chapter 6 transportation safety · fatal injury means any injury which results in death within 30...

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CHAPTER 6

Transportation Safety

Highlights• Highwaydeathsper100millionvehicle-

milestraveledrosefromahistoriclowof1.08in2014to1.18in2016asdeathsclimbedfrom32,744to37,461—a14.4percentincreasein2years.

• Pedestriandeathsarethemostsince1990.Pedestrianfatalitiesrosebyover1,000between2014and2016,reaching5,987in2016—a21.9percentincreaseovertheperiodandthemostsince1990.

• Deathsofmotorcycleridersgrewfrom4,594in2014to5,286in2016—a15.1percentincrease.Therateofmotorcyclistfatalitiespervehiclemileoftravelis29timesgreaterthanthatforpassengercaroccupants.Also,theyare5timemorelikelytobeinjured.Helmetusedeclinedfrom71percentin2000to65percentin2016.

• Theestimatednumberofpeopleinjuredinhighwaymotorvehiclecrashesincreasedbyabout105,000between2014and2015,reaching2.44million.

• Alcoholusecontinuestobeamajorfactorintransportationdeathsandinjuries.In2016,25percentofmotorcycleoperatorsinvolvedinfatalcrasheswerealcoholimpaired,andalcoholusewastheleadingfactorin15

percentoffatalrecreationalboatingaccidentswheretheaccidentcausewasknown.

• Ithasbeenestimatedthat3,258motorvehicleoccupantsandmotorcyclistswhodiedincrashesin2016mighthavelivediftheyhadusedseatbeltsormotorcyclehelmets,and83percentoftheboaterswhodrownedin2016werenotwearingalifejacket.

• Some1,132childrenaged14andunderdied,andanestimated178,000wereinjuredinmotorvehicle-relatedincidentsin2015—anaverageofabout3deathsand487injuriesaday.

• Inthe2006to2015period,atotalof301school-agedchildren(18andunder)diedinschooltransportation-relatedcrashes—about30deathsperyearonaverage.

• Trespassing-relatedfatalitiesaccountedfor57.2percentoftherailroaddeathsin2016,andhighway-railcrossingfatalitiesaccountedforanotherone-third.

• Speedingcontinuestobethenumberoneciteddriver-relatedfactorinhighwayfatalcrashes.Almosthalfofspeedingdriversinfatalcrasheswerefoundtohavebeendrinking.

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Chapter 6: Transportation Safety

In2016totaltransportationfatalitieswere39,565.Transportationfatalitiesaredownfrom44,582in2000,butupfrom35,171in2010and37,501in2015[table6-1].Overall,theyhavebeenconsistentlybelow40,000inrecentyears,butinchingupward.Thisupwardmovementisprimarilydrivenbyhighwayfatalities.

Despitethe2015and2016fatalityincreases,highwaysafety—andtransportationsafetyasawhole—haveimprovedinrecentdecades,resultinginanotabledeclineinfatalitiesandinjuries.EvenwithgrowthintheU.S.population,moresystemusers,andincreasedtravelbyallmodes(asdiscussedinchapters1through3),therewereabout5,000fewertotal

transportationfatalitiesin2016thanin2000—about11percentless.Still,transportationaccountedfor25.2percentofthetotaldeathsresultingfromunintentionalinjuryintheUnitedStatesin2015[USDHHSCDCVITALITY2016].

Asshowninbox6-A,thetimeframeanddefinitionsusedtoattributeafatalitytoatransportationcrashoraccidentdifferamongmodes,reflectingdifferentdatacollectionmethods,reportingperiods,andinformationmanagementsystemsofthevariousreportingagencies.Forexample,adeaththatoccurswithin30daysofacrashinvolvinghighwayvehiclesisconsideredahighwayfatality,whileadeaththatoccurswithin180daysofarail

Box 6-A Fatality Definition by Mode

Mode (Source) Definition Citation

Air Fatalinjurymeansanyinjurywhichresultsindeathwithin30daysoftheaccident. 49CFR830.2

Hazardousmaterial

Fatalitiesmustbereportedassoonaspractical,butnolaterthan12hoursaftertheincidentanddeathresultingfrominjurymustbereportedwithin1yearofthedateofincident.

49CFR171.15and49CFR171.16

HighwayFatalitymeansanyinjurywhichresultsinthedeathofapersonatthetimeofthemotorvehicleaccident,orwithin30daysoftheaccident.

49CFR390.5

Pipeline Fatalitiesreportedassoonaspractical,butnotmorethan30daysafterdetectionofanincident. 49CFR191.3and195.50

RailroadFatalitymeansthedeathofapersonwithin24hoursofanaccident.Alsoifaninjuredpersondieswithin180daysfromthedateoftheinjury.

49CFR840.2andFRAGuideforPreparingAccident/IncidentReports

RailtransitAfatalityatthescene;orwhereanindividualisconfirmeddeadwithin30daysofarailtransit-relatedincident.

49CFR659.33

Recreationalboating

Fatalitymeansapersondieswithin24hoursoftheaccident.Within10daysoftheoccurrenceordeathifanearlierreportisnotrequired.

33CFR173and174

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Transportation Statistics Annual Report

incidentisconsideredarail-relateddeath.Suchdefinitionaldifferencesposechallengeswhencomparingsafetyperformanceacrossmodesoftransportation.1

Fatalities by ModeAsshowninfigure6-1,therehasbeenamajordecreaseinboththenumberandrateofhighwayfatalitiesoverthelasthalfcentury—withdeathsperhundredmillionmilesofhighwayvehicletravelfallingfrom5.50in1966toalowof1.08in2014,followedbyariseto1.15in2015and1.18in2016.2

Whilefigure6-1showsthatthemostdramaticimprovementoccurredinthe1970sand1980s,progresscontinuesdespitegrowthintheU.S.populationandnumberofdrivers(seefigure6-2).However,highwayfatalitiesincreasedby14.4percentbetween2014and2016.

Despiterecentincreasesinthenumberofhighwayfatalities,thehighwaymodehasaccountedformuchoftheoverallreductionintransportationfatalitiesfrom2000to2016.Othermodes,however,includingaircarriers,railroads,transit,andrecreationalboating,alsoshowimprovedsafetyrecords(Table6-1).In2016morethan37,000diedinhighwaycrashesandabout2,200peoplediedinaccidentsinvolvingthenon-highwaymodes.Relativelyfewpassengersdieintrainorbuscrashesinanaverageyear;however,severalhundredpeopleonfootorpeoplein

1Forfurtherdiscussionofthesedifferentdefinitions,seechapter6ofTransportation Statistics Annual Report 2015Box6-B.2TheUSDOTNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdmin-istrationnotesthatthe2014ratewasthelowestsincetheagencybegancollectingfatalitydatathroughtheFatalityAnalysisReportingSystemin1975.

motorvehiclesdiewhenstruckbyatrainorbytransitvehicles.Bothgeneralaviationandrecreationalboatingresultinthedeathsofseveralhundredpeopleeachyear—butthistollisfarlessthaninearlierdecades.

Highway

TheUSDOTNationalHighwayTrafficSafetyAdministration(NHTSA)releasedpreliminary2016andrevised2015fatalitydatainOctober2017.Thedatashowtwoconsecutiveyearsofgrowthinhighwayfatalities.Fromanhistoriclowof32,744fatalitiesin2014,fatalitiesincreasedbyover4,700overthenext2years—reaching37,461in2016.NHTSAnotedthatthelasttimetheUnitedStateshadthismagnitudeofback-to-backyearsoffatalityincreaseswasfrom1963to1964[USDOTNHTSA2017a].NHTSAfoundthatdistracteddrivinganddrowsydriving-relatedfatalitiesdeclined,whiledeathsrelatedtootherrecklessbehaviors–includingspeeding,alcoholimpairment,andnotwearingseatbelts—continuedtoincrease.Motorcyclistandpedestriandeathsaccountedformorethanathirdoftheyear-to-yearincrease[USDOTNHTSA2017l].

Highwayfatalitiesgrewatafasterratebetween2014and2015(8.3percent)thanbetween2015and2016(5.7percent).Table6-2showsfatalitychangebyhighwaycomponentbetween2014and2016;asshown,nearlyallcategoriesofhighwayfatalitiesincreasedinthetwo-yearperiod.

Thebiggestnumericalincreasesinfatalitiesbetween2014and2016wereforoccupantsofpassengercarsandlighttrucks,andpedestrians—eachincreasingbymorethan

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Figure 6-1: Highway Safety Improvements—1966 to 2016

Historically, highway fatalities have comprised about 95 percent of all transportation-related deaths in the United States, and it is on roads and highways

where the greatest gains can be made towards reaching the U.S. Department of Transportation’s (USDOT’s) ultimate goal of zero transportation-related

deaths. Since Congress established the Department more than 50 years ago, notable progress in highway safety has been made.

In 2016, 37,461 people died on U.S. highways—13,433 fewer than in 1966 when 50,894 casualties were recorded [1].

Although any death is unacceptable, this drop is notable given that from 1966 to 2016 the U.S. population

increased more than 64 percent— from 196.6 to 323.1 million [2], and annual vehicle-miles

traveled (vmt) estimates more than tripled—from 926 to 3,218 billion

miles. During that time period, the highway fatality rate dropped

from 5.50 to 1.18 deaths per 100 million vmt [1].

Using 1966 as the base year, this graph plots the cumulative effect of safety innovations, over time, on annual highway fatalities per 100 million vehicle-miles traveled.

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Front seat belts required in all passenger vehicles

Front head rests required

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1973 Side impact standards for new cars set

1974 Airbag option from General Motors offered

1977 NHTSA developed Graduated Driver Licensing system

1978 Tennessee first to require child restraint system use

1980 Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD) founded

Presidential Commission on Drunk Driving established1982

New York first to require seat belt use 1984

Antilock brake option on some models 1985Florida first to pass Graduated Driver Licensing law

1986

Passive restraints required1987

Nationwide minimum 21 drinking age set 1988

Maryland enacted zero alcohol tolerance law for youth 1989

March 12, 1990 first head-on crash of cars with air bags, drivers walked away1990

NHTSA initiated five-star auto safety rating system1993

All states but one had mandatory seat belt use laws1995

New safety campaign highlighted need1996

Dual airbags standard equipment for all passengers cars 1998

TREAD Act required better recall reporting by car manufacturers 2000

2004

Energy absorbing steering wheels

National Emergency Medical Services standards set

Three-point lap-shoulder belts with inertia reels required

55 mph national speed limit set

First dedicated national grant program established to combat drunk driving

New Car Assessment Program established to provide crashworthiness ratings for new vehicles

National 55 mpg law repealed

for children to ride in back seatAll states require child safety seat use

Chrysler offered air bags as standard equipment

State zero-tolerance drunk driving laws for drivers under 21 achieved nationwide

“Click It or Ticket” programenforced in all 50 states

2005 State .08 BAC drunk drivinglaws achieved nationwide

2007Electronic Stability Control rule in place to prevent vehicle rolloverWashington state first to ban texting while driving

2008Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems required

2009 USDOT held first

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2016

Pedestriandetection system optionon some models

Distracted Driving Summit

Fatalities per 100 million vehicle-miles traveled climbed from 1.08 in 2014 to 1.18 in 2016 as fatalities increased 14.4 percent.

Vehicle manufacturers commit to installation of automated braking

systems by 2022

Safer brake systems mandated

High mounted center stop light required

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1966—A Pivotal Year for Highway SafetyFifty-one years ago, on September 9, 1966, in answer to an alarming growth in annual highway-related deaths, President Lyndon Johnson signed both the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act and the Highway Safety Act into law [3]. And on October 15, 1966, Congress established the USDOT with a multimodal mission to “Serve the United States by ensuring a fast, safe, efficient, accessible and convenient transportation system ...” [4]. This legislation also established the agency that 4 years later would become the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA).

Although these actions firmly established the Federal Government’s responsibility for setting and enforcing transportation safety standards for all modes of transportation, the greatest impact would be on highway safety.

A Snowball EffectSince 1966 there has been a dramatic drop in highway deaths. Many factors are responsible for this decrease—both regulatory and social:

• Safer vehicle designs and new safety technologies, such as seat belts, air bags, and electronic stability control, combined with programs to increase the use of seat belts and other safety equipment. NHTSA estimates that these technologies saved more than 600,000 lives from 1960 through 2012—nearly 28,000 in 2012 alone, of which more than half were saved by seat belts [5].

• Safer roads, including major new infrastructure, such as completion of the Interstate Highway System and gradual improvements to existing roads, such as guardrails, lighting, and rumble strips.

• Behavioral safety programs, such as high-visibility enforcement and child occupant protection campaigns, have encouraged more people to buckle up, use appropriate child safety seats, and to drive sober.

• More comprehensive and standardized emergency medical services, more effective transport and trauma treatment, and developments in medicine that made injuries more survivable [5].

While it is not possible to pin an exact number of lives saved to a particular safety factor, regulatory or otherwise, it is possible to show the cumulative effect of these innovations over time.

The 1960sThe decade of the 60s would see highway fatalities increase 47.1 percent, from 36,399 deaths in 1960 to 53,543 deaths in 1969. In near parallel, vehicle-miles traveled (vmt) increased 47.8 percent, from about 720 billion to more than 1 trillion miles during that same time period. The number of highway fatalities would continue to increase well into the 1970s, until the effects of new regulations and social reforms finally kicked in.

The 1970s From 1970 through 1979, nearly a half million lives (498,356) were lost on U.S. roads. In 1972 U.S. highways would claim 54,589 lives—the highest number ever recorded. But as the decade closed, highway deaths per 100 million vmt had dropped from 4.74 in 1970 to 3.34 by 1979, even as vmt increased 37.8 percent. Still, the 51,093 lives lost in 1979 nearly matched the 52,627 lost in 1970 [6].

The 1980s At last, the decade of the 80s would show a notable drop in highway deaths, with 5,500 fewer lives lost in 1989 than in 1980 (45,582 v. 51,091). Even more remarkable, this drop occurred in the face of a 37.6 percent increase in vmt and a population that grew by nearly 20 million, pushing down the number of lives lost from 3.35 to 2.17 per 100 million vmt.

The 1990sAt first glance the drop in the annual number of lives lost at the beginning of the decade (44,599) versus those lost at the end of the decade (41,717) might seem unremarkable. But from 1990 through 1999 the U.S. population increased by more than 23 million, while the rate of lives lost on U.S. highways continued to fall, from 2.08 to 1.55 per 100 million vmt—a nearly 72 percent drop from the 5.50 deaths per 100 million vmt recorded in 1966.

A New CenturyThe first years of the 21st century saw the highway fatality rate per 100 million vmt drop nearly 23 percent, falling from 1.53 deaths per 100 million vmt in 2000 to 1.18 by 2016 [1]. By 2004 the 0.08 blood alcohol limit and the “Click It or Ticket” campaign were enforced

nationwide. Distracted driving emerged as a new challenge, and intelligent transportation systems, electronic stability controls, and the advent of self-driving cars ushered in a new era of innovations designed to mitigate the effects of human error.

Getting to ZeroA number of active safety systems are now available or are under development: forward collision warning, active braking, rear-view backup cameras, parking assist, lane departure, and blind spot warning— all technologies aimed at reducing or eliminating the effects of human error. In addition to these systems, connected and automated vehicle technologies are poised to play prominent roles in further reducing highway fatalities.

References

[1] U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, press release, USDOT Releases 2016 Fatal Traffic Crash Data, Oct. 6, 2016, www.nhtsa.gov.

[2] U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Population Estimates, www.census.gov as of Nov. 20, 2017.

[3] U.S. Congress, Library of Congress, 112th Congress Senate Report 112-083, http://thomas.loc.gov as of May 25, 2016.

[4] U.S. Department of Transportation, mission statement, www.transportation. gov as of May 25, 2016.

[5] U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Lives Saved by Vehicle Safety Technologies and Associated Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards, 1960 to 2012, January 2015, www.its.dot.gov as of May 25, 2016.

[6] U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Highway Policy Information, Highway Statistics Series, www.fhwa.dot.gov as of May 25, 2016.

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FIGURE 6-2 Licensed Drivers, Resident Population, Highway Fatalities, Highway Vehicle-miles Traveled (VMT): 2000–2016

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SOURCE: Drivers and Resident Population: U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), Federal Highway Administration, Highway Statistics 2015, tables DV-1C, available at http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2015 as of October 2017. Highway Fatalities and Highway VMT: USDOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, National Transportation Statistics, tables 1-35 and 2-1, available at www.bts.gov as of October 2017

TABLE 6-1 Transportation Fatalities by Mode: Selected Years

2000 2010 2015 2016 Change from 2015TOTAL fatalities 44,582 35,171 37,501 39,565 Air, total 764 477 404 412 Highway, total 41,945 32,999 35,485 37,461 Railroad, total1 937 735 751 791 Transit rail, total2 197 120 151 148 Water, total 701 821 700 737 Pipeline, total 38 19 10 16

Other counts, redundant with above Railroad, trespasser deaths not at highway-rail crossing 463 441 452 487 Railroad, killed at public crossing with motor vehicle 306 136 127 131 Rail, passenger operations 220 215 251 277 Rail, freight operations 717 520 500 514 Transit, non-rail 98 100 103 108 1 Includes Amtrak, Alaska Railroad, commuter railroads and freight railroads, and certain transit rail agencies reporting to the Federal Railroad Administra-tion.2 Includes heavy rail transit (e.g., subway systems), light rail, streetcar rail, monorail and other track based transit operations reporting to the Federal Transit Administration.

NOTES: To reduce double counting, the following adjustments are made to Total Fatalities: For Railroad, fatalities involving motor vehicles at public highway-rail grade crossings are excluded because such fatalities are assumed to be included in Highway fatalities. For Transit, non-rail modes, including aerial tramway, motor bus, bus rapid transit, commuter bus, demand response, demand taxi, ferryboat, jitney, publico, trolleybus, and vanpool fatalities are excluded because they are counted as Transit, Water, and Highway fatalities. Water includes commerical and recreational vessels. Other counts, redun-dant with above help eliminate double-counting in the Total Fatalities.

SOURCES: 2000 and 2010: Various sources as cited by U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation, National Transportation Statistics, table 2-1, available at www.bts.gov as of October 2017. 2015 and 2016: Preliminary or revised data from the same sources cited in Table 2-1.

http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/policyinformation/statistics/2015

www.bts.gov

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TABLE 6-2 Change in Highway Fatalities Between 2014, 2015, and 2016

TABLE 6-2a: 2014–2015

2014 2015 Net increase Percent change

Total Highway Fatalities 32,744 100.0% 35,485 100.0% 2,741 8.37

Passenger car occupants 11,947 36.5% 12,761 36.0% 814 6.81

Light truck occupants 9,103 27.8% 9,878 27.8% 775 8.51

Pedestrians 4,910 15.0% 5,495 15.5% 585 11.91

Motorcyclists 4,594 14.0% 5,029 14.2% 435 9.47

Other highway incidents1 761 2.3% 779 2.2% 18 2.37

Pedalcyclists 729 2.2% 829 2.3% 100 13.72

Large truck occupants 656 2.0% 665 1.9% 9 1.37

Bus occupants 44 0.1% 49 0.1% 5 11.36

TABLE 6-2b: 2015–2016



Passenger car occupants 12,761 36.0% 13,412 35.8% 651 5.10

Light truck occupants 9,878 27.8% 10,302 27.5% 424 4.29

Pedestrians 5,495 15.5% 5,987 16.0% 492 8.95

Motorcyclists 5,029 14.2% 5,286 14.1% 257 5.11


Pedalcyclists 829 2.3% 840 2.2% 11 1.33


Bus occupants 49 0.1% 40 0.1% -9 -18.37

TABLE 6-2c: 2014–2016



Passenger car occupants 11,947 36.5% 13,412 35.8% 1,465 12.26

Light truck occupants 9,103 27.8% 10,302 27.5% 1,199 13.17

Pedestrians 4,910 15.0% 5,987 16.0% 1,077 21.93

Motorcyclists 4,594 14.0% 5,286 14.1% 692 15.06


Pedalcyclists 729 2.2% 840 2.2% 111 15.23


Bus occupants 44 0.1% 40 0.1% -4 -9.091Includes occupants of other vehicle types, other nonmotorists, and unknown.

SOURCES: 2014: U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation, National Transportation Statistics, table 2-1, available at www.bts.gov as of October 2017. 2015 and 2016: Preliminary or revised data from the same sources cited in table 2-1.

www.bts.gov

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1,000.Thelargestpercentageincreasewasforpedestrians,up21.9percentintwoyears.Deathsofmotorcyclistsandpedalcyclistsalsoincreasedover15percent[USDOTNHTSA2017a].

In2016occupantsofpassengercarsandotherlight-trucks(e.g.,sportutilityvehicle,minivan,andpickuptruck)comprised35.8and27.5percent,respectivelyofallhighwayfatalities(table6-2).Pedestrianfatalitiesincreasedbyalmost9percentbetween2015and2016.Theshareofbicyclist,motorcycle,large-truck,andbusoccupantfatalitieschangedlittle,whilethenumbersincreased.

Evenwiththerecentspikeinthehighwayfatalities,theoverallrateofhighwayfatalitiesper100millionVMTdeclined22.6percentfrom1.53in2000to1.18in2016(figure6-3).Overtime,occupantprotectiondevices,advancesinvehicledesign,improvedroaddesign,graduateddriverlicensingforteenagers,expandededucationandenforcementofdrunk-drivinglaws,andmanyotherpreventativemeasurescontributedtodeclinesinhighwayvehiclesdeathsandinjuries.Improvementsinemergencymedicalresponsecapabilitiesalsoplayedarole.

Notallcategoriesofhighwayfatalitiesarelowertodaythanin2000,however.In2016,5,286motorcyclistsdied—nearly2,400morethanin2000and692morethanin2014,a15-percentincreasein2years.Growingridershipisacontributingfactortothisincrease.Therateofmotorcyclistfatalitiespervehiclemileoftravelis29timesgreaterthanthatforpassengercaroccupantsin2015[NHTSA2017c].

Deathsofbicyclistsandotherhuman-poweredcyclistsin2016arealsohigherthanin2000.Morethan6,800pedestriansandbicyclistsdiedinhighwayaccidentsin2016.Pedestriansandbicyclists—whooftensharetheroadswithmotorvehicles—accountedfor17.2percentoftotaltransportation-relateddeathsin2016,comparedto12.4percentin2000.

Pedestriandeathswerejustunder6,000in2016.Figure6-3showsfatalityrates(measuredper100,000U.S.population)ofnonoccupants3declinedbetween2000and2014,beforerisingin2015andagainin2016.In2015thefatalityrateclimbedabovetheratereachedin2000(2fatalitiesper100,000population),butitremainsabouthalfthenonoccupantfatalityrateof1980,whenpedestriandeathstotaled8,070.

PerarecentNationalHighwaySafetyAdministrationreport,pedestriansaremorelikelytobestruckinthedark(74percentofpedestrianfatalities)andawayfromintersectioncrosswalks.Only18percentofpedestrianfatalitiesareatintersections:theremainderwerestruckwhilecrossingatnon-intersections(72percentoffatalities),ontheshoulderorroadside(5percent),orwhileinotherlocations,suchasparkingorbicyclelanes,medianstrips,orsidewalks(5percent)[USDOTNHTSA2017d].

Anestimated19percentoftheU.S.populationlivesinruralareas.However,ruralfatalitiesdisproportionallyaccountedfor49percentofalltrafficfatalitiesin2015.In2015thefatalityratewas2.6timeshigherinruralareasthan

3Nonoccupantsincludespedestrians,bicyclists,andothersoutsidemotorvehicleswhenstruck.

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FIGURE 6-3 Fatality Rates for Select Modes of Transportation: Most Recent Years Available

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Highway nonoccupants: 2000-2016

U.S. air carrier: 2000-2015

NOTE: Light-duty vehicles includes passenger car, vans, mini-vans, sport utility vehicles, pickup truck and other light truck occupants. Air carrier fatalities resulting from the Sept. 11, 2001 terrorist acts include only onboard fatalities. Total highway fatalities is based upon preliminary estimated.

SOURCE: Calculated by U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) based upon multiple sources as cited in USDOT, BTS, National Transportation Statistics. Tables 2-9, 2-14, 2-17, 2-19, 2-21, 2,22, and 2-23A1:P52ov as of October 2017.

inurbanareas(1.84and0.71,respectively).Ruralfatalitiesdecreasedby28percentbetween2006and2015,whileurbanfatalitiesdecreasedbyonly18percentduringthistime[USDOTNHTSA2017d].

Thepopulationratioofmalestofemalesis0.97(about5millionmorefemalesthanmales)intheUnitedStates[USDOCCENSUS2016].Yettheratioofhighwayfatalitiesis

about2.5males-to-females.Thisdifferenceispartiallybecausemales,onaverage,drivemorethanfemalesandthushaveahigherrateofexposuretocrashes.BasedonthelatestNationalHouseholdTravelSurveydata,malestravelabout40.9milesperdaywhilefemalesdriveabout31.5milesperday.Also,itisnotablethatmalesconstitute70percentofpedestrianfatalities.

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Asin2000,thenumberofmaleskilledonU.S.highwaysexceededthenumberoffemalefatalitiesforallagegroupsin2015.Overall,malescomprised68.3percentofhighwayfatalitiesin2000and70.9percentin2015.Personsundertheageof30continuedtohavethehighestfatalitynumbersin2015,althoughhighwaydeathsforthatagegroupwerelowerthanforthe

sameagegroupingin2000.Thenumberofhighwayfatalitiesformalesintheirlate40stolate60swashigherin2015thanitwasforthemenwhowereinthesameagegroupin2000(figure6-4a).Thiscohortofmalesin2015wasmorenumerousthantheir2000cohortanddrovemoremiles—factorsthatlikelycontributedtothehighernumberoffatalities.

FIGURE 6-4a Fatalities Number by Age and Sex: 2015

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13579

1113151719212325272931333537394143454749515355575961636567697173757779818385

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SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Fatality Analysis Reporting System, available at ftp.nhtsa.dot.gov as of March 2016.

ftp.nhtsa.dot.gov

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Since2000therehasbeenaconsiderabledecreaseinhighwayfatalitiespercapitaacrossallagegroupsforbothgenders.Thegreatestnumbersoffatalitiespercapitaagegroupinboth2015and2000wereamongmalesbetweentheagesof18and30,followedbymales79andolder.Femalefatalitiespercapitainboth2015and2000peakedforthosebetween16and27yearsofage,followedby

femalesovertheageof80.The2000rateswereagainhigheracrossallagegroupsandbothgenders(figure6-4b).

Theminimumageforgettingadrivinglicensevariesamongstates,rangingfrom14to16yearsofage(figure6-5).Atleast48stateshaveestablishedsomeformofgraduateddriverlicensing(GDL)programtohelp

FIGURE 6-4b Fatalities Rate by Age and Sex: 2015

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1113151719212325272931333537394143454749515355575961636567697173757779818385Age

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SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Fatality Analysis Reporting System, available at ftp.nhtsa.dot.gov as of March 2016.

ftp.nhtsa.dot.gov

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FIGURE 6-5 Minimum Driver License Age: June 2017

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WI

AZ

CO

DE

IA

LA

ME

MI

MO

ND

OK

NV

NH

TX

UT

VT

WY

AK

HI 0 100 Miles0 200 Miles 0 100 Miles

RI

DC

Minimum driverlicense age

1615.751514.7514.514

NOTES: States have a wide variety of conditions that novice or teen drivers must meet as they progress to full licensure. For a listing of these requirements in a specific state, consult the source document website.

SOURCE: Governors Highway Safety Association, Teen and Novice Drivers, available at http://www.ghsa.org/state-laws/issues/Teen-and-Novice-Drivers as of June 2017.

http://www.ghsa.org/state-laws/issues/Teen-and-Novice-Drivers

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inexperienced,youngdriverssafelygainexperiencewhilelimitingtheirexposuretohigh-riskdrivingconditions,suchasnightdrivingandcarryingteenagepassengersduringearlymonthsoflicensure[GHSA].ArecentreviewofstateGDLprogramevaluationsfoundthattheprogramwaseffectiveinimproving16and17-year-olddrivers’crashoutcomesby16and11percent,respectively4[Masten,S.V.,etal.].

Motorvehiclecrashescontinuetobetheleadingcauseofdeathforteensaged16to20years[USDHHSCDCWISQARS2015].Teenagersandyoungadultshadthehighestfatalitynumbersandfatalityratesper100,000residentsin2015,althoughtheirdeathshavedeclinedconsiderablysince2000.Apotentialcontributingfactoristhatthoseundertheageof30in2015drovefewermilesthantheircounterpartsin2000,reducingtheexposuretohighwaycrashes.

Notsurprisingly,childrenaged14andunderhavethelowestnumberandrateoffatalities—yetover1,000childreninthisagerangedieeveryyearinmotorvehiclecrashesandincidents.In2015childrenaged14oryoungercomprisedabout19percentoftheU.S.populationandabout3percent,or1,132,ofU.S.motorvehiclefatalities.Thiswasa5-percentincreasefrom2014,buta37-percentdecreasecomparedto2006.Ofthechildrenkilled,824(73percent)weremotorvehicleoccupants;about25percentwerepedestrians

4ThestudywasunabletoreachfirmconclusionsabouttheassociationbetweenGDLandcrashoutcomesfordrivers18to20yearsofage,findingitdifficulttodisentanglethemixtureofpeoplewithandwithoutGDLtraining.MoststatesdonotrequireGDLforapplicantsfordriverlicenseswhoare18andolder.

andbicyclists,andtheremaining2percentwereother/unknownnonoccupants.Anestimated178,000childrenwerealsoinjured.[USDOTNHTSA2017i].

Expresseddaily,about3childrendiedand487childrenwereinjuredeachdayinmotorvehicleincidentsin2015.Childrenwhodiedincrashesweremorelikelytobeunrestrainedwhentheirdriverswereunrestrained;whenthedriverdidn’twearaseatbelt,66percentofthechildrenwerelikewiseunrestrained.Box6-bdiscussesthechallengesandriskschildrenfacetravelingtoandfromschool.

Aviation

U.S.aircarriershadzerofatalitiesin2015and2016.Infact,in6ofthelast16yearstherewerenofatalitiesrecordedforflightsbyU.S.aircarriers.Duringtheotheryears,fatalitiesper100,000flighthoursrangedfrom0.1to3.0—thelargernumberdatingto2001whenfivepassengerplanescrashed,includingthefourhijackedbyterroristsonSeptember11ofthatyear.Since2001theaircarrierfatalityratehasremainedstableandlow.

Generalaviation(GA)fatalitieshavenumberedinthehundredseveryyearsinceatleast1960.In2016some386peoplewerekilledinGAaccidents,comparedto378in2015,and424in2014.GAfatalitieshavedroppedappreciablyfrompreviousdecades.Inthe10yearsspanning1990to1999,anaverageof716personsperyeardiedinGAaccidents,followedbyadroptoanaverageof567deathsperyearinthefollowingdecade.Theannualaverageforthe2010–2016periodwas417fatalities.

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TheGAfatalityrateper100,000flighthourshasfluctuated(figure6-3).Whilethenumberoffatalitieswasfewerin2016(386people)comparedto2000(596people),thenumberofflighthoursin2014was35percentless,resultinginahigherfatalityrate.AnothermetricofGAsafetyisthefatalaccidentrateper100,000flighthours.Thisrateisthesamewhetheraplanehasoneormanyoccupantswhodieinacrash.Accordingtopreliminaryestimates,theGAfatalaccidentrateforfiscalyear2016(October1,2015throughSeptember

30,2016)was0.91per100,000flighthours,comparedtoa1.08fatalaccidentrateaveragedoverthefivepriorfiscalyears[USDOTFAA2017a].

Mostgeneralaviationaccidentsinvolvesingle-engine,piston-poweredairplanes,whichaccountforslightlymorethan60percentofgeneralaviationaircraftandjustoverhalfofgeneralaviationflighthours[USDOTFAA2014].Thelossofinflightcontrolcontributestothemajorityoffatalities,whereaslossofcontrolonthegroundandengine-relatedsystem

Box 6-B Student Traffic SafetyMostchildrengotoschooleveryschoolday.Aswasdiscussedinbox2-Ainchapter2,mostchildrenaretransportedtoandfromschoolinmotorvehicles,eitherapersonalorfamilyvehicle(45percentin2009)oraschoolbus(39percent).Relativelyfew(15percentorless)walkorbike.

Howsafearetheirtripstoandfromschool?NHTSAfoundthat,inthe10yearsbetween2006and2015,atotalof301school-agedchildren(18andunder)diedinschooltransportation-relatedcrashes[USDOTNHTSA2017j].Thisamountstoabout30school-childrendeathsperyearonaverage.Overthe10-yearperiod,54ofthechildrenwhodiedwereoccupantsofschoolbusesorotherschool-transportationvehicles(about5.4fatalitiesperyear),and137wereschoolchildrenoccupyingothervehicles,suchasafamilyvehicle(13.7fatalitiesperyear).Childrenwhowereonfootaccountedfor102fatalities,whilebicyclistsandotherpedalcyclistscomprised8deaths—foracombinedaverageof11fatalitiesperyear.

About64percentoftheschool-agepedestriansthatdiedwerestruckbyaschoolbusoravehiclefunctioningasaschoolbus,while36

percentofpedestriandeathsofschoolchildreninvolvedothervehicles.Overone-fifthoftheschoolbus-childpedestrianfatalitiesoccurredasthebuswasstartingupintheroad,whileabout11percentoftheschoolchildrenpedestrianfatalitieshappenedasanothervehicletypepassedorovertookavehicle.

Theabovestatisticsindicatethatsomeschool-childrenfatalitieshappenaschildrenapproachorwalkawayfromtheirtransportvehicleastheygotoandfromschool.ArecentU.S.GeneralAccountabilityOfficestudyreportsthat,whenparticipatingschoolbusdriverswereaskedtonotethenumberoftimesavehicleillegallypassedthebuswhenstoppedtopickupordropoffstudents,thesedriversreported74,000instancesinasingleday[USGAO2017].

Thetotalnumberofpeopleofallageswhodiedinschool-transportationrelatedcrashesoverthe2006to2015yearperiodwas1,313—orabout131peryearonaverage.Thiswasabout100moredeathsofpeopleperyearthanthe30school-agedchildrenwhodiedannually[NHTSA2017i].

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malfunctionswereassociatedwiththemajorityofnonfatalaccidents[NTSB2014a].Generalaviationaccidentsarewidelydispersedacrossthecountry.In2014nearlytwo-thirdsoffatalgeneralaviationaccidentsresultedinasinglefatality,anotherquarterresultedintwofatalities,andtheremainderyieldedmultiplefatalities.

Inadditiontogeneralaviation,manyfatalitieseachyearresultfromcrashesinvolvingairtaxisandothercommercialon-demandairservices,andcommuterplaneswithlessthan10seats.Preliminarydatashow27fatalitiesfromtheseservicesin2016,abovethe2010-2015annualaverageof24.Thesafetytrendinairtaxiandsimilarservicesseemstobeimproving,averaging43deathsperyearbetween2000and

2009comparedtonearly64deathsannuallybetween1990and1999.

Thepopularityofunmannedaircraftsystems(UAS)or“drones”posesseveralchallengesforaviationsafety(box6-C).TherearenowmorethanonemillionUASintheUnitedStates,andthereareincreasingsightingsofunauthorizeddronesfromtheairandnearairports.

Recreational Boating

Therewere701recreationalboatingdeathsin2016.Theyear2016wasthethirdsuccessiveyearofboatingfatalityincreases.Fromahistoriclowof560in2013,boatingfatalitiesroseto610deathsin2014and626deathsin2015.Whilestillfewerthaninthe1990swhen

Box 6-C Unmanned Aircraft and Aviation Safety EstimatessuggestthatpeopleintheUnitedStatesnowownoveronemillionunmannedaircraftsystems(UAS),commonlyknownasdrones,withthenumbergrowingeachyear.Recreationalandotherunregulateduseofdronespresentssafetyriskstomannedaircraft,theircrews,airlinepassengers,andanyonebelowtheirflightpaths.UnauthorizedUASflightsreportedlyinterferedwithaerialtankersbattlingwildfires,whichgroundedthetankersandputfirefightersonthegroundatgreaterrisk[USDOTFAA2015a].

Thenumberofunmannedaircraftsightingsbypilotswhileinflighthaveincreasedrapidly,from238in2014,toabout1,210in2015,to1,274injustthefirst8monthsof2016.Thesightingscomefrompilotsofallaircrafttypes,includinglarge,commercialpassengeraircraft.

Theprospectofadronedamagingacommercialflighthasattractedworldwideconcern[TheGuardian2016].Whiletherehavebeenseveral

reportsbypilotsclaimingacollisionbetweenUASandtheirplanes,FAAinvestigationsusuallyfoundthatthecollisionswereexplainedbydamagefromsucheventsasabirdstrikeorstructuralfailure,notaUAS[USDOTFAA2017a].InOctober2017,however,aciviliandronecollidedwithanddamagedamilitaryhelicopter,whichlandedsafely[USAToday].

Priortooperatingunmannedaircraft,theFederalAviationAdministration(FAA)requirespeopletofileapaperregistrationapplicationfordronesweighing55poundsormore.InDecember2015,FAAalsoissuedaninterimfinalruleforonlineregistrationofdronesweighingfrom0.55poundsuptojustunder55pounds,asanalternativetofilingapaperapplication.Verylightdronesthatweighlessthan0.55poundsdonothavetoberegistered[USDOTFAA2015c].

Asoftheendof2016,some670,000droneshadbeenregisteredintheUnitedStates[USDOTFAA2017b].

6-16


fatalitiesaveragedabout800peryear,the2016fatalitynumberissimilartotheannualaverageofabout700between2000and2009.AccordingtotheU.S.CoastGuard(USCG),manyboatingfatalitiesoccurredoncalmprotectedwaters,inlightwinds,orwithgoodvisibility.Alcoholuse,operatordistraction,oralackoftrainingcontinuedtoplaykeyrolesinfatalrecreationalboatingaccidents.Wherecauseofdeathwasknown,about80percentofpeoplewhodiedinrecreationalboatingincidentsdrowned,and83percentofthesepeoplewerenotwearinglifejackets[USDHSUSCG2017].Whilemostofthedeaths—481in2016—involvedmotorizedboats,peopleinkayaksandcanoesaccountedfor22percentofthefatalities.

Becauseofalackofreliablenationwidemeasuresofrecreationalboatusage,suchasoperationalhours,boatingfatalityrateshavehistoricallybeenbasedontheratiooffatalitiestothetotalnumberofregisteredboats,anumbersubjecttogreatuncertainty.Aninitial2011surveyofboatingparticipantsandboatownersestimatedthattherewereabout2.973billionperson-hoursofboatinginthatyear.Astherewere758boatingdeathsin2011,thiswouldbeabout25.5deathsper100millionexposurehoursthatyearforallcategoriesofboats[USDHSUSCG2011undated].A2012surveyofboatownersandotherdatashowedaloweroverallrateof18deathsper100millionexposurehours,basedon3.584billionpersonhoursofexposureand648deathsthatyear.5TheUSCGcautionsthatthemethodologiesusedinthetwosurveysweredifferent,

5The648fatalitynumberdiffersfromRecreationalBoatingStatistics,whichstatesthattherewere651boat-ingfatalitiesin2012.

concludingthatitwasconfidentthatthe2012surveyresultedinanenhancedexposureestimate,butwasnotnecessarilyconfidentinthehighernumberderived[USDHSUSCG2012undated].

Railroad Operations6

In2016,791peoplediedfromrailroad-relatedaccidents(table6-1).TheFRAattributes277deathstopassengertrainoperationsand514deathstofreighttrainoperations,whichinvolvefarmoretrainmilesthanpassengertrain-miles[USDOTFRA2017a].Unlikehighwaycrashes,boating,oraviationaccidents,mostfatalitiesassociatedwithtrainoperationsoccuroutsidethetrain,suchaspeoplewhoarestruckbytrainswhileontrackrights-of-wayorpeopleincarsstruckathighway-railgradecrossings.Veryfewtrainpassengersorcrewmembersdieintrainaccidents.Inthe10yearperiod2007to2016period,thefatalitycountforpassengersonthetrainwas45—lessthan5peryear—butatotalof7,749peoplediedinrailroadaccidentsorincidents.7

Severalhundredpeopledieeveryyearwhenstruckbytrainswhileonrailroadpropertyorrightsofway.Iftheywereunauthorized,theyareclassifiedtrespassers.Trespassersaccountedfor57.2percentofthetotalrailroadfatalitiesbetween2007-2016,or443deathsperyearonaverage.Thenumberoftrespasserdeathsfellforseveralyearsafter2007,reachingalowof400in2011.However,the

6DatainthissectionisasreportedtotheFederalRailroadAdministrationasofFebruary2017.DatamaychangeasFRAreceivesadditionaloramendedreportingisreceivedfromreportingrailroads.7Another29passengersdiedasaresultofanon-trainrelatedincident(e.g.,healthrelateddeaths).

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dropwasofshortduration;sincethen,thefatalitytollhasrisen,reaching487in2016—notsofarbelowtheaverageof516fatalitiesperyearinthe1990s.

Highway-railgradecrossingfatalitiesaveragedabout260peryearinthe2007-2016period,orroughlyone-thirdofthetotalrailroad-relatedfatalities.Thenumberisfarfewerthaninthe1990s,whentheannualgradecrossingfatalitycountaveragedabout550peopleperyear [USDOTFRA2017a].8

Arecentstatisticaldescriptionofhighwaygradecrossingaccidentsovera10-yearperiodfoundthatonly5percentoftheaccidentsinvolvedpedestrians;motorvehicles,ledbyautomobiles,comprisedtheremainder.Male

8Countsofhighway-gradecrossingfatalitiesarereport-edtobothrailandhighwayagencies.InTable6-1,toavoiddouble-counting,thesefatalitiesareincludedintheoverallcountforhighways,butnotforrail.

driverswereinvolvedinover70percentoftheaccidents,andhadamuchhigheraccidentriskratethanfemalesevenwhentheirgreatertravelmileswastakenintoaccount.Drivers19yearsandyoungeranddrivers70andolder,whilehavingrelativelyfewaccidents,hadthehighestaccidentriskrateswhendrivingmileagebyagecohortwastakenintoaccount[USDOTFRA2017b].

Manygradecrossingsarethelocationsofrepeatedincidents,asshownintable6-3.Thelistshowscrossinglocationswhere10ormoreincidentswerereportedtotheFederalRailroadAdministration(FRA)between2006and2016.Theseincidentsinvolvenotonlyfatalitiesorinjuries,butcouldalsoincludepropertydamageincidents.Fourofthe15crossingsareinthePhoenix,Arizona,metropolitanarea.Manytrespassingandgradecrossingfatalitiesaretheresultofsuicides.AccordingtoFRA,therewere226suicidesin2016.

TABLE 6-3 Railroad Grade Crossings With 10 Or More Incidents: 2006–2016

Street City State Total Incidents Total Fatalities Total Injuries

Thomas Rd Phoenix Arizona 24 0 235th Avenue Phoenix Arizona 21 0 443rd & Camelback Glendale Arizona 19 0 3Front St Ashdown Arkansas 16 4 427th Avenue Phoenix Arizona 15 0 4Midland Ave Elmwood Park New Jersey 14 1 4Mcgalliard Rd Muncie Indiana 14 0 3N Foster Dr. Baton Rouge Louisiana 13 0 0Bellville Street Evergreen Alabama 13 5 1Industrial Road Pascagoula Mississippi 12 0 7Bessemer Ave Cleveland Ohio 12 0 1Mykawa Road Houston Texas 12 0 5Bethany Home Rd Glendale Arizona 10 0 1Isabella/Plant St Waycross Georgia 10 0 1Castilia St Memphis Tennessee 10 2 4

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, List of Railroad Crossings with Most Incidents over Last Decade, available at https://www.fra.dot.gov/eLib/details/L17404 as of November 2017.

https://www.fra.dot.gov/eLib/details/L17404

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Transit

Therewere256transitfatalitiesin2016,slightlyabovethe2010to2015averageofabout245peryear.9Liketherailroadmode,mostofthefatalitiesintransit-relatedaccidentsarenotpassengersortransitemployeesonthevehicle.AccordingtotheFederalTransitAdministration(FTA),passengersontransitvehiclesaccountedforroughly5.1percentofthe2016fatalities,andtransit

9RailtransitaccountsforslightlymorethanhalfofthetransitfatalitiesreportedtoFederalTransitAdminis-tration(FTA)(Table6-1):however,commuterrailandPortAuthorityTransHudsonheavyrailsystemsafetydataarecountedinFederalRailroadAdministrationdata,notFTA.

workers(includingcontractors)about3.1percent.Another17.2percentweretransitpatronsarrivingat,waiting,orleavingtransitfacilities.Pedestriansandbicyclistswhowerenotpatronsaccountedfor16.8percentofthetransitfatalities,and18.8percentofthefatalitieswerepeopleinnontransitvehicles.About30.9percentofthetransitfatalitiesin2016wereconsideredsuicides(figure6-7).10

10Intable6-1andfigure6-7,thenumberoftransitpassen-gerfatalitiesincludesbothpassengersonthevehicleandthosestruckwhilewaitingtogetonorwhohavejustgot-tenoffthevehicle.Pedestrianskilledintransitaccidentsonhighways,suchaspedestriansstruckbyatransitbus,arereportedashighway-relatedpedestriandeathsintable6-1.Toavoiddoublecounting,pedestrianskilledintransitaccidentsareincludedintable6-1under“Othercounts,redundantwithabove”as“transit,nonrail.”

TABLE 6-4 Transportation Injuries by Mode: 2000, 2010, 2014, and 20152000 2010 2014 2015

TOTAL 3,218,900 2,259,731 2,350,490 2,443,175

Air 359 278 266 284

Highway 3,189,000 2,239,000 2,338,000 2,424,000

Railroad 12,057 (R) 8,378 8,702 9,070

Transit 56,697 (R) 25,376 24,045 24,252

Water 4,355 3,770 4,090 3,231

Pipeline 81 (R) 103 95 49

Other counts, redundant with above

Railroad, injured at public crossing with motor vehicle 1,029 718 663 812

Transit non-rail 42,713 (R) 16,705 16,532 16,839

Transit rail 13,984 (R) 8,671 7,513 7,390NOTES: Water for the year 2000 only includes recreational boating and does not include additiional categories of water injuries that are included in the 2010 to 2014 data. The sum of the modal numbers is greater than the TOTAL because some injuries are counted in more than one mode. Other counts, redundant with above help eliminate double counting in the injury TOTAL, as follows: For Railroad, injuries involving motor vehicles at public highway-rail grade crossings are excluded because such injuries are assumed to be included in Highway injuries. For Transit, non-rail mode injuries, including aerial tramway, motor bus, bus rapid transit, commuter bus, demand response, demand taxi, ferryboat, jitney, publico, trolleybus, and van-pool are excluded because they are assumed to be counted as Water and Highway injuries. Please see the National Transportation Statistics table 2-2 for complete source notes and an expanded time-series.

SOURCES: Various sources as cited U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation, National Transportation Statistics, table 2-2. Available at www.bts.gov as of April 2016.

www.bts.gov

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FIGURE 6-7 Transit Fatalities by Category: 2016

Suicide79

Other Vehicle Occupant48

Passenger Onboard13

Bicyclist9

Employee8

Transit Patrons at Station

44

Other21

Pedestrian34

NOTES: Pedestrian fatalities includes in crossings, not incrossings, and walking along track.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Transit Administration, National Transit Database, available at https://www.transit.dot.gov/ntd as of November 2017.

Other Modes

Therewereabout36fatalitiesinvolvingwaterbornecommercialvesselsin2015;thiswaslessthanthe2010–2015averageof78deathsperyear.Pipeline-relatedfatalitiesaveragedabout16deathsperyearinthe20yearsbetween1997and2016.Therewere12pipelinefatalitiesin2015and16fatalitiesin2016arisingfromallpipelineincidents.11Gaspipelines(especiallygastransmissionpipelines)

11TheUSDOTPipelineandHazardousMaterialsAd-ministrationgroupspipelineincidentsunderthreeclassi-fications—serious,significant,andall.ThefatalitydataabovearetakenfromtheJuly2017allincidentsdatapull.DatamaychangeasPHMSAreceivesadditionaloramendedreportsfrompipelineentities.

accountformostofthefatalitiesinmostyears[USDOTPHMSA].

Injured People by ModeInjuriesinmostmodesdeclinedbetween2000and2015.Inadditiontothefatalitydata,NHTSAalsoestimateshighwayinjuries.Unlikefatalities,whicharetalliedfrompoliceaccidentreports,injuriesareestimatedfromasampleandaresubjecttosamplingerrors.Estimatedinjuriesinthehighwaymodes,whichaccountforover99percentoftransportationinjuries,fellfrom3.19millionin2000to2.34millionin2014,beforeincreasingto2.44millionin2015—stillwellbelow

https://www.transit.dot.gov/ntd

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the2000level(table6-5).12Notallhighwayvehiclecategorieshadadeclineininjuriesoverthe15-yearperiod.Motorcyclistinjuriesrosefromabout58,000in2000to92,000in2014,beforefallingto88,000in2015[USDOTBTSNTS2017].NHTSAestimatedthatabout6,700peopleperdaywereinjuredinmotorvehiclecrashesin2015.

InadditiontothepeopleinjuredontheNation’shighways,about20,000peoplewereinjuredinnonhighway-relatedtransportationincidents.Railandrailtransittogetheraccountedforabout16,000ofthesenonhighwayinjuries.Thesenumbersdonotcountpeopleinjuredinhighway-railcrossingincidents,astheyareassumedtobeincludedin

12NHTSAhadyettoestimate2016injurieswhenthischapterwasprepared.

thehighwaymodeestimate.Thewatermodeshadabout3,400injuredpeople—mostlyfromrecreationalboating.

Theinjuryrateforhighwaycrashespervehiclemileoftravelin2015wasaboutone-thirdlessthanitwasin2000(figure6-8).AccordingtothelatestNationalHouseholdTravelSurvey,theaverageoccupancyrate13forallvehicletypesis1.67.Motorcycleshavea1.16occupancyrate,whichislessthanpassengercars(1.55).Largetrucksalsoaccountedfor4percentofallregisteredvehiclesand9percentofthetotalvehiclemilestraveled,butonly4percentofallvehiclesinvolvedininjurycrashes.Largetruckoccupantinjuryrateswere1to10comparedtothatofpassengercarandlight-dutytruckoccupants.

13Numberofpersonspervehicletrip

TABLE 6-5 Fatalities by Highest Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) in Highway Crashes: 2000, 2010, 2015 and 2016

2000 2010 2015 2016

Total fatalities 41,945 32,999 35,485 37,461

Fatalities in alcohol-related crashes (BAC = .01+) 15,746 11,906 12,257 12,514

Percent 37.5% 36.1% 34.5% 33.4%

BAC = 0.00

Number 26,082 21,005 23,119 24,851

Percent 62.2% 63.7% 65.2% 66.3%

BAC = 0.01 - 0.07

Number 2,422 1,771 1,937 2,017

Percent 5.8% 5.4% 5.5% 5.4%

BAC = 0.08+

Number 13,324 10,136 10,320 10,497

Percent 31.8% 30.7% 29.1% 28.0%

KEY: BAC = blood alcohol concentration.

NOTES: Total fatalities include those in which there was no driver or motorcycle rider present. BAC values have been assigned by U.S. Department of Transporta-tion, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) when alcohol test results are unknown. Alcohol-related crashes pertain to the BAC of the driver and nonoccupants struck by motor vehicles. For some years, numbers for Fatalities in alcohol-related crashes (BAC = .01+) may not add to totals due to rounding.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), National Highway Traffic Safety Administration as cited in Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Nation-al Transportation Statistics,table 2-26, available at http://www.bts.gov as of November 2016.

http://www.bts.gov

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FIGURE 6-8 Injury Rates for Select Modes: 2000–2014, 2015

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140Total highway

Inju

ries

per 1

00 m

illio

n ve

hicl

e m

iles

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140Passenger Car and light-duty truck occupants

Inju

ries

per 1

00 m

illio

n ve

hicl

e m

iles

05

101520253035404550

Nonoccupants injured in highway crashes

Inju

ries

per

100,

000

popu

latio

n

0.000.200.400.600.801.001.201.401.601.802.00

U.S. Air Carriers

Inju

ries

per 1

00,0

00

�igh

t hou

rs

0.00.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.61.8

20002001

20022003

20042005

20062007

20082009

20102011

20122013

20142000

20012002

20032004

20052006

20072008

20092010

20112012

20132014

20002001

20022003

20042005

20062007

20082009

20102011

20122013

2014

20002001

20022003

20042005

20062007

20082009

20102011

20122013

2014

20002001

20022003

20042005

20062007

20082009

20102011

20122013

20142015

20002001

20022003

20042005

20062007

20082009

20102011

20122013

2014

General Aviation

Inju

ries

per 1

00,0

00

�igh

t hou

rsIn

jurie

s pe

r 100

,000

�i

ght h

ours

02468

10121416

Large Truck Occupants

NOTES: Passenger car occupants includes passenger car and light truck occupants. Highway nonoccupants includes pedestrians and bicyclists. Air includes serious injuries only. Nonoccupant includes pedestrians and riders of nonmotorized bicycles and other pedal-powered vehicles. Total Highway, Passenger Car Occupants, and Motorcycle Operators: When comparing highway data from 2006 and before to data from later years, it needs to be understood that a revised methodology for estimating registered vehicles and vehicle miles traveled by vehicle type for the highway modes was applied to 2007 data and beyond, and this difference in methodologies needs to be taken into account.

SOURCE: Calculated by U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) based upon multiple sources as cited in USDOT, BTS, National Transportation Statistics. Tables 1-35, 2-2, 2-9, and 2-14. Available at www.bts.gov as of April 2016.

www.bts.gov

6-22


Costs of Motor Vehicle Crashes

A2014studybytheCentersforDiseaseControlandPreventionfocusedonthehealthburdenandmedicalcostsofbothfatalandnonfatalinjuriestohighwaymotorvehicleoccupantsincrashes.Themedicalcostsoffatalinjuriesin2011totaledabout$266million,thelatestyearforwhichmedicalcostdataareavailable.Nonfatalinjuriestomotorvehicleoccupantsfromcrashesin2012involvedanestimated2.5millionvisitstoemergencyroomsorotheremergencydepartments,withanestimated188,000visitsresultinginhospitalizationandlifetimecostsof$18.4billion.Putanotherway,in2012therewereabout6,900emergencydepartmentvisitsandover500hospitalizationsperdayresultingfromnonfatalcrashinjuriestomotorvehicleoccupants[USHSSCDC2014].

Medicalcostsareonlyonecomponentofthecostsofcrashes.Aseparatestudyofthebroadereconomiccostsofmotorvehiclecrashesestimatedthesecostsas$242billionin2010(thelatestyearforwhicheconomicestimatesareavailable)[USDOTNHTSA2015e].Theseeconomiccostsincludethefollowing:

• lostworkplaceproductivity—$57.6billion(23.8percentofeconomiccosts),

• losthouseholdproductivity—$19.7billion(8.2percent),

• propertydamage—$76.1billion(31.4percent),

• medicalexpenses—$23.4.billion(10percent),

• congestionimpacts—$28billion(11.6percent),and

• othercrash-relatedcosts—$37.0billion(15.3percent).

IfaveragedacrosstheU.S.populationinthestudyyear,motorvehiclecrashescostnearly$784perpersonin2010.Whenfactoringinthe$594billionincomprehensivecostsfromthelossoflife,pain,andinjuries,thecostof2010motorvehiclecrashestotaledabout$836billion.Ofthistotal,economiccostsrepresent29percentandlostqualityofliferepresent71percent[USDOTNHTSA2015e].

Comparedtoothermotorvehiclecrashes,thesecostsdisproportionatelyinvolvemotorcycleriderswhodieorincurseriousinjuriesincrashes[USDOTNHTSA2015e].Motorcyclesprovidelittleprotectiveshieldingtoriders,comparedtoenclosedvehicles;also,therehasbeenadramaticincreaseinmotorcyclevehicles-milestraveled.MeasuredbyVMT,amotorcyclistinacrashwasabout30timesmorelikelytodiethanapassengercaroccupantand5timesmorelikelytobeinjured,accordingtothestudy.In2010motorcyclecrashescost$12.9billionineconomicimpactsand$66billionincomprehensivesocietalcosts.

Selected Contributing FactorsAmultitudeofhuman,environmental,andvehiclefactorscontributetotransportationcrashes.Themostcommonlycitedcausesinvolvedriveroroperatorerrorsorriskybehaviors,suchasspeeding,andoperatingvehiclesorcarryingouttransportationoperationswhileundertheinfluenceofalcohol

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ordrugs,whiledistracted,orwhilefatigued.Environmentalfactorsincluderoadwayorinfrastructuredesign(e.g.,shortrunway,noroadshoulders),hazards(e.g.,utilitypolesatthesideoftheroad,hiddenrocksunderwater),andoperatingconditions(e.g.,fog,turbulence,choppywaters,wetroads).Vehiclefactorsincludeequipment-andmaintenance-relatedfailures(e.g.,tireseparations,defectivebrakesorlandinggear,enginefailure,andwornoutparts)[GAO2003].Oftenitishardtodelineateamongthevariousfactors.Forexample,animpairedorfatigueddrivermayignoredashboardalertsaboutpotentiallydangerousequipmentproblems(e.g.,lowtirepressure),orcontinuetooperatethevehiclewhenunsafeweatherconditionswouldmakeitprudenttostop.

Humanfactorsaremorelikelythannottoberecordedforfatalcrashesinvolvingpassengervehicles.In2015oneormoredriver-relatedhumanfactorswererecordedfortwo-thirds(66.6percent)ofthedriversofhighwaypassengervehicles(cars,vans,pickuptrucks,andsportutilityvehicles)involvedinsingle-vehiclefatalcrashesand50.7percentofdriversofpassengervehiclesinvolvedinmultivehiclefatalcrashes[USDOTFMCSA2017].Forcomparison,oneormore(driver-related)humanfactorswererecordedfor51.3percentofthedriversoflargetrucksinvolvedinsingle-vehiclefatalcrashesandforone-third(33.3percent)ofthedriversoflargetrucksinvolvedinmultivehiclefatalcrashes[USDOTFMCSA2017a].

Speedingtoppedthelawenforcementlistfordriver-relatedfactorsfordriversofbothpassengervehiclesandlargetrucksinfatal

crashes.Impairment(fatigue,alcohol,illness,etc.)closelyfollowedspeedingasthesecondmostcitedfactorforpassengervehicledrivers,whiledistracted/inattentivedrivingwassecondonthelistforlarge-truckdrivers[USDOTFMCSA2017a].In2015vehiclefactors,mostcommonlytrucktires,wererecordedfor6.4percentofthelargetrucksinvolvedinfatalcrashesand2.9percentofthepassengervehiclesinvolvedinfatalcrashes[USDOTFMCSA2017a].

Alcohol Abuse

All50StatesandtheDistrictofColumbialimitBloodAlcoholConcentration(BAC)to0.08percentwhileoperatingahighwayvehicle[USDHHSNIHNIAAA2014].Anaverageof1alcohol-impaired-drivingfatalityoccurredevery50minutesin2016.Theportionofpeoplekilled“insidethevehicle”suchaspassengercarsandlighttrucksaccountforabouttwo-thirdsofthefatalities,whilethose“outsidethevehicle”includingmotorcyclist,pedestrians,bicyclist,andothernonoccupantsaccountforaboutathird.Alcoholimpairment“inside”or“outside”thevehiclemayhavebeenacontributingfactorinthefatalcrash[USDOTNHTSA2017d].Table6-5showsthatabout10,500peoplewerekilledinmotorvehiclecrashesin2016inwhichadriverorfatallystrucknonoccupantorbothhadaBACof0.08orhigher.14

14AccordingtotheUSDOTNationalHighwayTraf-ficSafetyAdministration,analcohol-impairedcrashinvolvesatleastonedriverormotorcycleoperatorwithaBloodAlcoholConcentration(BAC)ofatleast0.08gramperdeciliter.CrasheswheretheBACofthedriveroroperatormeasuresover0.01areconsideredalco-hol-relatedoralcohol-involvedcrashes.

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Figure6-9displayswhodiedinfatalcrasheswhenthedriverhadaBACof0.08orhigher.Driversaccountedforover6,400(63percent)ofthefatalities;about2,900wereeitherpassengersinthevehiclewithanimpaireddriveroroccupantsofothervehicles(29percent),andmorethan900werepedestriansorothernonoccupants(9percent).Some25percentofmotorcycleoperatorsinfatalcrashesarealcohol-impaired,thehighestshareofanyhighwaymotorvehicledrivers.

Asforrecreationalboating,alcoholuseisperenniallylistedbytheUSCGastheleadingcontributingfactorinfatalboatingaccidents.TheUSCGfoundalcoholusetobetheprimarycausein15percentoffatalboatingaccidentsin2016,resultingin87deaths.Alcoholpresencewasnotedinthedeathsofan

additional46people,butwasnotdeterminedtobeanaccidentcause[USDHSUSCG2017].AsofJanuary1,2016,47StatesandtheDistrictofColumbialimitBACto0.08percentforoperatorsofrecreationalboats.TheremainingthreeStates—NorthDakota,SouthCarolina,andWyoming—havea0.10percentstandard.In2015MichiganlowereditsBACfrom0.10to0.08percent[USDHHSNIHNIAAA2017].

Speedingcoupledwithdrinkingarecommonfactorsinmanyhighwaycrashes.Some27percentoftrafficfatalitiesin2015wereincrashesinwhichoneormoredriverswerespeeding.Youngermaledriversareespeciallypronetospeeding,withnearlyone-third(32percent)of15to24yearoldmalesinfatalcrashesfoundtohavebeenspeeding.Some

TABLE 6-6 Distraction-Affected Motor Vehicle Crashes: 2010–2015

Total crashes 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Total 5,419,000 5,338,000 5,615,000 5,687,000 6,064,000 6,296,000

Fatal crash 30,296 29,867 31,006 30,202 30,056 32,166

Injury crash 1,542,000 1,530,000 1,634,000 1,591,000 1,648,000 1,715,000

PDO crash 3,847,000 3,778,000 3,950,000 4,066,000 4,387,000 4,548,000

Distraction-affected crashes 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Total 900,000 826,000 908,000 904,000 967,000 885,000

Percent of total crashes 16.6 15.5 16.2 15.9 15.9 14.1

Fatal crash 2,993 3,047 3,098 2,923 2,972 3,196

Percent of fatal crashes 9.9 10.2 10.0 9.7 9.9 9.9

Injury Crash 279,000 260,000 286,000 284,000 297,000 265,000

Percent of injury crashes 18.1 17.0 17.5 17.9 18.0 15.5

PDO crash 618,000 563,000 619,000 616,000 667,000 617,000

Percent of PDO crashes 16.1 14.9 15.7 15.2 15.2 13.6

KEY: PDO = property damage only.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Distracted Driving 2014 (April 2016), Table 6. Available at http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/ as of October 2017.

http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/

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FIGURE 6-9 Fatalities, by Role, in Crashes Involving at Least One Driver with a BAC of .08 or Higher: 2016

Driver with BAC=.08+, 6,424(63%)

Passenger riding with driver with BAC=

.08+, 1,502 (15%)

Occupants of other vehicles, 1,406

(14%)

Nonoccupants, 933 (9%)

Total fatalities involving BAC ≥ 0.08 % = 10,497

NOTES: Nonoccupants includes pedestrians, pedalcyclists, and others not listed above.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety Facts: Alcohol-Impaired Driving (Annual Issues), available at http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/ as of November 2017.

45percentofspeedingdriversinfatalcrasheswerefoundtohavebeendrinkingcomparedto20percentamongnon-speedingdriversinfatalcrashes[USDOTNHTSA2017e]

Substance Abuse

ArecentstudybytheNationalTransportationSafetyBoard(NTSB)analyzedtoxicologyreportsonabout6,700pilotswhodiedincrashesbetween1990and2012toattempttoestablishbaselinedata.About96percentofthecrasheswereingeneralaviationbecausetherewerefewcommercialaviationcrashesduringthatperiod.ThetoxicologyinformationwasavailablebecausetheFederalAviation

Administrationisabletoconductthistestinginfollow-upfatalcrashinvestigations.

TheNTSBexaminedillegaldrugs(whichwereassumedtobeimpairing)andcertainlegallyobtainedover-the-counter(OTC)drugsthatwereconsideredpotentiallyimpairing.TheselegalpharmaceuticalswereconsideredpotentiallyimpairingifthepackagingcontainedaFoodandDrugAdministrationlabelwarningofpossibleeffectsfromroutineusage(e.g.,cautionsaboutdrivingoroperatingmachinery,orpossiblesideeffectssuchassedation,hallucinations,orbehaviorchanges.)Thetoxicologyresultsshowedincreased“useofalldrugs,potentiallyimpairingdrugs,drugs


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usedtotreatpotentiallyimpairingconditions,drugsdesignatedascontrolledsubstances,andillicitdrugs”duringthe23-yearperiod.Diphenhydramine,anantihistaminewithsedatingproperties,wasthemostcommondrugfoundinthetoxicologyreportsthatwasthoughttobepotentiallyimpairing.Diphenhydramineisfoundinmanyover-the-counterallergyformulations,coldmedications,andsleepaids.NTSBfoundfewcasesofillicitdruguse,butnotedthattherewasanincreaseinpositivetestsformarijuanausageduringthelast10yearsofthestudy(2002to2012).

TheNTSBexaminedwhetherpilotswhohadusedpotentiallyimpairingdrugshadincreasedriskofinvolvementincertainaccidenttypes.However,itfoundnostatisticallysignificantdifferenceinthedistributionofaccidenteventsfrom2008through2012incrashesinvolvingpilotswithandwithoutevidenceofpotentiallyimpairingdrugs[NTSB2014b].

Inrecentyears,severalStateshavelegalizedorareconsideringlegalizingtheuseofmarijuana.Thistrendhasraisedconcernsabouttheeffectsofmarijuanauseondriverperformanceandtrafficsafety.TheAmericanAutomobileAssociation(AAA)FoundationforTrafficSafetyconductedseveralstudiestoquantifytheprevalenceofdrivingundertheinfluenceofmarijuana.TheAAA’sannualonlinesamplesurveyontrafficsafetyculturereportedthat4.6percentofrespondentsreportedthattheydrovewithin1hourofusingmarijuana.(Theannualsurveywasconductedfrom2013to2015andincluded6,612respondents.)Maledrivers,18to24yearsofage,andthosewholivedintheMidwestweremostlikelytoreporthavingdrivenwithin1hourofusing

marijuana.Moreover,driverswhoreportedusingmarijuanawithin1hourofdrivingwerelesslikelytobelievethatusingmarijuanaincreasedtheriskofcrashingandmorelikelytobelievethatsuchusagedoesnotaffectordecreasestheriskofcrashing[AAA2016a].

AnotherAAAstudyfocusedonmarijuanainvolvementinfatalcrashesinWashingtonStatefrom2010to2014.UsingtoxicologytestdatafromtheWashingtonStateSafetyCommission,AAAfoundthatthenumberofdriversinmarijuana-involvedfatalcrashesmorethandoubledfrom49(8.3percent)in2013to106(17.0percent)in2014.PriortolegalizationinDecember2012,thenumberandproportionofdriverstestingpositiveformarijuanawerefairlystable,butthenbegantoriseabout9monthsafterthelawwaspassed[AAA2016b].

Distraction and Fatigue

Distractedandfatiguedvehicleoperatorsarefoundinallmodesoftransportation,includingairlinepilots,busdrivers,trainengineers,andtugboatoperators[NTSB2014c].In2015,3,196fatalhighwaycrashesandanestimated265,000injurycrashesinvolveddistracteddrivers.Thiswasabout10percentoffatalcrashes,15percentofinjurycrashes,and14percentofproperty-damage-onlycrashesinvolvingamotorvehicle(table6-6).Driversundertheageof30aredisproportionatelyrepresentedindistraction-affectedfatalcrashes,andespeciallydriversaged15to19years[USDOTNHTSA2017f].Figures6-10aand6-10bshowthetrendonthepercentofdistracteddriving-relatedhighwayfatalitiesandinjuries(thefatalitydatabeginwith2010

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FIGURE 6-10a Distracted Driving Fatalities: 2010-2015

0

10

20

30

0

500

1,000

1,500

2,000

2,500

3,000

3,500

4,000

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Distracted D

riving as a Percent of highway fatalities

Dis

trac

ted

driv

ing

fata

litie

s

FIGURE 6-10b Distracted Driving Injuries: 2010-2015

0

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100,000

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300,000

350,000

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2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Distracted D

riving as a Percent of highway injuries

Dis

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Driv

ing

Inju

ries

NOTES: Distracted driving involves any activity that could divert a person’s attention away from the primary task of driving, such as texting, using a cell phone, eating and drinking, grooming, using a navigation system, adjusting a radio, etc. Distracted driving fatality data for 2010 and on are not comparable with previous years due to changes in methodology.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety Facts, Research Note, Distracted Driving 2014, available at www.nhtsa.gov as of April 2016.

www.nhtsa.gov

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duetoachangeinmethodology,makingearlierdatanotcomparable).

Some3,477peoplediedindistraction-affectedcrashesin2015,andabout391,000wereinjured.Vehicleoccupantscomprised84percentofthefatalities.Therewere551nonoccupantswhodied,mostlypedestriansindistraction-affectedcrashes.Itisnotknownhowmanynonoccupantswerealsodistractedwhenstruck(e.g.,walkersabsorbedinacellphoneconversation).

Althoughmanyotheractivities(e.g.,eating,sippingcoffee,smoking,grooming,tendingtoachild,adjustingaradio)aredistractingtodrivers,bicyclists,andpedestrians,cellphoneuseandtextinghavereceivedthemostattentionasthesedeviceshaveattainednearlyuniversalusageinthelastfewyears.Cellphoneswereinuseinabout14percentoffatalcrashesinvolvingadistracteddriverin2015,comprisingabout1.4percentofallfatalcrashes[USDOTNHTSA2017f].Figure6-11showsthat14States,theDistrictofColumbia,andPuertoRicoprohibitdrivers’useofhandheldcellphones;and47statesplustheDistrictofColumbiaandPuertoRicobantextingwhiledriving.

In201415drowsyandfatigueddrivingwasconsideredarelatedfactorin846highwayfatalities(2.6percent).However,itislikelythatfatigue-relatedcrashesareunderestimated[AAA2014].Measuringtheexactnumberofdrowsing-relatedfatalitiesisdifficult,althoughresearchisunderwaytoimprovemethods.Drowsy-drivingcrashesoftenoccurinruralareas,withthevehiclegoingofftheroadat

152015dataarenotavailable.

highspeedwithoutbrakingandwithnoothervehicleoccupantbesidesthedriver[USDOTNHTSA2016e].About57percentoffatalcrashesinruralareasinvolveasingle-vehicle[IIHS].

Distractedorinattentivedrivingbycommercialmotorvehicledriverswasacontributingfactorin6.1percentoffatalcrashesinvolvinglargetrucksin2015[USDOTFMCSA2017a].Inaddition,truckdriverimpairment(e.g.,fatigue,drugs/alcohol,illness,etc.)wasafactorin3.3percentoffatalcrashes[USDOTFMCSA2017a].

Lives Saved by Occupant Protection EquipmentWhenproperlyused,safetydevicessignificantlyreducetheriskofdeathorseriousinjury.TheNHTSAestimatedthatmorethan20,000livesweresavedonthehighwaysin2016—upfrommorethan17,000in2010—byoccupantprotectiondevices,includingseatbelts,frontalairbags,childrestraints,andmotorcyclehelmets,asshownintable6-8.Seatbeltssavedover14,000lives,frontalairbagsabout2,800,childrestraintsabout300,andDOT-compliantmotorcyclehelmetsnearly1,900livesin2016(table6-7).

Seat Belt Use

About90.1percentofoccupantsofcars,vans,andsportutilityvehicles(SUVs)usedsafetybeltsin2016,upfrom70.7percentin2000and85.1percentin2010,and88.5percentin2015[USDOTNHTSA2017g,2016g].Pickuptruckoccupantshadthelowestusageat83percentin2015,upfrom81percentin2014(Table6-8).

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FIGURE 6-11 State Laws on Distracted Driving: July 2017

AL

AR

CA

CT

FL

GA

ID

IL IN

KSKY

MD

MA

MN

MS

NE

NJ

NM

NY

NC

OH

OR

SC

SD

TN

VA

WA

WV

MT

PA

WI

AZ

CO

DEDE

IA

LA

ME

MI

MO

ND

OK

NV

NH

TX

UT

VT

WY

AK


Distracted driving laws by state

Texting and hand-held banTexting banNo ban

PR

0 50 Miles

RI

DC

NOTES: A primary law means that an officer can ticket the driver for the offense without any other traffic violation taking place. A secondary law means an officer can only issue a ticket if a driver has been pulled over for another violation (like speeding). Hand-held Cell Phone Use: 14 states, D.C., Puerto Rico, Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands prohibit all drivers from using hand-held cell phones while driving. All are primary enforcement laws—an officer may cite a driver for using a hand-held cell phone without any other traffic offense taking place. Text Messaging: Washington was the first state to pass a texting ban in 2007. Currently, 47 states, D.C., Puerto Rico, Guam and the U.S. Virgin Islands ban text messaging for all drivers.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, State Laws on Distracted Driving, available at http://www.distraction.gov/stats-research-laws/state-laws.html as of November 2017.

TABLE 6-7 Estimated Lives Saved by Selected Safety Features: 2000, 2010, 2015, and 2016

2000 2010 2015 2016

Child Restraints, Age 4 and Younger 479 303 272 328

Seat Belts, Age 5 and Older 12,882 12,670 14,067 14,668

Frontal Air Bags, Age 13 and Older 1,716 2,403 2,596 2,756

Motorcycle Helmets, All Ages 872 1,551 1,800 1,859

Minimum Drinking Age Law 922 560 542 552

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, National Center for Statistics and Analysis, Traffic Safety Facts (Washington, DC: Annual Issues). Available at http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/ as of October 2017 as cited in USDOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, National Transportation Statistics, table 2-31. Available at http://www.bts.gov as of November 2017.

http://www.distraction.gov/stats-research-laws/state-laws.html

http://www.distraction.gov/stats-research-laws/state-laws.html


http://www.bts.gov

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Regionally,in2015,seatbeltuseishighestinthewesternUnitedStates(about95percent)andlowestintheMidwesternstates(82percent).Stateswithprimaryenforcementlaws,allowingpolicetoticketvehicleoccupantssolelyfornotwearingseatbelts,havehigherbeltusage(91percentin2015)thanstateswithweakerenforcement(79percent)[USDOTNHTSA2016e].

Seatbeltuseismosteffectiveinconjunctionwithairbags,whichdeployautomaticallyincrashes.Recallstoreplacedefectiveairbagsandotheroccupantprotectionequipmentsometimesareundertaken,mostdramaticallyintheongoingcaseofairbagsoutlinedinbox6-d.

Helmet Use

DOT-compliantmotorcyclehelmetsreducetheriskofdyinginamotorcyclecrashandalsoreduceemergencymedicalcare,hospitalization,intensivecare,rehabilitation,andlong-termcarefollowingcrashes[NTSB2010].OverallusageofDOT-complianthelmetshasdeclinedfrom71.0percentin2000to65.3percentin2016(table6-8).Only19statesandtheDistrictofColumbiahaveauniversalhelmetlaw,28stateshaveapartiallawcoveringcertainridersandpassengers(e.g.,thoseundertheageof18),and3states(Illinois,Iowa,andNewHampshire)havenomotorcyclehelmetlaw(figure6-12).Helmetuseseemspartiallycorrelatedtostate

TABLE 6-8 Safety Belt and Motorcycle Helmet Use: 2000, 2010, 2015, and 2016Percent

2000 2010 2015 2016

Overall safety belt use 71 85 89 90

Drivers 72 86 89 91

Right-Front Passengers 68 83 87 89

Passenger cars 74 86 90 91

Vans and sport utility vehicles U 88 90 92

Pickup trucks U 75 81 83

Motorcycle helmet useb 71 54 61 65

Operators 72 55 64 68

Passengers 62 51 46 53KEY: U = data are unavailable.a Seat belt use is as of the Fall each year. Motorcycle helmet use is as of the Fall each year.b Only those operators and riders wearing safety helmets that met U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) standards are counted. Those safety helmets that do not meet DOT standards are treated as if the operator/rider were not wearing a helmet.

NOTE: Occupants of commercial and emergency vehicles are excluded.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT), National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety Facts: Research Notes, Seat Belt Use (Annual issues); and Motorcycle Helmet Use—Overall Results (Annual issues). Available at http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov as of October 2017 as cited in USDOT, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, National Transportation Statistics, table 2-30, available at http://www.bts.gov as of November 2017.

http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov

http://www.bts.gov

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Box 6-D Air Bag RecallAccordingtotheNationalHighwayTransportationSafetyAdministration(NHTSA),TakataairbagshavebeeninstalledintensofmillionsofU.S.vehicles.AsofearlyOctober,2016,11U.S.fatalitiesandmorethan100injurieshavebeenlinkedtoadefectintheairbaginflatorandpropellantdevices,causingthemtoruptureandsendmetalshardsintovehicleoccupantsduringacrash[USDOTNHTSA2016cand2016h].Therootcauseoftherupturesisthedegradationoftheammonianitratepropellantovertimeandwhenexposedtohighhumidityandfluctuatinghightemperatures,whichinturncausesthepropellanttoburntooquicklyandrupture.

NHTSA,whichischargedwithensuringthesafetyofmotorvehiclesintheUnitedStates,initiatedaformaldefectinvestigationoftheTakataairbaginflatorsinJune2014[USDOTNHTSA2015f],whichresultedinarecallof28.8millionairbags.Ofthattotal,nearly11.4millionhavebeenrepaired(5.1millionpassenger-sideairbagsand6.3milliondriversideairbag)asofOctober7,2016[USDOTNHTSA2016b].

OnMay4,2016,NHTSAexpandedtherecalltoincludeanadditional35–40millionairbag

inflatorstothealreadyrecalled28.8million.TheexpandedrecallofinflatorsmeansthatallTakataammoniumnitrate-basedpropellantairbaginflatorsthatdonothaveachemicaldryingagent,alsoknownasadesiccant,willberecalled.TheexpandedrecallwillbehandledinfivephasesovertheMay2016toDecember2019period,andbasedonriskfactors,suchasaninflator’sageanditsexposuretohighhumidityandfluctuatinghightemperatures[USDOTNHTSA2016c].

TheTakataairbagrecallisthelargestsafetyrecallinU.S.history.TakatareachedanagreementwithNHTSAtopay$200millionincivilpenaltiesandtophaseoutsupplyingammoniumnitrateinflatorstofulfillexistingcontractsbynolaterthanDecember31,2018[USDOTNHTSA2015a].InJanuary2017,Takataagreedtopleadguiltytowirefraudandtopay$1billionincriminalpenaltiesforfraudulentconductinsellingthedefectiveinflators[USDOJ2017].InJune,2017,Takatafiledforbankruptcy.Federallaw(Section3012AofTitle49oftheU.S.Code)specifiesrecallobligationsintheeventofbankruptcy,indicatingthatfilingabankruptcypetitiondoesnotnegatethemanufacturersrecallduties[USDOTNHTSA2013].

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FIGURE 6-12 State Laws on Motorcycle Helmet Use: August 2017

AL

AR

CA

CT

FL

GA

ID

IL IN

KSKY

MD

MA

MN

MS

NE

NJ

NM

NY

NC

OH

OR

SC

SD

TN

VA

WA

WV

MT

PA

WI

AZ

CO

DE

IA

LA

ME

MI

MO

ND

OK

NV

NH

TX

UT

VT

WY

AK


Motorcycle helmet laws by state

Universal lawPartial lawNo law

RI

DC

SOURCE: Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, Motorcycle Helmet Use, available at www.iihs.org as of August 2017.

requirements.In2016,79.6percentofridersworeDOT-complianthelmetsinstatesthatrequiredhelmetuse,while53.5percentofridersworeDOT-complianthelmetsinstatesthatdonotrequiretheiruse[USDOTNHTSA2017h].Noncomplianthelmetswerewornby14.9percentofridersinstatesrequiringhelmetuseand3.6percentinstatesnotrequiringhelmetuse.In1975,47statesandtheDistrictofColumbiahadadopteduniversalhelmetuselawsthatrequiredmotorcyclehelmetsforallriders,butmanystateshavesubsequentlymadetheirhelmetlawslessrestrictive[COSGROVE2007].

Life Jackets and Boat Safety Training

About8outof10peoplewhodiedinboatingaccidentsin2016drowned,andabout83percentofthosewhodrownedwerenotwearingalifejacket[USDHSUSCG2017].Evenifnotlegallyrequired,operatorsofboatscaninsistthattheirpassengerswearlifejackets.Moststatesrequiremandatoryrecreationalboatingeducationandsafetytrainingcourses,buteightstatesdonot(Alaska,Arizona,California,Idaho,Maine,SouthDakota,Utah,andWyoming).Boatereducationhelpsreducetheriskofboatingaccidentsanddeath[NTSB

www.iihs.org

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2013],andabout42.6percentofU.S.boatownershavetakenaboatingsafetycourse.Mostboatingfatalitiesoccuronvesselsinwhichtheoperatorhadnoformalinstructioninboatingsafety.Only13percentofdeathsinfatalboatingaccidentsin2016occurredinboatsoperatedbyapersonknowntohavereceivedacertificateforboatingsafetyfromsuchproviders—animprovementfrom23percentin2014[USDHSUSCG2017].

Traffic Safety EnforcementTrafficsafetyenforcementpromotesgooddrivinghabits(e.g.,wearingasafetybelt)anddiscouragesunsafebehaviors(e.g.,impaireddriving)[USDOTNHTSA2014b].AccordingtotheBureauofJusticeStatistics,in2011about10.2percentoftheNation’s212.3milliondriverswerestoppedbypolicewhileoperatingamotorvehicle,5.3percentofthesedriverswereticketed,3.4percentweregivenaverbalorwrittenwarning,and1.4percentwereallowedtoproceedwithnoenforcementactiontaken[USDOJBJS2013].

Speedingwascitedastheleadingreasonforatrafficstop,accountingfor46.5percent,followedbyvehicledefects(e.g.,brokentaillight)with14.1percent.Malesweremorelikelytobestoppedandticketedthanfemales,accountingfor58.8percentofticketeddrivers.Driverswhowere25to34yearsofageaccountedforabout22.4percentofstoppeddrivers,whichisthehighestpercentageamongallagegroups[USDOJBJS2013].However,thisagegroupaccountedforonly13.7percentofVMT[USDOTFHWA2011].

In2015,accordingtotheFederalBureauofInvestigation,lawenforcementagencies

acrossthecountrymadeanestimated1.1millionarrestsfordrivingundertheinfluence[USDOJFBI2017].MalesaccountedforthreeoutoffourDUIarrests[USDOJFBI2017].Studieshaveshownsobrietycheckpointsareaneffectivecountermeasuretoreducealcohol-impaireddriving,reducingalcohol-relatedcrashesbyroughly20percent[USDHHSCDCNCI2015].

TheFederalMotorCarrierSafetyAdministration(FMCSA)isresponsibleforreducingcrashes,injuries,andfatalitiesinvolvingtheNation’sapproximately521,200interstatefreightcarriers,13,300interstatepassengercarriers,and16,600interstatehazardousmaterialcarriers[USDOTFMCSA2017b].Infiscalyear2016,over3.4millionroadsideinspectionswereconducted(table6-9).Over34,670warningletterswereissuedtocarrierswhosesafetydatashowedalackofcompliancewithmotorcarriersafetyregulationsandwhosesafetyperformancehadfallentoanunacceptablelevel[USDOTFMCSA2017c].Table6-9showsthenumberofinspection,whichmayresultinout-of-service(OOS)violationsthatmustbecorrectedbeforethedriverorvehiclecanreturntoservice.Vehicleviolations,suchasdefectivelights,worntires,orbrakedefectsput27.7percentofinspectedvehiclesout-of-service.

TocomplywithFederalhoursofserviceregulations,truckdriversarerequiredtotake10consecutivehoursoffafterdrivingamaximumof11hoursandtotake30-minuterestperiodsafter8hoursofdriving[USDOTFMCSA2011].Consequently,driversneedtofindparkingfacilitiesthatwillgivedrivers

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off-roadplacestostoptorestwhilenotposingasafetyhazardtoothersontheroad.

A2015FHWAsurveyshowedashortageoftruckparkingfacilities,especiallyalongmajorfreightcorridors,suchasI-95,I-40,andI-10,andinmetropolitanareas[USDOTFHWA2015].Also,manystatesdonotallowovernightorextendedparkingatpublicrestareas[USDOTFHWA2012].Theshortageoftruckparkingfacilitiesposesasafetyrisknotonlytotruckdriversbutalsoothermotorists,assomecommercialdriverscoulddecidetodriveonwhiletiredortoparkinunsafe

locationsalongroadshouldersandhighwayentranceandexitramps[USDOTFHWA2015].Driverviolationsput5.7percentout-of-service,oftenduetononcompliancewithhours-of-serviceregulations.Aswasdiscussedearlier,fatigueisafactorinmanycrashes.

Hazardous Materials TransportationTransportinghazardousmaterialsrequiresspecialprecautions,handling,andpackaging.Therearespecializedsafetyregulations,standards,andreportingsystemsinplaceforpipelines,rail,highway,air,andmarinevehiclesthattransporthazardousmaterials.

TABLE 6-9 Inspection Summary: 2010 and 2016

2010 2016

Roadside inspections 3,569,373 3,418,886

With no violations 1,225,324 1,418,401

With violations 2,344,049 2,000,485

Driver inspections 3,470,871 3,300,964

With OOS Violations 183,350 187,597

Driver OOS Rate 5.3% 5.7%

Vehicle inspections 2,413,094 2,348,391

With OOS Violations 480,416 650,909

Vehicle OOS Rate 19.9% 27.7%

Hazardous material inspections 211,154 200,479

With OOS Violation 9,210 10,373

Hazmat OOS Rate 4.4% 5.2%

KEY: OOS = out-of-service.

NOTES: Driver Inspections were computed based on inspection levels I, II, III, and VI. Vehicle Inspections were computed based on inspection levels I, II, V, and VI. Hazmat Inspections were computed based on inspection levels I, II, III, IV, V, and VI when hazardous materials were present. Roadside inspection OOS rates depicted in this table include both large trucks and buses. For more information on roadside inspections and inspection levels, please refer to https://csa.fmcsa.dot.gov.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, Motor Carrier Management Information System (MCMIS), Roadside Inspection Activity Summary for Fiscal Years, October 2017.

https://csa.fmcsa.dot.gov

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Thesespecialrequirementsrecognizethatincidentsinvolvingthetransportationofhazardousmaterialscanaffecttheenvironmentinadditiontopotentiallyriskinginjuryanddeath.Table6-10showsthat,in2016,morethan18,200hazardousmaterialsincidents(excludingpipelineincidents)werereportedtotheUSDOTPipelineandHazardousMaterialsAdministration(PHMSA)—upfromabout16,500in2015[USDOTPHMSA2017b].

About1.4percentofhazardousmaterialstransportationincidentsin2016weretheresultofanaccident(e.g.,vehicularcrashortrainderailment).About90percentoftheseincidentsrelatedtothemovementofhazardousmaterialsoccurredonhighwaysorintruckterminals.Mosthazardousmaterials

incidentsoccurbecauseofhumanerrororpackagefailure,particularlyduringloadingandunloading.

TheaboveincidentsdonotincludepipelineswhicharereportedseparatelytoPHMSA.Table6-11providesasummaryofall635hazardousliquid-relatedandgas-relatedpipelineincidentsreportedin2016,whichresultedin17fatalities,82injuries,and$308millioninpropertydamage(downfrom$1.7billionin2010,reflectingtheincidentspecificnatureofpropertydamage).Hazardousliquidsaccountedforwelloverhalftheincidentsandpropertydamage.Gasdistributionandtransmissionaccountedforallbutoneofthefatalitiesandalloftheinjuriesin2015(table6-11).

TABLE 6-10 Hazardous Materials Transportation Incidents: 2010 and 2014–2016

2010 2014 2015 2016

Total incidents 14,795 17,401 16,588 18,238

Total vehicular accident / derailment incidents 358 351 286 263

Vehicular accident-related percent of total incidents 2.4 2.0 1.7 1.4

Air 1,295 1,327 1,074 1,198

Vehicular accident-related 2 3 2 3

Highway 12,648 15,310 14,923 16,485

Vehicular accident-related 320 330 251 235

Rail 747 717 567 544

Vehicular accident-related / derailment incidents 35 18 32 24

Water1 105 47 24 11

Vehicular accident-related 1 0 1 11 Water include only packages (nonbulk) marine. Non-packaged (bulk) marine hazardous material incidents are reported to the U.S. Coast Guard and are not included.

NOTES: Incidents are defined in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR): 49 CFR 171.15 and 171.16 (Form F 5800.1). Each modal total also includes fatalities caused by human error, package failure, and causes not elsewhere classified. Accident-related are the result of a vehicular crash or accident damage (e.g., a train derailment).

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Office of Hazardous Materials Safety, HAZMAT Intelligence Portal (as of April 17, 2016), available at https://hip.phmsa.dot.gov/ as of April 2017.

https://hip.phmsa.dot.gov/

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TABLE 6-11 All Reported Hazardous Liquid and Gas Incidents: 2010–2016

TOTAL - all reported

Number Fatalities InjuriesProperty damage

as reportedBarrels spilled

(Haz Liq)Net barrels lost

(Haz Liq)

2010 586 22 108 $1,692,500,877 100,558 49,452

2011 592 14 56 $426,551,870 89,110 57,375

2012 573 12 57 $229,613,337 45,884 29,247

2013 619 9 44 $349,961,947 117,467 85,598

2014 707 19 95 $310,257,400 47,083 21,686

2015 715 12 49 $344,188,043 103,607 81,953

2016 635 17 82 $308,344,675 86,154 53,083

KEY: Haz Liq = Hazardous Liquid, LNG = Liquefied Natural Gas, R = revised, U = Data unavailable.

NOTES: Hazardous Liquid includes crude oil; refined petroleum products (e.g., gasoline, diesel, kerosene); highly volatile, flammable, and toxic liquids (e.g., propane); liquid carbon dioxide; and biodiesel. Gross Barrels Spilled is the amount before clean-up, whereas Net Barrels Lost is the amount after clean-up is attempted.

Incident means any of the following events: 1) An event that involves a release of gas from a pipeline, or of liquefied natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, refrigerant gas, or gas from an LNG facility, and that results in one or more of the following conse-quences: i) A death, or personal injury necessitating in-patient hospitalization; ii) Estimated property damage of $50,000 or more. Accident is a failure in a pipeline system in which there is a release of the hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide transported resulting in any of the following: a) Explosion or fire not intentionally set by the operator. b) Release of 5 gallons (19 liters) or more of hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide.

Please see the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration’s Incident Report Criteria History for a complete definition of past and present reporting requirements, which is available at https://hip.phmsa.dot.gov/Hip_Help/pdmpublic_inci-dent_page_allrpt.pdf as of April 2016.

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Transportation, Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, Office of Hazardous Materials Safety, HAZMAT Intelligence Portal. Available at https://hip.phmsa.dot.gov/ as of April 2017.

Anewchallengeforfreighttransportationsafetyrelatestoaccidentsinvolvingtankertrucksandtrainscarryinghazardousmaterials.Chapter3discussestherapidgrowthindomestictransportation,someofwhichinvolveshazardousmaterials.AccordingtotheCommodityFlowSurvey(CFS),liquidhazardousmaterialstonnageincreased15.6percentbetween2007and2012;partoftheincreasecouldbearesultofincreasedCFScoverage[USDOTBTS2015].Some58.7percentofhazardousliquidtonnagewasmovedbytruckand2.1percentbyrailin2012.Asforflammablesolids,railmoved32.9percentofthetonnageandtruckstransported

59.7percent.Liquidhazardousmaterialsincludegasoline,fueloils,andethanol,whileflammablesolidsincludemetalpowders,shavings,andcuttings;rubberscrap;andmoltensulfur,amongotherspontaneouscombustiblematerials.

Therehasbeenadramaticincreaseinhazardousliquidtraintraffic,asdiscussedinchapter3,andseveralderailmentsresultinginexplosionsandfireballshaveoccurredinthiscountry,resultinginevacuationsofseveralcommunities.InCanada,therailcatastropheinLac-Mégantic,Quebec,resultedin47deathsin2013.Seebox6-Eformoreonrailtankcarsafety.

https://hip.phmsa.dot.gov/Hip_Help/pdmpublic_incident_page_allrpt.pdf

https://hip.phmsa.dot.gov/Hip_Help/pdmpublic_incident_page_allrpt.pdf

https://hip.phmsa.dot.gov/

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Box 6-E Rail Tank Car SafetySection7308oftheFixing America’s Surface Transportation Act(FASTAct;P.L.114-94;December4,2015)requirestheU.S.Depart-mentofTransportation(DOT)toassembleandcollectdataonrailtankcarstransportingClass3flammableliquids.Theobjectiveofthislegis-lationistotracktheprogressinupgradingtherailtankcarfleettonewsafetyrequirements.Bytheendof2029,railtankcarscarryingclass3flammableliquidsmustmeettheDOT-117orDOT-117Rspecificationorequivalent.

AccordingtotherecentBTSreport,81,027tankcarswereusedin2016totransportClass3flammableliquids,accountingfor20percentofalltankcars.Mostofthesetankcarswerenon-jacketedDOT-111specification(53percentofthefleet),followedbythenon-jacketedCPC-1232(15percent)andthejacketedCPC-1232(10percent).1ThenewerDOT-117and117Rtankcarsgrewfromlessthan100carsin2013(76cars)to7,181tankcars,orapproximately9percentofthefleetusedtotransportClass3flammableliquidsin2016.

1Jacketedtankcarshavealayerofinsulation/ther-malprotectionbetweenthetankshellandjacketthatstabilizesthetemperatureoftheliquidcontainedinthetankcar,andreducetheconductivityofheatfromoutsidesourcestothecontentsofthetankcar.

Asoftheendof2016,9percentofthetankcarsusedtocarryClass3flammableliquidsmetthenewsafetyrequirements,adramaticincreasefromthe2percentin2015.AmongthefleetofrailtankcarsthatmeettheDOT-117specifica-tion,70percent(4,966tankcars)arenewand30percent(2,215tankcars)havebeenretrofitted.WhiletheDOT-117andDOT-117Rtankcarscarryavarietyofflammableliquids,nearly9outof10ofthesetankcarscarrycrudeoilorethanol(41percentand46percent,respectively).

Whilethenon-jacketedDOT-111tankcarsstillrepresentmostofthefleetusedtotransportflammableliquids,with42,714tankcarsinoperationin2016,theirnumbershavedeclinedsince2013when52,021DOT-111tankcars(66percentofthefleet)werereportedcarryingflammableliquidsontherailroads.Inaddition,thepercentageofnon-jacketedDOT-111carscarryingcrudeoilhasalsoshownanotice-abledecline.In2013,25percentofthesecarstransportedcrudeoilascomparedtolessthan1percentin2016.

ForthecompleteFleet Composition of Rail Tank Cars That Transport Flammable Liquids: 2013–2016 report,pleasevisittheBTSwebsiteathttp://www.bts.gov.

http://www.bts.gov

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FIGURE 6-13 Fleet Composition of Rail Tank Cars Carrying Class 3 Flammable Liquids: 2013–2016

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

2013

2014

2015

2016

Jacketed DOT-111 Non-Jacketed DOT-111 Jacketed CPC-1232 Non-Jacketed CPC-1232

N=81,027

N=92,358

N=90,520

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DOT-117 New DOT-117R Retro�t All Other Rail Tank

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chapter 6 transportation safety · fatal injury means any injury which results in death within 30...

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