chapter 6 the nature of work motivation. chapter 6 the nature of work motivation copyright © 2002...

chapter

66THE NATURE OF WORK

MOTIVATION

CHAPTER 6 The Nature of Work Motivation

Copyright © 2002 Prentice-Hall

Work Motivation

• Definition: The psychological forces that determine the direction of a person’s behavior, a person’s level of effort, and a person’s level of persistence.

• Key elements to the definition:– Effort– Persistence– Direction/goal orientation

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Key Elements of Work Motivation• Direction of Behavior - Which behaviors

does a person choose to perform in an organization?

• Level of Effort - How hard does a person work to perform a chosen behavior?

• Level of Persistence - When faced with obstacles, roadblocks, and stone walls, how hard does a person keep trying to perform a chosen behavior successfully?

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Links betweenMotivation and Performance

• Performance is an evaluation of the results of a person’s behavior. It involves determining how well or poorly a person has accomplished a task or done a job.

• Motivation is only one factor among many that contributes to a worker’s job performance.

• Other contributing factors:– Personality and ability– Task difficulty– Resource availability– Working conditions– Chance or luck

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Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

• Intrinsically Motivated Behavior: Behavior that is performed for its own sake.

• Extrinsically Motivated Behavior: Behavior that is performed to acquire material or social rewards or to avoid punishment.

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Advice to Managers• Keep in mind that motivation determines what

behaviors workers choose to perform, how hard they work, and how persistent they are in the face of difficulties.

• Do not equate motivation with performance. Motivation is only one of several factors that contribute to determining performance.

• To better understand the source of your subordinates’ work motivation, determine whether they are intrinsically or extrinsically motivated.

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Insert Figure 6.1 here



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Need Theories of Motivation• A group of content theories about work motivation

that focus on workers’ needs as the sources of motivation. These theories attempt to explain what motivates workers.

• A need is a requirement for survival and well-being. Individual needs within organizations vary.

• Managers should try to:– Determine what needs a worker is trying to satisfy on

the job.– Ensure that a worker can satisfy his or her needs by

engaging in behaviors that contribute to organizational effectiveness.

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs• Physiological Needs: Basic needs for things such as food,

water, and shelter that must be met in order for an individual to survive.

• Safety Needs: Needs for security, stability, and a safe environment.

• Belongingness Needs: Needs for social interaction, friendship, affection, and love.

• Esteem Needs: The need to feel good about oneself and one’s capabilities, to be respected by others, and to receive recognition and appreciation.

• Self-Actualization Needs: The need to realize one’s full potential as a human being.

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Basic Tenets of Maslow’s Theory• Basic needs must be satisfied before an

individual seeks to satisfy needs higher up in the hierarchy.

• Unsatisfied needs are the prime motivators of behavior.

• Once a need is satisfied, it is no longer a source of motivation.

• At any particular time, only one set of needs motivates behavior; it is not possible to skip levels.

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Alderfer’s ERG Theory• Existence Needs: Basic needs for human

survival such as the need for food, water, clothing, shelter, and a secure and safe environment.

• Relatedness Needs: The needs to have good interpersonal relations, to share thoughts and feelings, and to have open two-way communication.

• Growth Needs: The needs for self-development and creative and productive work.

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Differences from Maslow’s Theory• Reduces the number of universal needs from five

to three.• No rigid hierarchy:

– A higher-level need can be a motivator even if a lower-level need is not fully satisfied.

– Needs at more than one level can be motivators at any time.

• When an individual is motivated to satisfy a higher-level need but has difficulty doing so, his/her motivation to satisfy lower-level needs will increase.

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Advice to ManagersDo not assume that all workers are motivated by

the same needs or desires. To determine what will motivate any given

worker, determine what needs that worker is trying to satisfy on the job.

Make sure you have the ability to administer or withhold consequences that will satisfy a worker’s needs.

Structure work situations so that workers can satisfy their needs by performing behaviors that enable the organization to achieve its goals.

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Expectancy Theory• A process theory about work motivation that

focuses on how workers make choices among alternative behaviors and levels of effort.

• Two main questions are addressed:– Do individuals believe that their inputs will result in a

given level of performance?– Do individuals believe that performance at this level

will lead to obtaining outcomes they desire?

• Keys to the theory: – Valence– Instrumentality– Expectancy

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Valence• Definition: The desirability of an

outcome to an individual.

• Can be positive or negative:– Outcomes with positive valence are desirable.

– Outcomes with negative valence are undesirable.

• Can vary in magnitude to indicate how desirable or undesirable an outcome is.

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Instrumentality• Definition: A perception about the extent to which

performance of one or more behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome.

• Can be positive or negative. Range is from -1 to +1.– I = -1 means that the individual perceives that

performance will definitely not lead to the outcome.

– I = 0 means that the individual perceives no link between performance and outcome.

– I = +1 means that the individual perceives that performance is certain to lead to the outcome.

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Expectancy• Definition: A perception about the

extent to which effort will result in a certain level of performance.

• Range is from 0 to 1:– 0 means that the individual believes there is

no chance that his/her effort will result in performance.

– 1 means that the individual is certain that his/her effort will lead to performance.

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Advice to Managers• Determine what outcomes your subordinates desire. More specifically,

identify outcomes that have high positive valence for your subordinates in order to motivate them to perform at a high level.

• Once you have identified desired outcomes, make sure that you have control over them and can give them to subordinates or take them away when warranted.

• Let subordinates know that obtaining their desired outcomes depends on their performing at a high level (raise instrumentalities). Administer the highly valent outcomes only when subordinates perform at a high level (or engage in desired organizational behaviors).

• Do whatever you can to encourage workers to have high expectancies: Express confidence in subordinates’ abilities, let them know that others like themselves have been able to perform at a high level, and give them guidance in terms of how to perform at a high level.

• Periodically assess workers’ beliefs concerning expectancies and instrumentalities and their valences for different outcomes by directly asking them or administering a survey. Using these assessments, make different outcomes available to workers, and clarify instrumentalities, or boost expectancies when necessary.

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Equity Theory• A process theory about work motivation that

focuses on workers’ perceptions of the fairness of their work outcomes and inputs.

• According to equity theory, what is important to motivation is the way a worker perceives his or her outcome/input ratio compared to that of another person.

• Outcome/input ratio is the relationship between what a worker gets from a job (outcome) and what the worker contributes to the job (input).

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Inputs, Outcomes, and Referents• Types of inputs

– Special skills

– Education and training

– Work effort

• Types of outcomes– Pay and benefits

– Opportunities for advancement

• Referents– Coworkers

– Self at another job or at another time

– Other people in the same job

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How Equity Theory Works• An individual compares his/her outcome/input ratio to

that of the referent to see if they are in balance:

Self Referent

Outcomes ? Outcomes Inputs = Inputs

• Overpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that his/her outcome/input ratio is greater than the ratio of the referent.

• Underpayment inequity exists when a person perceives that his/her outcome/input ratio is less than the ratio of the referent.

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Conditions of Equity and Inequity(Table 6.4)

Equity

OverpaymentInequity

UnderpaymentInequity

Outcomes Outcomes------------ = ------------ Inputs Inputs

Outcomes Outcomes------------ > ------------ Inputs Inputs

Outcomes Outcomes------------ < ------------ Inputs Inputs

A financial analyst contributes moreinputs (time and effort) to her joband receives proportionally moreoutcomes (a promotion and a payraise) than her referent receives.

A financial analyst contributes thesame level of inputs to her job as herreferent but receives more outcomesthan the referent receives.

A financial analyst contributes moreinputs to her job than her referentbut receives the same outcomes as her referent.

Individual Referent Example

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Ways to Restore Equity• Workers can change their own inputs or

outcomes.• Workers can try to change their referents’

inputs or outcomes.• Workers can change their perceptions of

inputs and outcomes (either their own or the referents’).

• Workers can change the referent.• Workers can leave the job or organization

or force the referent to leave.

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Advice to Managers• Because inputs are likely to vary across workers, outcomes

should also vary. Do not give all workers at a given level or holding the same job title the same level of outcomes unless their inputs are identical.

• Distribute outcomes to workers based on their inputs to their jobs and the organization. Because underpayment inequity or overpayment inequity can have negative organizational consequences, strive to maintain equity for maximum motivation.

• Because it is the perception of equity or inequity that drives motivation, frequently monitor and assess workers’ perceptions about relevant outcomes and inputs, as well as their own standing on these outcomes and inputs. Correct any inaccurate perceptions workers may have.

• Realize that failure to recognize above-average levels of inputs has major motivational implications.

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Procedural Justice Theory• A process theory about work motivation

that focuses on workers’ perceptions of the fairness of the procedures used to make decisions about the distribution of outcomes.

• Causes of procedural justice perceptions:– How workers are treated by distributors of

outcomes.– The extent to which managers explain their

decisions to workers.

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chapter 6 the nature of work motivation. chapter 6 the nature of work motivation copyright © 2002...

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