chapter 6 gillis & jackson
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 6
Qualitative Research Designs
The World of Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research designs
Scientific Adequacy Of Qualiative Research
Advantages & Limitations of qualitativeApproaches
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Defining Qualitative Research
use words rather than numbers to describe findings
assume a dynamic reality
emphasize seeing the world from the perspective of
the participants
goal is understanding rather than prediction
emphasize the subjective dimensions of human
experiences
holistic rather than reductionistic
associated with the interpretive approach which is
discovery oriented, explanatory, descriptive, and
inductive in nature
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Major Paradigms in Nursing
TOTALITY -reality existsindependent of the knower
humans are viewed as the
sum of their parts
cause & effect relationships
health is a continuum
quantitative research
approaches
positivist tradition
SIMULTANEITY- reality isa mutual process b/w human s &
the environment
humans are > & different from
the sum of their parts study is conducted not to control
the human being but to gain
insights into understanding the
personal meaning of experience researchers study the universal
lived experiences of health or
patterns of the whole
qualitative research approaches& the interpretive tradition
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Qualitative research is
complementary to quantitative
research.
Both processes produce different
kinds of knowledge that arevalued by the profession and both
are needed to promote excellencein practice
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Core Activities in Qualitative Research
Literature Review- a cursory review may be done
initially to focus the study, otherwise it is conducted
after the data has been collected and analyzed.
Rationale for delaying the L.R. is to avoid leading
the participants in the direction of what has already
been discovered.
Purpose of L.R. is to show how current findings fit
into what is already known
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Explicating Researchers Beliefs
Bracketing - setting aside ones biases and
personal views on a topic
Investigator keeps a diary of personal
thoughts and feelings about the topic
Purpose is to make known to the researcher
her/his beliefs about the topic so that the
researcher may approach the topic honestly
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Setting for Data Collection
Thefield is the natural world where participants live
Thefield requires reciprocity in terms of decision
making
The participant & researcher determine what datawill be shared
Participants must understand & be willing to share
their thoughts & feelings about the phenomenon
Contrast this with quantitative studies where data are
collected in controlled settings & the researcher is
removed from the subject
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Selection of Participants
Participant or informantrefers to theindividual who informs the research study
(vs subjects or respondents)
They are active participants & equalpartners
Must have 1st hand experience with
research phenomenon (vs random selection) They want to help others understand their
lives & the social contexts in which they
live & create meaning
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Purposive Sampling
Participants must have first hand experience with
the research experience and be able to talk about it
Researcher establishes clear criteria & rationale for
sample selection
Goal is not generalization of findings but rich
descriptions of phenomenon by those who have
experienced it
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Saturation
A situation in data collection in which
participants descriptions become repetitive
& confirm previously collected data
An indication that data collection is
complete
Similar to adequate sample size in
quantitative research
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Data Analysis
Researcher immerses self in data to bring order &meaning to vast narrative
Begins with 1st data collection episode
Reading, rereading, intuiting, analyzing,
synthesizing & reporting on data
Cyclical & recursive process that requires an
extensive amount of time
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Scientific Adequacy
RIGOR in qualitative research isless about the adherence to rules
and more about fidelity to the spirit
and standards of qualitative work(Sandelowski, 1993)
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Data Analysis (contd)
Data from interviews are continuously
reviewed to identify additional questions
Data from earlier interviews are routinely
returned to participants for
clarification/elaboration
Investigator must look for meaning in the
data as it is reviewed
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Data Analysis (Contd)
At conclusion of study a protracted period
of data immersion in which conclusions are
reviewed in the context of the whole study
Data similar in meaning are clustered
together into preliminary categories
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4 Criteria of Trustworthiness
Credibility Transferability
Dependability
Confirmability
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Credibility
Refers to the accuracy of the description
Is the description plausible & recognized by
those who experienced it.
Enhanced by prolonged time in the field
Repeatedly observing & interacting with
participants
Triangulation of data sources, methods, data
type, investigators, & theories
Member checks-participants involved with data
analysis
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Dependability
Refers to the stability & trackability of the
changes in data over time & conditions
Reflects the reality that peoples situationschange & reality differs for people
Want to determine the extent to which another
researcher with similar training & rapport withparticipants would make the same observations
This is determined by an audit trail
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Transferability
Concerned with generalizability or fittingness of
findings to other settings, populations, &
contexts
Report must provide sufficient detail so that
readers can assess this
Lack of transferability is often viewed as a
weakness of qualitative methods
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Confirmability
Basic issue here is one of neutrality Do conclusions depend upon the subjects &
conditions of inquiry rather than on the
researcher Would 2 independent researchers agree about
the meanings emerging from the data
An audit trail is used researcher must explicate how personal biases
may have come into play and consider
alternative explanations
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EXERCISE
Use the questions in Box 6.8 to assess the
qualitative rigor of an assigned researchstudy
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Contemporary Standards of Quality in
Qualitative Research
Fidelity to the spirit of qualitative work OR Did
we get it right?
positionality community
voice
critical subjectivity reciprocity
sacredness of relationship
sharing privileges
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Advantages & Limitations
Focus on the whole of the human experience &
the meanings ascribed to them by participants
they provide nurses with deep insights that
would not be possible using quantitative
methods exclusively
The major strength of qualitative work is the
validity of the data it produces
Participants true reality is likely to be reflected
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Advantages & Limitations (contd)
Major limitation is its perceived lack of
objectivity & generalizability
Researchers become the research tools and may
lack objectivity
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Phenomenology
Describes the meaning of the lived experience
from the perspective of the participant
Seeks to achieve a deep understanding of the
phenomenon by rigorous, systematic
examination of it
Its purpose is to describe the essences of lived
experiences
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ESSENCES
ELEMENTS RELATED TO THE TRUE
MEANING OF SOMETHING THATGIVES COMMON UNDERSTANDING
TO THE PHENOMENON UNDER
STUDY
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Philosophical Tenets
Whatever is known must appear in
consciousness
Consciousness provides access to the world
All phenomenologists believe in multiplerealities constructed by individuals within
the social context of their lives
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Developing the Question
Focus is to describe the meaning of the
lived experience from the perspective of the
participant
Broad question: What is the meaning of
ones lived experience?
Central overarching question &
subquestions
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Role of Researcher Is the instrument for data collection
Establishes good rapport with participants
Explicates beliefs through bracketing
The meaning of the lived experience is
interpreted from the participants stories
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Sample
Small purposive sample
Participants are able & willing to talk about
their experience and describe their feelings
Large enough to get a rich description of the
research phenomenon
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Data Collection
In-depth interviews
Written descriptions of experiences in
diaries & journals
Observations
Multiple interviews with same participants
to reflect the meaning of the lived
experience from the participants
perspective
A l i
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Data Analysis
Immersion with the data
Read, re-read transcripts, may return toparticipants for clarification or description
Comparative analysis to identify themes in data
Look for similarities & differences in data toidentify themes
Reduce data into smaller & smaller number of
categories to arrive at a consistent description ofthe meaning of the lived experience
Share description with participants for
verification
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Review of Literature
Conducted after data collection & analysis
are complete
Places findings within the context of what is
known about the phenomenon
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Findings
reports the essence of the experience
reader should get an understanding of what
it is like to experience the phenomenon
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Grounded Theory
Goal is to develop a theory about the
processes (social behaviour or scene) under
investigation in a natural setting
Useful in areas where little is known or
when a new perspective is needed
Tries to identify the core process and
subsidiary processes in the situation
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G.T. - Philosophy
Symbolic interactionism
humans react to things on the basis of
meanings that events have for them ineveryday life
meanings are derived from social situations
meanings are shaped by dealings with
others
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G.T. - Developing the Question
Question may not be explicitly stated but
can be implied from the purpose
Question is broad & may change severaltimes as data are analyzed
Basic social process
Gerund (noun ending ining )
What is the process of ...
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G.T. - Role of Researcher
Studies the behavior & the social setting
that influences the interaction
Is a participant & observer
No effort is made by researcher to put aside
assumptions.
On the contrary the researcher uses past
experiences and assumptions to better
understand the processes being observed.
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G.T. - Sample
Participants who are experiencing the social
process under study
Size determined by theoretical sampling
(collects, codes & analyzes data & then
decides what additional data are needed)
Saturation- inability of new data to add new
codes
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G.T. - Data Collection
Data collection & analysis are concurrent
Observation & audio-taped interviews
Field notes
Researcher participates in the social group,
observes & records data relevant to study purpose Broad open-ended questions
Ask participants to share stories of their
experiences
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G.T. _ Data Collection
Everything to the grounded theorist is data
Data are obtained through a combination of:
participant observation, interviews with
informants, reading the literature on the
study questions, and self-reflection
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Data Analysis
Data collection, coding & analysis occur
simultaneously
Constant comparative method
Early data are coded with words that describe the
action in the setting
Codes get revised & data recoded
Categories develop from the clustering of codes
Categories are then linked to develop a tentative
theory or conceptual framework
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G.T.-Literature
Review of the literature in the substantive
area of the study is reserved until after the
theory begins to emerge from the study data
Researcher integrates the literature with the
emerging theory during saturation, sortingmemos, & report writing
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ETHNOGRAPHY
Aims to understand human behavior in the
cultural context in which it is embedded
Aims to understand the way in which
people live from the emic(insiders)
perspective vs the etic (researchers oroutsiders) perspective
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Ethnography
The work of describing a culture (Spradley, 1980)
Culture includes a way of life (all the ways a group
of people solve problems, a pattern of living that
guides thoughts, actions, sentiments as reflected in
language, dress, food, traditions, customs, etc.
Purpose is to make explicit what is implicit within a
cultural group
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Ethnonursing
the study & analysis of the indigenous
peoples point of view, beliefs, & practices
about nursing care phenomena & processesof designated cultures
Provides a means to study culturalvariations in health& illness, & nurses &
their clients as subcultures of society
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Ethnonursing
Mini ethnography - a small scale
ethonography focusing on a narrow area of
inquiry, limited time period, published asan article
Maxi ethnography - comprehensive studyof a designated culture. Have a broad focus
of inquiry, extend over a long period of
time (years), & are published in book form
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Ethnography- Philosophy
Roots in cultural anthropology (study of the
origin of people, their past, & strategies for
surviving through time) Involves learning frompeople rather than
studyingthem. The researcher must become
a student & the participants of the culturethe teachers
Researcher adopts an attitude of conscious
ignorance about the culture
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Three Phases of Ethnographic Research
Prefield Work
Field Work
Postfield Work
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Developing the Question
Focuses on some pattern of behavior,
lifestyle, custom, or belief of the culture-
sharing group e.g.- the health beliefs of immigrant Hong
Kong women
Nurses may focus on an aspect of life in thecommunity that impacts the health
experience of its members
Role of Researcher
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Role of Researcher
Is the primary data collection tool
Enters the world for an extended period of time,asking questions, observing, participating, &
collecting whatever data are available
Observe behavior but go beyond it to inquire aboutthe meaning of it
researchers role is to make inferences from their
observations & then to test these inferences overtime with their population until they are confident
they have an adequate description of the culture
Must set aside biases & explicate beliefs
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Sample
A cultural group that has experience with
phenomenon of interest
Informant vs subject
Gatekeeper
Key Informants
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Data Collection
Participant observation
Formal & informal interviews
Focus groups
Collection of artifacts & documents
Field notes
Other sources (demographic data, maps,
genealogies, life histories)
E h h D A l i
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Ethnography Data Analysis
Follows a cyclical pattern Data collection, recording, analyzing, returning
tot he field to collect more data
Proceeds through 4 levels: domain analysis,
taxonomic analysis, componential analysis, &
theme analysis Goal is to discover cultural patterns in the data
people are using to make sense out of their
experiences
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Ethnographic Findings
A two-step process
1. A cultural inventory
2. A final descriptive report that may be a
book or monograph