chapter 8: growing tensions - weebly · chapter 8 growing tensions 185 the many buildings in this...

Why It MattersTensions increased between Texans and the Mexican government in the 1820s

and 1830s. Some Texans believed that separation from Mexico—even if itmeant war—was the only solution to their grievances. Other Texans believed it

was possible to remain a part of Mexico. Stephen F. Austin’s imprisonment inMexico City pushed many Texans into believing that war was necessary.

The Impact TodayAlmost all conflicts have two results that last longer than the wars themselves. First,

hatred and suspicion often remain on both sides. Second, acts of courage areremembered long after the war. The Texas Revolution had both results.

184 CHAPTER 8 Growing Tensions

1823 18261825

1828• Noah Webster published an American dictionary

1826★ The Fredonian Revolt

1825• World’s first publicrailroad opened in Great Britain

1828

1823★ Santa Anna rebels

against Mexico’s Emperor Augustín de Iturbide

GrowingTensions

185CHAPTER 8 Growing Tensions

The many buildings in this view of Mexico City in the 1830s indicatethe city’s wealth and importance.

TEXASHISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the texans.glencoe.comWeb site and click onChapter 8—ChapterOverviews to previewchapter information.

1831 1833

1830• Baltimore & Ohio Railroad opened first stretch of track

1830★ The Law of April 6 stopped

immigration from U.S.

1831• Cholera epidemic

spread to central Europe• London Bridge opened

1833• American Anti-Slavery Society formed

1833★ Convention of 1833

prepared constitution

1830

Step 1 Fold one sheet of paper in half fromside to side.

Cause-Effect Study FoldableMake this foldable to organize information anddescribe the events that led to growing tensionsin Texas during the 1820s and the 1830s.

Reading and Writing As you read this chapter,record information that you learn about theactions and reactions of Texans and the Mexicangovernment. Underline the actions and eventsyou have listed that led to war.

Step 2 Fold again, 1 inch from the top.(Tip: The middle knuckle of your index fingeris about 1 inch long.)

Step 3 Open and label as shown.

Fold the sheetvertically.

Draw linesalong thefold lines.

ACTIONS byTexas or Mexico REACTIONS

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Mexican governmentissues decreeabolishing slavery

Mexican government issues Law of April 6, 1830

The DifficultiesBegin

Guide to Reading

The Fredonian Revoltcollapses

Preview of Events

Differences Create TensionThe opening of Texas to settlement in the early 1820s resulted in major

changes. Trade expanded and the population grew. Farms and plan-tations produced corn, cotton, and sugarcane. At the same time,

The Mexican government, concerned about the growing Americaninfluence in East Texas, sent General Manuel de Mier y Terán (myehr eeteh•RAHN) on an inspection trip. “It is incredible,” he wrote in 1828, “thatthe export of deerskins in less than a year has risen to 40 thousand innumber. The export of bearskins amounts to 1,500. Otter and beaver havealmost been [wiped out] because of the relentless pursuit of Americantrappers.”

✦1830✦1827

General Manuel de Mier y Terán

✦1829

Lawof April 6, 1830

Life AfterLife Before

Main IdeaWhile the Anglo American colonistswere concerned about Mexican rule,the Mexican government was con-cerned about the growing Americaninfluence in Texas.

Key Termsdecree, exempt, customs duty

Reading StrategyAnalyzing Results As you read thissection, make a web like the onebelow, identifying ways the Law ofApril 6, 1830, changed colonists’ lives.

Read to Learn• about the Republic of Fredonia.• what Mier y Terán reported.• why the Law of April 6 was alarming

to the settlers.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions TheMexican government issued the Lawof April 6 to offset the growing influ-ence of Anglo American settlers.

differences arose between Mexican officialsand the Anglo American settlers.

During most of the 1820s, when the Federalistsheld power in Mexico, the colonists were leftalone. Anglo American settlers received landtitles, cleared fields, and built their homes. Theybegan to establish their own schools and news-papers. The colonists even brought in slaves, anaction the Mexican government opposed.

When the Centralist Party came to power in1829, it put an end to these independent acts. Itissued regulations to bring the states andprovinces of Mexico more under the authority ofthe national government. Most of the AngloAmerican colonists considered these regulationsto be unnecessary and unfair. A series of clasheseventually resulted in a revolution.

Analyzing When the CentralistParty came to power, what changed for the colonists?

Trouble Begins in East TexasThe first clash between colonists and Mexican

authorities came in 1826. The year before, theMexican government had awarded a vast tractof land in East Texas to an empresario namedHaden Edwards. Edwards was permitted to set-tle 800 families in the Nacogdoches area.

Edwards arrived in Nacogdoches in Septem-ber 1825. He discovered that there were alreadymany people living on his lands. His contractrequired him to recognize the rights of those

settlers who already held legal titles. Many of theearly settlers, however, did not have clear titles totheir property.

Edwards announced that all settlers mustshow their titles to him. All others would haveto move or acquire a title from him. Thisangered many of the settlers, who included fam-ilies from Louisiana. Also living in the area wereCherokees and Mexicans whose ancestors hadlived there for decades. Political Chief JoséAntonio Saucedo (sow•SAY•doh) sympathizedwith the settlers and told Edwards that he couldnot charge them for new land titles.

The Republic of FredoniaBenjamin Edwards, Haden’s brother, believed

that his only hope for solving the problem was todeclare the colony independent from Mexico. Hemade an alliance with Richard Fields, a Cherokeechief, and prepared for action.


Some of the immigrants looking for newhomes in Texas had been expelled from theUnited States. During the 1820s and 1830s,the United States removed many NativeAmericans from their homelands. South-eastern Native American people, such as the Cherokees, settled in Texas. NativeAmericans from as far away as the GreatLakes came to Mexican Texas, looking for a new home.

Haden Edwards and his wife show determinationin their faces. Paintings from this period oftenshowed people with their hands in their coatsbecause it was easier for the painter not to paintthe hands. Why would Haden Edwards need tobe a determined person?

History

On December 16, 1826, Edwards led a small group of 15 to 30 armed settlers in takingthe Old Stone Fort in Nacogdoches. Theyraised a red and white flag bearing the

words “Independence,Liberty, and Justice”and proclaimed the cre-ation of the Republicof Fredonia.

The Edwards broth-ers appealed for help from Austin’s colonyand from the United

States, but they received no assistance. Austineven offered to help the Mexican governmentput down the revolt. When Mexican troops fromSan Antonio approached Nacogdoches inJanuary 1827, the Fredonian Revolt collapsed.Some of the Fredonians were captured, but mostof them fled across the Sabine River into theUnited States.

Mier y Terán InvestigatesAlthough the Fredonian Revolt was a minor

event and most colonists had refused to supportEdwards, Mexican officials became worried.They thought the Fredonian Revolt was part ofan American scheme to acquire Texas. Two hun-dred Mexican soldiers, commanded by ColonelJosé de las Piedras (PYAY•drahs), were sent toNacogdoches to prevent new uprisings.

Mexican fears about Texas continued to grow.The U.S. ambassador to Mexico, AnthonyButler, proposed that Mexico sell Texas to the United States. This only reinforced Mexicansuspicions that the United States wanted Texas.The Mexican government sent an inspectionparty to investigate, led by the soldier and sci-entist General Manuel de Mier y Terán.

Mier y Terán observed that the AngloAmerican influence was strong in East Texassince Anglo American settlers outnumbered theMexican settlers by at least five to one.

In his report to the Mexican president, Mier yTerán expressed concern about the growingAmerican influence in Texas. He made recom-mendations to the government concerning thefuture of the area. Mier y Terán made it clearthat if the Mexican government did not act atonce, Texas would be “lost forever.”

Meanwhile, those colonists who held slaveswere worried about government efforts to abolishslavery. In 1829 thepresident of Mexicoissued a decree, or order, abolishing slav-ery. Texans tried to per-suade Mexican officialsto exempt, or excuse,Texas from the decree.Although never putinto effect in Texas, thedecree caused fearamong many of theAnglo American slaveholders. They believed thatit was only a matter of time before the decreewould apply to them, too.

Analyzing Why was AngloAmerican influence so strong in East Texas at this time?


Republic ofFredonia

Student WebActivity Visit thetexans.glencoe.com Website and click on Chapter 8—StudentWeb Activity to learnmore about theFredonian Revolt in Texas.

• The State Colonization Law of 1825encourages immigration.

• New Anglo American settlers faroutnumber Mexican residents.

• Mier y Terán’s report warns ofpossible loss of Texas.

• In the Law of April 6, 1830, Mexicoforbids immigration from the U.S.

• New limits on trade with U.S. sparkAnglo protests.

• Additional Mexican troops arrive inSan Antonio.

The Law of April 6, 1830, was the turning point inrelations between the Mexican government and colonists.

Analyzing Information Why did this law ultimatelyhave a negative effect?

Causes and Effects of Mexican/Anglo Conflict

TEXASHISTORY

http://www.glencoe.com/qe/qe31.php?&st=660&pt=2&bk=20

The Law of April 6, 1830On April 6, 1830, the Centralist government in

Mexico issued a law based on many of Mier yTerán’s recommendations. It stopped immigra-tion from the United States. It also suspendedmost empresario contracts that had not beencompleted. Instead, the government encouragedthe immigration of Mexican and European fami-lies to Texas with generous land grants andfinancial assistance. The law read in part:

The introduction of foreigners across thenorthern frontier is prohibited under any pre-text whatsoever, unless the said foreigners areprovided with a passport issued by the agents ofthis Republic . . . [I]t is prohibited that emi-grants from nations bordering on this Republicshall settle in the states or territories adjacent totheir own nation. Consequently, all contractsnot already completed and not in harmony withthis law are suspended.

—Texas Gazette, July 3, 1830

The law also set up new forts. Soldiers in theforts would prevent smuggling, the introduc-tion of slaves, and illegal land speculation.Mexico discouraged trade between foreignnations and Texas by placing taxes calledcustoms duties on goods made in foreignnations. Most Anglo American colonists consid-ered these actions unfair.

Settlers in Texas were alarmed by the Law of April 6, 1830. The prosperity of many citizensdepended upon continued growth and tradewith the United States. Many colonists hadfriends and relatives who wanted to come toTexas. The Law of April 6, 1830, was an earlyturning point in relations between the colonistsand the Mexican government. Each side beganto distrust the other. Stephen F. Austin was con-cerned and tried to negotiate with Mexican lead-ers. He soon realized, however, that seriousdamage had already occurred in relationsbetween Texas and the Mexican government.

Examining Why did the Mexicangovernment issue the Law of April 6, 1830?


Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Write a sen-

tence using the words exempt andcustoms duty(ies).

2. Reviewing Facts What was a dif-ference between the CentralistParty and the Federalist Party?

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions Why was

it so difficult for Anglo colonists toadjust to the Mexican government’srestrictions?

Organizing to Learn4. Sequencing Create a chart like the

one below and number thesestatements about the FredonianRevolt in chronological order.

Critical Thinking5. Analyzing What was the major

significance, or impact, of theFredonian Revolt? Consider therelationship between Texas andMexico in your answer.

Making Judgments The Law of April 6, 1830, introduced many changes.What parts of the Law of April 6 might anAnglo American farmer object to?

Mier y Terán was in Nacogdoches duringthe U.S. presidential election of 1828. Hecommented on it in his diary. The electionwas won by Andrew Jackson of Tennessee.All previous presidents had been from theAtlantic coastal states. Jackson’s electionmade it clear that the U.S. was looking westward.

Red and white flag wasraised at the Old StoneFort

Haden Edwards arrivedat Nacogdoches

Fredonians fled acrossthe Sabine River


June 26The Battle ofVelasco

October 1Austin is electedpresident of Conventionof 1832

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaAlthough conflicts continued in Texas,the colonists maintained their loyaltyto the Mexican government.

Key Termscommerce import skirmish resolution

Reading StrategyUnderstanding Cause and EffectCreate a chart like the one below andlist the effect of each event.

Read to Learn• about the Anahuac protest.• about the Turtle Bayou Resolutions.• about the Conventions of 1832 and

1833.

Section ThemeGovernment and Democracy Thecolonists and Mexico tried to resolvetheir differences.

June 13Turtle BayouResolutions areadopted

Preview of Events

April 1Convention of 1833 proposesMexican state of Texas

Settlers Protest at AnahuacThe first serious conflict over Mexico’s actions occurred at the port

town of Anahuac. Anahuac was the site of a small Mexican garrisonestablished to control commerce, or the movement of goods, into Mexico.

In 1828, General Mier y Terán reported to his government his views onsome of the Texas colonists. “Foreigners . . . have this frontier of our federa-tion open to them to enter without fulfilling the requirements of the law.This country is the asylum for fugitives from the neighboring republic [theUnited States] . . . [Farmers] settle where it suits them, and they take overwhatever land they desire without the alcalde’s approval and in defiance ofthe laws.”

✦1832 ✦1833

Event EffectAttempts to collectcustoms duties

Turtle Bayou Resolu-tions adopted

Conventions of 1832 and 1833

A covered wagon, c. 1820

Rebellions,1831–1832

It was commanded by John (Juan) DavisBradburn. A native of Virginia, Bradburn hadfought against Spain for Mexican independenceand was rewarded with the rank of colonel inthe Mexican army.

Bradburn quarreled with the colonists livingat Anahuac about several matters. The colonistsaccused him of taking supplies and refusing togive up runaway slaves. As commander of thegarrison, Bradburn believed in the strict enforce-ment of all Mexican laws.

The tax collector at Anahuac attempted tocollect customs duties on goods imported intoMexico from the United States. This angeredthe merchants because they would have totravel long distances to process the paperworkgiving permission for such goods to cross theborder into Mexico.

The final blow occurred in May 1832.Bradburn arrested and imprisoned two lawyers,William B. Travis and Patrick C. Jack, for inter-fering in his efforts to enforce the laws. About 160settlers in two groups marched to Anahuac,demanding Travis’s and Jack’s release. Frank W.Johnson and William H. Jack, the brother of oneof the prisoners, led one group from San Felipe.John Austin led the other party from Brazoria.

A small skirmish, or fight, occurred betweenthe colonists and Bradburn. Bradburn agreedto release the prisoners if the colonists retreatedfrom Anahuac. Not all the settlers withdrew,however. Bradburn refused to release the pris-oners and called in extra forces to strengthenhis position.

After another skirmish, the colonists realizedthat they needed more firepower. While thecolonists made camp at Turtle Bayou, betweenAnahuac and Liberty, John Austin went toBrazoria to bring back a cannon.

Colonists Adopt the TurtleBayou Resolutions

While the colonists waited for John Austin’sreturn, they adopted a number of statementsknown as the Turtle Bayou Resolutions onJune 13, 1832. In the formal statements, calledresolutions, the colonists declared their loyaltyto Mexico. They denied that they were rebellingagainst Mexican authority. Instead, the colonistsinsisted that they were supporting AntonioLópez de Santa Anna. Santa Anna was leading arevolt in Mexico against Centralist PresidentAnastasio Bustamante (boos•tah•MAHN•tay).Bustamante was unpopular with the colonistsbecause he was ignoring the federal Mexican


History

This cannon, an “eight pounder,” was used in various militaryskirmishes by Texas colonists against Mexican troops. This samecannon was very likely used at the Battle of the Alamo. Today, itis on public view in San Antonio. Why did the Texas colonistsneed to get the cannon from Brazoria?

Constitution of 1824. Santa Anna, on the otherhand, had promised to support this Texan-favored constitution.

Before John Austin and his group returnedwith the cannon, Colonel José de las Piedras, com-mander of the Mexican garrison at Nacogdoches,arrived at Anahuac. Colonel Piedras promised theTexans that Bradburn would be removed fromcommand. Piedras then released Travis and Jack.Bradburn resigned and left Texas. Soldiers atAnahuac declared support for Santa Anna andjoined his growing forces in Mexico.

Clash at VelascoAlthough peace and order were restored

at Anahuac, a clash did occur at Velasco onJune 26, 1832, near the mouth of the BrazosRiver. John Austin’s group had picked up acannon at Brazoria and loaded it onto aship. Judging them rebels, the Mexican comman-der, Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea(oo•gahr•teh•CHAY•ah), would not let thempass when they reached Velasco. Fighting eruptedbetween the Texans and the Mexican troops.

The fighting at the Battle of Velasco was bitter,with loss of life on both sides. When the Mexicangarrison exhausted its ammunition, Ugartecheasurrendered. Austin’s group then sailed on toAnahuac with the cannon, only to discover thatTravis and Jack had already been freed.

Meanwhile, those supporting Santa Annawere winning battles elsewhere, including one atNacogdoches. In late summer 1832, Bustamanteresigned as president of Mexico, and Santa Annabegan serving as president in 1833. Most Texascolonists were pleased. They thought SantaAnna would support Texas because he haddeclared himself to be a Federalist.

Analyzing Why did the colonistssupport Santa Anna in Mexico?

Conventions of 1832 and 1833Texans called a convention to discuss

changes needed in Texas. Fifty-eight delegatesto the convention assembled in San Felipe onOctober 1, 1832. Stephen F. Austin was electedpresident of the convention. The conventionresolved that Texas be made a separateMexican state and that immigration from theUnited States be permitted again. Also, the del-egates asked for an exemption from certainimport taxes, improved educational facilities,better protection from Native Americans, andland titles for settlers in East Texas. The con-vention selected William H. Wharton andRafael Manchola to present their resolutions toofficials in Mexico City. For various reasons,these resolutions were never presented to offi-cials in Mexico.


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The garrison at Anahuac was completed in 1831 as one of six garrisons built to enforce the Law of April 6, 1830. It overlooked the entrance to the TrinityRiver. Anahuac was the name of the ancient home of the Aztecs.Analyzing Location Why would Mexican authoritiesbuild the garrison at that location?

Battle

Trouble in Texas, 1831–1832

Note: Map showsdepartment boundariesas of 1834.

A few months later, another group of AngloAmerican colonists concerned with the situationin Texas called a convention at San Felipe onApril 1, 1833. Most of the delegates had notattended the previous convention. Among the new delegates was Sam Houston, represent-ing Nacogdoches.

The Convention of 1833 adopted resolutionslike those adopted in 1832. However, the con-

vention also prepared a constitution for the pro-posed Mexican state of Texas. Stephen F. Austin,Dr. James B. Miller, and Erasmo Seguín werechosen to carry the resolutions to Mexico City.Miller and Seguín were unable to make the tripat the time, so Austin made the journey alone.

Analyzing Why was Stephen F.Austin elected president of the 1832 convention?


Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Write in your

own words the definitions for theterms resolution, commerce,import, and skirmish.

2. Reviewing Facts Why were themerchants upset by the customsduties collected at Anahuac?

Reviewing Themes3. Government and Democracy

What did the colonists hope toexplain to the Mexican authoritiesby adopting the Turtle BayouResolutions?

Organizing to Learn4. Comparing and Contrasting

Create a chart like the one belowto compare the Conventions of1832 and 1833. Three issues arediscussed at both, one is exclusiveto the Convention of 1833. Place astar next to this one.

Critical Thinking5. Predicting Consequences The

text explains that the delegates tothe 1833 convention wrote a con-stitution for the proposed newstate of Texas. Do you think thiswould help or hurt the case for anindependent Mexican state? Givereasons for your answer.

Map Study What river formed thesouthern boundary of the Department ofBéxar?

Though he was born inVirginia and elected toseveral offices in the stateof Tennessee, Sam Houstonplayed a significant role inTexas history. After sever-al years as Tennessee’sgovernor, he moved toTexas where he becamecommander in chief of the

Texas armies in 1836. Hisarmy defeated Santa Annaon April 21, 1836, secur-ing Texas’s independence.The newly formed Republicof Texas elected Houstonits first president in 1836and reelected him in 1841.

When Texas became astate in 1845, Houston was

elected senator and laterbecame governor in 1859.He strongly opposed thesecession of Texas from theUnion and, when Texasvoted to separate, Houstonwas removed from office.He retired to Huntsville,Texas, where he lived untilhis death in 1863.

Sam Houston 1793–1863

Texas as a separate Mexican state

A constitution for the proposed Mexicanstate of Texas

Import taxes

Removal of the restrictions onimmigration


DecemberAustin is releasedfrom prison

Increased Tensions,1833–1835

Guide to ReadingMain IdeaConflicts increased as Santa Annaswitched to the Centralist Party.

Key Termscholerarepealmalariadictator

Reading StrategyAnalyzing As you read this section,draw a chart like the one below andinsert important events in either the“peace” or “war” category.

Read to Learn• why Stephen F. Austin was

imprisoned.• what action William B. Travis took.• about the Consultation.

Section ThemeGroups and Institutions As tensionsincreased, Texans aligned with eitherthe War Party or the Peace Party.

Cholera epidemicstrikes coastaltowns

Preview of Events

JuneConflict atAnahuac

NovemberConsultationmeets

Austin’s Mission Is StalledIn April 1833, Stephen F. Austin left San Felipe and began the long trip

to Mexico City. He arrived in the Mexican capital three months later, butSanta Anna was out of town. When Austin arrived, Santa Anna’sgovernment was not yet well organized. No plans had been made for deal-ing with the question of Texas. A cholera epidemic raged in the capital, and

General Mier y Terán warned his government to take immediate action if Mexico wanted to keep Texas. “From the state of affairs a [hatred] has emerged between Mexicans and foreigners . . . [I] tell you that, if timely measures are not taken, Tejas will pull down the entire[Mexican] federation.”

✦1833 ✦1835

Events Leading Events Leadingto Peace to War

JanuaryAustin is arrestedin Mexico

✦1834

Mexican creole landowner, c. 1820

History

Mexico City’s imposing cathedrals and monuments were just a few of thesights Stephen F. Austin might have seen on his journey to and from the city.How might what he saw in Mexico City influence his thoughts of Texas?

Stephen F. Austin’s diary

thousands of people were dying from thedeadly bacteria. Austin waited impatientlythrough October. After becoming discouragedby his lack of accomplishments, Austin wrote aletter to authorities in San Antonio describingthe difficulties he faced and encouragingTexans to form their own government.

Austin Is Imprisoned and ReleasedBy November 1833, the situation in Mexico

City seemed more hopeful. Santa Anna finallyhad returned to the capital and agreed to someof the reforms Austin requested. The presidentdid not grant Texas separate statehood. He waswilling, however, to repeal, or do away with,the law restricting immigration from theUnited States. Santa Anna also agreed toimprove the court and postal systems. Pleasedwith the work that he had done in Mexico City,Austin left the capital on December 10 to returnhome.

In January 1834, Austin reached the city ofSaltillo in northern Mexico. Because of a letterhe had written to authorities in San Antonio,he was arrested. Austin was taken to MexicoCity under guard. He remained in prison for

one year. While in prison, Austin wrote severalletters to his family and friends in Texas:

“I have no idea when I shall be at liberty . . . It is much in my favor that all remains quiet inTexas. I was confident that no friend of minewould try to get up an excitement but I fearedthat my enemies would. Such a thing wouldhave increased my difficulty, for I would havebeen blamed for it all. My confinement has beenvery rigid but I am in good health, and haveborne it with tolerable patience. I had no booksthe first month, and it was solitary enough—after that I prevailed on the sergeant to go to D. Victor Blanco who sent them—he and PadreMuldoon have been firm and unwavering intheir friendship to me in all this business.”

Local officials at various Texas towns began topress for Austin’s freedom. Ramón Músquiz(MOOS•kees), a political leader in San Antonioand a trusted friend, wrote to Mexican officialsrequesting that Austin be released. LawyersPeter W. Grayson and Spencer H. Jack went toMexico City to help.


On Christmas Day 1834, Mexican authoritiesagreed to release the prisoner on bail. Austinwas required to stay in Mexico City and wait forthe final decision on his case.

On July 11, 1835, Austin was given his com-plete freedom. He traveled to Vera Cruz, wherehe took passage on a ship returning to Texas.Austin landed in Texas on September 1, 1835. Hehad been away from his colony for two yearsand four months.

Questioning Was Austin successfulat convincing Santa Anna to approve the reforms?

Reforms Begin in TexasWhile Austin was in Mexico, changes

occurred in Texas. The cholera epidemic of 1833struck New Orleans, San Antonio, Matamoros,Monclova, and Mexico City, as well as theBrazoria area. There, over 80 people died,including eight members of the Austin family.Heavy rains in the autumn of 1833 and manycases of malaria, a disease carried by mosqui-toes, added to the suffering.

Unfortunately, the practice of medicine was notvery sophisticated at this time. Training was poor,and most Texas doctors had to work as farmers ormerchants in addition to treating patients. Theyset bones, extracted bullets, amputated limbs toprevent gangrene, and prescribed drugs to reducefever or relieve pain. The most common diseasesof the time were malaria, yellow fever, andcholera. Many of the medicines used to treat thesediseases, however, proved to be highly danger-ous. For example, mercury, a common “cure,”destroyed the patient’s gums and intestines.

The year 1834 was better in Texas. The choleraepidemic ended, and the weather improved.The reforms Santa Anna had promised began.These included recognizing English as an offi-cial language for transactions, allowing immi-gration from the United States, improving thecourt system, and increasing the numberof Texas representatives in the state legislatureof Coahuila from one to three. In addition, reli-gious tolerance was granted.

Although Texans had continued to be con-cerned about Austin’s imprisonment during1834, they were hopeful about their own situation. They believed that relations withthe national government were improving. Mexico had sent Colonel Juan Almonte(ahl•MOHN•tay) on an inspection tour of Texas

in 1834. Almonte hadreported that all wasquiet in Texas andurged that reforms becontinued. He had also recommended thatAustin be released fromprison. The plea was ig-nored at that time.

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By 1834 Texas was divided into the departments ofBéxar, Brazos, and Nacogdoches. As part of Santa Anna’sreforms of 1834, a representative from each departmentof Texas would sit in the legislature.Identifying Through what departments does theTrinity River flow?

Department of Béxar

Department of Brazos

Department of Nacogdoches

Coahuila

Coahuila and the Departments of Texas


Trouble Erupts AgainIn early 1835, the troubles between Mexico

and the Texas colonists broke out once againaround Anahuac. Captain Antonio Tenorio wasthe commander of the garrison there.

Local residents at Anahuac, led by a merchantnamed Andrew Briscoe, quarreled with Tenorioabout customs duties. They argued that thesetaxes were not being collected in other ports inTexas, and they refused to pay the duties untilthe law was enforced equally. This angeredTenorio, who arrested Briscoe.

Briscoe’s arrest caused resentment among thecolonists. In late June, a group in San Felipe, ledby William B. Travis, decided to take action.They went to Anahuac and forced Tenorio tosurrender. In addition, Tenorio and his soldiersagreed to leave Texas.

Some Texans did not approve of the actionstaken by Travis. Several towns adopted resolu-tions assuring the Mexican government of theirloyalty. Local leaders at San Felipe wrote a letterof apology to General Martín Perfecto de Cós,Santa Anna’s brother-in-law and commander ofthe Mexican forces in Coahuila.

Describing What reforms did SantaAnna make in 1834?

General Cós Rejects the ApologyGeneral Cós was in no mood for an apology.

He was upset by the fiery words of the Texans.He demanded that Texas officials arrest thoseinvolved in the disturbances, including WilliamB. Travis, Frank W. Johnson, and Samuel M.Williams. General Cós wanted them turned overto the military for trial. In doing so, he was act-ing on Santa Anna’s orders. Santa Anna was nolonger a Federalist; he had become a Centralist.

Cós also ordered the arrest of Lorenzo deZavala, a distinguished Mexican politician.Zavala had helped to frame the MexicanConstitution of 1824. He had been critical ofrecent actions of Santa Anna in Mexico and hadmoved to Texas for safety. Cós announced thathe was taking many soldiers to Texas to arrestthose he considered disloyal.

Texans Call for a ConsultationCós’s actions caused great concern in Texas.

Texans were not willing to turn their friends over to a Mexican mili-tary court. On August15, 1835, leaders in thetown of Columbia is-sued a call for a conven-tion so the people coulddiscuss the situation.This convention was tobe known as the Consultation and was to meet atWashington-on-the-Brazos on October 15.

The colonists had mixed reactions. One groupof colonists, known as the Peace Party, fearedthat the Consultation might cause trouble.

Another group, known as the War Party,favored the Consultation. This party was led bysettlers who had been disappointed when theMexican government stopped issuing contractsfor lands in Texas. Leaders like William H.Wharton and William B. Travis favored animmediate declaration of independence fromMexico, even if this meant war.

When Stephen F. Austin arrived from Mexico,the call for the Consultation had already goneout. The invitation noted that the delegatesshould work for a peaceful solution if it could besecured on agreeable terms. The invitation also


Washington-on-the-Brazos

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History

Samuel M. Williams (left) and Frank W. Johnson (right)followed the leadership of William B. Travis in drivingCaptain Tenorio from Anahuac. What was General Cós’sreaction to this disturbance?

Checking for Understanding1. Using Key Terms Write one sen-

tence each for the following threeterms: repeal, malaria, dictator.

2. Reviewing Facts Why was StephenF. Austin stopped at Saltillo andreturned to Mexico City?

Reviewing Themes3. Groups and Institutions Who

were the colonists who favoredholding the Consultation? Werethey members of the Peace Partyor the War Party?

Organizing to Learn4. Sequencing Place the letters rep-

resenting the following events inthe proper chronological order onthe time line to show what StephenF. Austin encountered between1833 and 1835.

a. Began trip to Mexico Cityb. Returned to Texasc. Arrested and imprisonedd. Wrote a letter to local

authoritiese. Traveled to Vera Cruz

Critical Thinking5. Identifying Cause and Effect

While he was in Mexico City, whatdid Stephen F. Austin write in hisletter to the authorities in SanAntonio that caused him to bearrested and imprisoned?

Analyzing Compare the statements byStephen F. Austin on page 195 (“Austin IsImprisoned and Released”) with theremarks he made in the quoted passageabove. Why did Stephen F. Austin’s atti-tude change between those times?


Antonio López de SantaAnna was born in VeraCruz. At age 16 he beganhis long military career.During his life, he servedas a president of Mexico11 times.

He refused to accept theMexican Constitution of1824 and, when Anglos and

Mexicans in Texas revoltedagainst the Mexican gov-ernment in 1835, SantaAnna led the attack on theTexans defending theAlamo the next year. Later,he fought against SamHouston at the Battle ofSan Jacinto where SantaAnna’s capture was a great

victory for the Texans.Houston spared the life ofSanta Anna, who laterreturned to Mexico, wherehe continued in politics andeventually came to poweras president again. Over-thrown in 1855, Santa Annadied in poverty in MexicoCity on June 21, 1876.

Santa Anna 1794–1876

urged the delegates to “prepare for war—if waris inevitable.”

Leaders of the Peace Party were hopeful thatAustin would oppose the Consultation and thatthe meeting would not be held. Austin, how-ever, gave his approval to the Consultation.Austin had become convinced that Santa Annawas becoming a dictator (a ruler with absolutepower). He worried about the decision to sendlarge numbers of troops to Texas. After long

consideration, Austin believed the time had cometo act. He urged the people to unite:

“War is our only recourse. There is no otherremedy. We must defend our rights, ourselves,and our country by force of arms.”

Analyzing What brought about theConsultation meeting?

Recognizing Bias

Recognizing Bias In “A Texas Story” in Section 2(page 190), General Manuel de Mier y Terán wrote a let-ter on July 7, 1828, about foreign settlers in Texas.Review the passage and answer the following questions.

1. What country does Mier y Terán represent?2. How might his background reflect his views?3. Does any information appear to be inaccurate? If

so, which information?Glencoe’s Skillbuilder Interactive Workbook,Level 1, provides instruction and practice in keysocial studies skills.

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

199

Texas schoolteacher with students

Why Learn This Skill?Most people have a point of view, or bias, which

influences the way they understand and write aboutevents. Recognizing bias helps you judge the accuracyof what you hear or read.

Learning the SkillTo recognize bias, follow these steps:•Examine the author’s identity and how his or her

views and particular interests could show a bias.•Identify statements of fact.•Identify expressions of opinion or emotion.•Determine the author’s point of view and how it is

reflected in the work.

Practicing the SkillMary Helm was an Anglo New York schoolteacher.

Read her account of life among Native Americansafter she moved to Texas. Use the steps given above toanswer the questions that follow.

“It was amusing to see [Native Americans]parade the streets of Matagorda with their . . .garments, which I had made for them, the tailstipped with ornamental feathers. One of theyoung women learned to speak very goodEnglish . . . and one day [I] thought to havesome fun with her, [so I] invited her to take tea with me. But the joke turned to my ownexpense, for she not only used her knife and fork properly but her cup, saucer and plate . . .”

—Scraps of Early Texas History, 1884

1To what ethnic group did Mary Helm belong?

2Why did she invite a Native American woman tohave tea, and how did the woman act?

3Analyze Mary Helm’s attitude about NativeAmericans based on this account.

Reviewing Key TermsWith a partner, make 16 flash cards. Write one term from thelist below on each of the first eight cards. On the eight cardsthat remain, write the definitions, one per card. Quiz oneanother by matching the words with the correct definitions.

1. decree 5. resolution2. exempt 6. skirmish3. repeal 7. customs duty4. malaria 8. dictator

Reviewing Key Facts9. What was the source of conflict between the Edwards

brothers and the Mexican government?10. Name two groups that declined to help the Edwards

brothers in the Fredonian Revolt.11. What recommendation was made by Mier y Terán

concerning the control of Texas?12. In the Law of April 6, 1830, what specific actions did the

Mexican government take?13. What was the purpose of the Turtle Bayou Resolutions?14. When Stephen F. Austin arrived in Mexico City, what

problems were present?

Critical Thinking15. Predicting Consequences What was the attitude of the

Mexican authorities toward Texas during the early colo-nial years? What effect did this have on the colonists?

16. Identifying Cause and Effect The Law of April 6, 1830,was described as “an early turning point in relationsbetween the colonists and the Mexican government.”Why do you think this law had such an effect?

17. Comparing Compare the views of the Mexican govern-ment and the Anglo American colonists after theFredonian Revolt. Use a chart like the one below toorganize your responses.

18. Generalizing Why was it so difficult for Anglo Americancolonists to adjust to the restrictions placed on them bythe Mexican government?

19. Making Predictions How did William B. Travis’s actionsat Anahuac in 1835 cause problems?

Growing Tensions

Views After the Fredonian RevoltMexican government Anglo American colonists

Growing Tensions1826• Haden Edwards and his family declare independence from Mexico in the unsuccessful Fredonian Revolt.

1829• The Centralist Party comes to power in Mexico.

1830• Mexico issues the Law of April 6 to stop immigration from the U.S.

1832• American colonists adopt the Turtle Bayou Resolutions in support of Santa Anna.• The Battle at Velasco between Texans and Mexican troops is caused by Ugartechea’s refusal to let the Texans’ ship pass by Velasco.• The Convention of 1832 calls for reforms in Texas.

1833• Santa Anna becomes president of Mexico.• The Convention of 1833 calls for a new state of Texas separate from Coahuila.

1834• Stephen F. Austin is imprisoned in Mexico City when his letter urging Texans to form their own government is discovered.

1835• Troubles erupt in Anahuac between Texans and Mexicans over taxes.• Texans form the Consultation to discuss Mexican actions.• Stephen F. Austin returns to Texas and calls for war.

200

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Geography and History Activity20. Draw a chart that gives examples of Anglo influence in

Texas. Then use information from the chapter to createa map that shows where Anglo influences would bestrongest in Texas. Include a key or legend.

Portfolio/TAKS Writing Activity21. Writing a Newspaper Article Imagine you are a

reporter covering events in Texas in 1834 and 1835. Writean article about the trouble between Texas and Mexico inwhich you present the point of view of each side. Youmay want to directly quote from your “personal inter-views” with colonists and Mexican officials. Use standardgrammar, spelling, sentence structure, and punctuation.

Building Technology Skills22. Using a Word Processor Use a word processing pro-

gram (such as Microsoft Word) to type your “PortfolioWriting Activity.” Be sure to check your spelling with thespellchecker, and you may want to use the thesaurus(either online or on your toolbar) to help locate alterna-tive words for your article.

Practicing Skills23. Recognizing Bias To determine the accuracy of what you

hear or read, it is important to recognize the bias, or pointof view, of the author. Read the statement below by JohnHolland Jenkins, an Anglo American settler who was 13years old in 1835. Then answer the questions that follow.

“We come now to the fall of 1835, when without reservationor mercy Mexico threw aside all obligation involved in thetreaty of 1824 and became so [unjust] in her dealings withTexas, as to venture to seal her authority even by force ofarms . . . This unwarrantable piece of tyranny and oppressionof course aroused every loyal Texan, and there was a generalrallying to arms and preparation for war.”

—From Recollections of Early Texas, 1885a. How does the writer describe Mexico’s treatment of

Texas at that time?b. Why does the writer hold these opinions about Mexico?c. What information in this statement is likely to be

accurate?d. What information in this statement constitutes an

expression of emotion?

Self-Check QuizVisit the texans.glencoe.com Web site and click onChapter 8—Self-Check Quizzes to prepare for thechapter test.

TEXAS HISTORY

Use the graph to answer the following question.

In East Texas, most early settlers F strongly supported their Mexican heritage.G fled hardships or persecution in Europe.H supported Anglo American schools and newspapers.J supported the Mexican government’s decision to

abolish slavery.

Test-Taking Tip:

In this question you are being asked to make aninference based on the type of data presented.

According to the graph, most of the settlers wereAnglo American. What logical inference can you make

about how they would act or feel? Can you inferanything about their personal beliefs or histories?

Anglo American Settlers76.92%

African AmericanSettlers 3.85%

Mexican Settlers 19.23%

Source: A Hypertext on American History from the colonial period untilModern Times, Department of Humanities Computing, University of Groningen,The Netherlands, 1999.

Based on An Outline of American History, the U.S. Information Agency.

East Texas, c. 1835


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