chapter 8: human memory. human memory: basic questions how does information get into memory? how is...
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Chapter 8: Human Memory
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Human Memory: Basic Questions
• How does information get into memory?• How is information maintained in memory?• How is information pulled back out of
memory?
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Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory
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Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory
• The role of attention• Focusing awareness• Selective attention = selection of input
– Filtering: early or late?
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Figure 7.3 Models of selective attention
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Levels of Processing:Craik and Lockhart (1972)
• Incoming information processed at different levels
• Deeper processing = longer lasting memory codes
• Encoding levels:– Structural = shallow– Phonemic = intermediate– Semantic = deep
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Figure 7.4 Levels-of-processing theory
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Figure 7.5 Retention at three levels of processing
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Enriching Encoding: Improving Memory
• Elaboration = linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding– Thinking of examples
• Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered– Easier for concrete objects: Dual-coding
theory• Self-Referent Encoding
– Making information personally meaningful
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Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory
• Analogy: information storage in computers ~ information storage in human memory
• Information-processing theories– Subdivide memory into 3 different stores
• Sensory, Short-term, Long-term• Atkinson and Shiffrin
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Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage
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Sensory Memory
• Brief preservation of information in original sensory form
• Auditory/Visual – approximately ¼ second
George Sperling (1960)• Classic experiment on visual sensory store
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Figure 7.8 Sperling’s (1960) study of sensory memory
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Short Term Memory (STM)
• Limited capacity – magical number 7 plus or minus 2– Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for
storage as a single unit• Limited duration – about 20 seconds
without rehearsal– Rehearsal – the process of repetitively
verbalizing or thinking about the information
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Figure 7.9 Peterson and Peterson’s (1959) study of short-term memory
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Short-Term Memory as “Working Memory”
• STM not limited to phonemic encoding• Loss of information not only due to decay• Baddeley (1986) – 3 components of working
memory– Phonological rehearsal loop– Visuospatial sketchpad– Executive control system
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Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity
• Permanent storage?– Flashbulb memories– Recall through hypnosis
• Debate: are STM and LTM really different?– Phonemic vs. Semantic encoding– Decay vs. Interference based forgetting
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How is Knowledge Representedand Organized in Memory?
• Clustering and Conceptual Hierarchies• Schemas and Scripts• Semantic Networks• Connectionist Networks and PDP Models
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Retrieval: Getting InformationOut of Memory
• The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon – a failure in retrieval– Retrieval cues
• Recalling an event– Context cues
• Reconstructing memories– Misinformation effect
• Source monitoring, reality monitoring
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Forgetting: When Memory Lapses
• Retention – the proportion of material retained– Recall – Recognition – Relearning
• Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
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Figure 7.16 Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve for nonsense syllables
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Figure 7.17 Recognition versus recall in the measurement of retention
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Why Do We Forget?
• Ineffective Encoding• Decay theory• Interference theory
– Proactive– Retroactive
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Figure 7.19 Retroactive and proactive interference
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Figure 7.20 Estimates of the prevalence of childhood physical and sexual abuse
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Retrieval Failure
• Encoding Specificity• The encoding specificity principle holds that the effectiveness of
a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code that represents the stored item…the closer a retrieval cue is to the way we encode the info, the better we are able to remember.
• Transfer-Appropriate Processing• The transfer-appropriate processing theory holds that when the initial
processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention, retrieval is easier.
• Repression– Authenticity of repressed memories?– Memory illusions– Controversy
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Figure 7.22 The prevalence of false memories observed by Roediger and McDermott (1995)
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The Physiology of Memory
• Biochemistry– Alteration in synaptic transmission
• Hormones modulating neurotransmitter systems
• Protein synthesis• Neural circuitry
– Localized neural circuits• Reusable pathways in the brain• Long-term potentiation
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The Physiology of Memory
• Anatomy– Anterograde and Retrograde Amnesia
• Cerebral cortex, Prefrontal cortex, Hippocampus,
• Dentate gyrus, Amygdala, Cerebellum
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Figure 7.23 The anatomy of memory
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Figure 7.25 Retrograde versus anterograde amnesia
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Are There Multiple Memory Systems?
• Declarative vs. Procedural• Semantic vs. Episodic• Prospective vs. Retrospective
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Figure 7.26 Theories of independent memory systems
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Improving Everyday Memory
• Engage in adequate rehearsal• Distribute practice and minimize interference• Emphasize deep processing and transfer-
appropriate processing• Organize information• Use verbal mnemonics• Use visual mnemonics