachusetts' farmers pressed by higher taxes joined Daniel

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Shays, a western Massachusetts farmer and veteran who closed courts to prevent farmersfrom losing their property. With the national government unable to act the revolt wasextinguished by a local militia financed by wealthy merchants. Shays' Rebellion exposedfundamental weaknesses in the government and strengthened the movement to revise theArticles.

Multiple-Choice Questions1. After the battles at Lexington and Concord, the Continental Congress sent the Olive

Branch Petition to the king to I

a. acknowledge the colonies' independence and lay the groundwork for the DeclarationofIndependence to follow.

b. seek a reconciliation with the Crown by stating colonial grievances.c. declare complete submission to the king and the intent to rebel no longer.d. declare the colonial intent to resist English rule by force until the king withdrew his

forces from America.e. inform him of the colonial association's boycott of British goods until the British

troops left Boston.

2. The sentiment expressed in this phrase from the Declaration of Independence, "[T]hatwhenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends [securing life,liberty and property], it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it," best expressesthe political philosophy ofa. Baron de Montesquieu.b. Thomas Hobbs.c. John Locke.d. Voltaire.e. William Pitt.

3. The Battle of Bunker Hill was significant becausea. this early American defeat lowered Patriot morale and made recruiting troops much

harder.b. the British suffered significant casualties that made efforts to suppress the rebellion

much more difficult.c. this British victory made Boston safe for the British army to keep its headquarters

there.d. it showed the British that the American resistance was organized and determined,

and more than a local conflict.e. losing this battle made the British troops evacuate Boston.

4. The major consequence of the American Revolution for the Iroquois Confederacy wasa. division among the various tribes of the Confederacy as some abandoned its

traditional policy of neutrality and supported the British against the Americans.b. unity among the tribes in support of the British, which ultimately left the

Confederacy weaker at the end of the war with American victory.c. strong support for the Americans in hopes that it would help Indians resist white

settlement of their lands after the war.d. total disaster as both American and British troops attacked villages that would not

give them military support.e. insignificant, as the Iroquois remained neutral and were largely unaffected by the

warfare between the British and American colonists.

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5. The following map illustrates the British strategy ofa. moving its large armies in river valleys to ease transportation burdens.b. centering the battles in New York, where there were more Loyalists than in other

colonies.c. anticipating the collapse of the rebellion after dividing New England from the rest of

the colonies.d. moving away from major urban areas and trying to attract rural Americans to the

Loyalist side.e. using Indian allies as a major source of troops in their tribal areas to defeat the

continental armies.

TJl.OOI' MOVIMEN

..- a. •••ohl'Orno

,.-- •••• _ •• fM<: ••

tArnu~ amhh~ •••y"* A'-ft; ••• >""«Ift

(a)

6. The Battle of Yorktown most clearly demonstrated which of the following?a. the overwhelming superiority of American troops toward the end of the

Revolutionary Warb. the inability of Britain to support its armies across the Atlantic Oceanc. the waning support of the British public to continue support of a war to retain its

colonies in British North Americad. the misplaced emphasis British generals put on support from Loyalists in its southern

strategye. the significance of French aid to the Patriot cause

7. The Treaty of Paris at the end of the Revolutionary War contained provisions fora. an end to the fighting and provisions for America and France to divide Britain's

North American possessions.b. recognition of the United States' independence and Britain's withdrawal from the

North American continent.c. treaties of trade and alliance between France and the United States.

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d. the United States western boundary to be the Mississippi River and Britishrecognition of its independence.

e. an end to fighting and a return to the status quo antebellum.

8. A consequence for religion in America as a result of the Revolutionary War wasa. the Anglican Church became more established in areas where Loyalist sympathies

remained strong.b. Quaker sects increased membership because their pacifism attracted Americans tired

of fighting a long and drawn-out war.c. Catholicism was afforded a new respect because of the American alliance with

France.d. a new wave of evangelical Christianity swept through the states in the unsettled

times of war and social upheaval.e. more states adopted established churches to support.

9. The Revolution had a significant effect on women's status due toa. lifting of restrictions on property ownership for married women.b. their gaining the right to vote in local, but not national, elections.c. acceptance of women in jobs previously reserved for men only.d. their new role as teachers of republican virtue to their children.e. their elevated role in politics because of their organization of boycotts.

10. The republican ideology of equal rights and liberty that was fundamental tothe Revolutiona. caused a great antislavery outcry throughout the nation when the war ended.b. pushed some states to distribute confiscated Loyalist property to the poor to

promote equality.c. influenced the British to promise freedom to slaves in areas that they controlled.d. led to massive slave revolts in the South after the war was over.e. helped push New England states to abolish slavery in their new constitutions.

11. The first state constitutions after the Revolution began were replaced becausea. their executive branches were weak and they had difficulty governing.b. they were not democratic enough for people fighting and sacrificing for their rights.c. they contained no provisions for a separation of powers.d. Loyalists were gaining political power under the less restrictive governing structures.e. as pressures lessened at the end of the war, state governments with less central

authority were possible.

12. The national government under the Articles of Confederation was particularlysuccessful ina. repaying the nation's domestic and foreign war debt.b. quelling opposition movements such as Shays' Rebellion in Massachusetts.c. the resolution of western land issues in the Northwest Territory.d. forcing Britain to adhere to all the provisions of the Treaty of Paris.e. -opening trade to areas closed to American merchants because of the war.

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Free-Response Questions1. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of either the British or the Americans that

affected the outcome in the Revolutionary War.

2. Evaluate the economic and social changes that were a result of the Revolutionary War.

Document-Based Question-Exam TipThinking About the American Revolution as a Civil WarHistorian Carl Becker saw the American Revolution as more than a fight for independenceBecker saw a two-sided political problem that raised two questions: "The first was thequestion of home rule; the second was the question of who should rule at home."Sophisticated analyses often must deal with the Revolution as a civil war since thepopulation was divided between Patriots, Loyalists, and a variety of positions in between.The following documents help with this issue.

Documents A and B refer to treatment of Loyalists by state governments and by localPatriots. New Hampshire named seventy-eight people "enemies" and proceeded toconfiscate their property that lay within the state in 1778. Revenues from the sales of theseestates helped the war effort, but the estates were sometimes sold below market value toprivileged Patriots. This broke up large landed properties and equalized the distribution ofwealth to some extent. The woodcut of a Loyalist editor being hung in effigy points toanother persecution of Loyalists by local committees that appropriated political power.Loyalists viewed this behavior as anarchy and the natural outcome of the lawless overthrowof the Crown's government of the colonies. Many fled to England, and asked forcompensation from the Crown for their losses for remaining loyal. Most were disappointed.

Patriots however, regarded Loyalists as traitors, and that alone justified their actions. Theyattempted to convert them to the Patriot cause, but if that was not possible, any action up toexecution was used to silence opposition. The passion for the cause in Document C isevident, and fighting for the cause even crossed gender lines, with women ready to fight todefend their country.

Many questions ask to what extent an event had specified results. These documents point tothe idea of looking at both sides of issues. Many Loyalists were wealthy and politicallypowerful under imperial rule. The Revolution gave those out of political and economicpower the opportunity to appropriate that in the former colonies. You can use these types ofdocuments to illustrate and analyze that issue in an essay on the Revolution.

Document A

Source: Laws of New Hampshire, November 28,1778. [Original Acts, Vii, 99.]

"Whereas John Wentworth, Esq .... [inserted here is a list of loyalists] ... & James RogersEsq have since the commencement of Hostilities between Great brittain and the united statesof America left this and the other united states and gone over to and joined the enemysthereof and have to the utmost of their power aided abetted and assisted the said enemys intheir cruel designs of wresting from the good people of said states their said Liberties civiland religious .... Be it Therefore Enacted ... that the whole estate real and personal ... ofeach of them lying and being within this state be & hereby is declared to be forfeited to thisstate and that the same be for the use thereof."

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Document BSource: LibraryofCongress

Mr. Rivington, Loyalist editor, hanged ineffigy, 1775

Document CSource: Pennsylvania Packet, August5, 1779.[inFrankMoore,Diary of the American Revolution,1859, II, 166-68, via Kennedy,The American Spirit, 165]

"Awake, Americans, to a sense of your danger. No time is to be lost. Instantly banishevery Tory from among you. Let America be sacred alone to freemen.

Drive far from you every baneful wretch who wishes to see you fettered with thechains of tyranny. Send them where they may enjoy their beloved slavery to perfection-sendthem to the island of Britain; there let them drink the cup of slavery and eat the bread ofbitterness all the days of their existence-there let them drag out a painful life; despised andaccursed by those very men whose cause they have had the wickedness to espouse. Never letthem return to this happy land-never let them taste the sweets of that independence whichthey strive to prevent."

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Document DSource: Collectionof the New YorkHistoricalSociety inHM,''The HistoryCompanion" CD.

Woodcut from New Touch on the Times bya Daughter of Liberty Living in Marblehead.1779

Multiple-Choice Answers1. b. It took the colonies more than a year after Lexington and Concord to declare

Independence. Most colonists still acknowledged the king but wanted him to acceptcolonial republican ideals concerning representation and taxation.

2. c. In his treatise concerning England's Glorious Revolution, John Locke stated that apeople have the right to overthrow a government that does not protect natural rights oflife, liberty, and property.

3. d. Although the British loss of troops was considerable, the Patriot show of forceshowed the British that their estimation of poor American fighting capabilities waswrong.

4. a. The Iroquois Confederacy abandoned its policy of neutrality when confronted withconflict among Europeans in America. Some of the tribes supported the British in hopesof slowing American westward expansion, and the Confederacy lost unity and strength.

5. c. This British pincers strategy had a goal of dividing New England, the supposed centerof rebellion, from the other colonies. Cut off from Patriot leadership centered in Boston,the British felt that the rebellion would then die.

6. e. The temporary superiority of the French fleet in the Chesapeake cut off any means ofretreat for Cornwallis.

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7. d. Other provisions included consideration of both Loyalist claims and paying debtsincurred by Americans before the war. Britain would continue its presence in Canada.

8. d. Pacifist Quakers and the tradition of established churches were weakened by theRevolution. Evangelicalism merged with patriotism and strengthened.

9. d. Although women played a significant role in the Revolution with their participationin boycotts and assuming their husbands' duties when they were at war, their social andpolitical status changed little. However, as republican values proliferated womenbecame teachers of republican virtue in the home, a role called republican motherhood.

10. e. The principles of equal rights and liberty did influence New England states, stateswith few slaves, to renounce slavery in the new state constitutions. However, in thosestates where slavery was firmly established those principles only applied to white men.

11. a. Wary of a strong executive after the pre-Revolutionary experience with Britain, theinitial state constitutions limited central authority and placed power in the legislature.Struggling to function effectively during the war, Massachusetts was first to replace itsconstitution with one with strengthened executive authority.

12. c. The government under the Articles did prosecute the war successfully and authoredthe Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance. These provisions set patternsfor the settlement of the Old Northwest and other western lands.

Free-Response Questions Commentary1. This question asks you to choose one topic and assess its impact on the American

victory in the Revolution. Remember to discuss both advantages and disadvantages toearn a score in the higher ranges. British advantages included: an organized army andnavy, a strong economy and abundant resources, a centralized command, and a Loyalistpopulation in America. British disadvantages included: the logistics of fighting a waracross the Atlantic, poor military leadership, poor evaluation of the nature of therebellion, and equivocal support for the war in England. Although British victoriesoutnumbered defeats in the early years, debt mounted and German mercenaries wereused. In addition, after the loss at Saratoga France sided with the Americans. As the wardragged on and poor military decisions led to few major victories, the British will tofight declined and evaporated with Cornwallis's defeat at Yorktown.

Americans appeared to have few advantages but they were fighting on their homeground, were committed to the cause of independence, had strong military leadershipwith Washington at its head, had a population that knew how to use firearms, ultimatelyhad foreign aid, and had only to fight a defensive war. American disadvantages werethat there was no organized government or centralized leadership, insufficient resources,no navy and no substantial regular army but militia forces. Although a substantialproportion of the population at first was Loyal or uncommitted, American supportdeepened as the war progressed. Financial, military, and naval support from the Frenchwas critical, and Washington's leadership kept the army in the field despite thedeprivations suffered by the troops. These combined, advantages led to an Americanvictory.

2. You must consider both economic and social changes in a balanced manner for a topscore on this question. Economically you could evaluate the development of commercewith France, Holland, and Spain rather than the former trade centered on the British

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Empire, as well as the move toward self-sufficiency with increased horne production.Also, with confiscation of Loyalist estates there was some redistribution of wealth but itwas not significant. In social terms religion changed in several ways; the AnglicanChurch was disestablished and some states abandoned the practice of a state-supportedreligion. The relative position of other religions changed, particularly the Catholics andQuakers, and evangelical Christianity grew as a movement. Slavery was abolished inthe Northeast. The social hierarchy opened up with the departure of the Loyalists.Women did assume jobs held by men off at war, but this was not permanent, and oldpatterns emerged after the fighting ended; they did assume the mantle of "republicanmotherhood."

You might argue that change in this area largely mirrored political theory but wasrestricted to men who participated in the political sphere. Ideology did not expandhorizons to include groups left out before.

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