Chapter 8 Language and societyChapter 8 Language and society

Sociolinguistics ---- a sub-field of linguistics that sSociolinguistics ---- a sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, tudies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structbetween the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.ures in which the users of language live.

TThe relatedness between language and society he relatedness between language and society

----There are many indications of the inter-relationship ----There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. between language and society.

Language is often used to establish and maintain Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships. (e.g. greeting)social relationships. (e.g. greeting)

The use of language is in part determined by the The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, user’s social background. (social class, age, sex, education level, etc.)education level, etc.)

Language, reflects both the physical and the social Language, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo) environments of a society. (“snow” for Eskimo)

the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social ( the postvocalic [r] ).( the postvocalic [r] ).

Speech community and speech varietySpeech community and speech variety

Speech communitySpeech community ---- the social group that is ---- the social group that is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is singled out for any special sociolinguistic study is called the speech community. called the speech community.

Speech variety or language variety---- any Speech variety or language variety---- any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three a group of speakers. In sociolinguistic study three types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. types of speech variety are of special interest, i.e. regional dialects, sociolects and registers.regional dialects, sociolects and registers.

Two approaches to sociolinguistic studiesTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies

Macro sociolinguistics, i.e. a bird’s-eye Macro sociolinguistics, i.e. a bird’s-eye view of the languages used in society;view of the languages used in society;

Micro sociolinguistics, i.e. a worm’s-eye Micro sociolinguistics, i.e. a worm’s-eye view of language in use.view of language in use.

Varieties of languageVarieties of language

Dialectal varieties Dialectal varieties Register Register Degree of formality Degree of formality

Dialectal varietiesDialectal varieties Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the

same geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.).same geographical region(e.g. Br.E. & Am.E.). Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social Sociolect is a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social

class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation)class. (e.g. Received Pronunciation) Language and gender (e.g. intonation, lexicon)Language and gender (e.g. intonation, lexicon) Language and age (Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----Language and age (Lexical difference: icebox---- fridge, wireless----

boombox)boombox) Idiolect---- a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines Idiolect---- a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines

elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations(e.g. Hemingway, Luxun).Hemingway, Luxun).

Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional Ethnic dialect----a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation (e.g. Black English). or segregation (e.g. Black English).

RegisterRegister Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of Register, in a restricted sense, refers to the variety of

language related to one’s occupation.language related to one’s occupation. In a broader sense, according to Halliday, In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language “language

varies as its function varies; it differs in different varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.”situations.” The type of language which is selected as The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.appropriate to the type of situation is a register.

Halliday further distinguishes three social variables Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of field of discourse, tenor of discourse, mode of discourse. discourse, mode of discourse.

Three social variablesThree social variables Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation Field of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation

of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose (why)(why) and subject matter and subject matter (about what)(about what) of communication. It of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.)can be either technical or non-technical.)

Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: in question: whowho are the participants in the communication are the participants in the communication and and in what relationshipin what relationship they stand to each other. they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)(customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.)

Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is Mode of discourse: the means of communication. It is concerned withconcerned with how how communication is carried out. (oral, communication is carried out. (oral, written, on the line…) written, on the line…)

Degree of formality Degree of formality

----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos)----Five stages of formality (Martin Joos) Intimate: Intimate: Up you go, chaps!Up you go, chaps! Casual: Casual: Time you all went upstairs now.Time you all went upstairs now. Consultative: Consultative: Would you mind going upstairs right away, Would you mind going upstairs right away,

please?please? Formal: Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once.Visitors should go up the stairs at once. Frozen: Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the upper Visitors would make their way at once to the upper

floor by way of the staircase.floor by way of the staircase. ----Note: Different styles of the same language can be ----Note: Different styles of the same language can be

characterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, characterized through differences at three levels: syntactic, lexical and phonological(P121).lexical and phonological(P121).

Standard dialectStandard dialect

The standard variety is a superimposed, socially The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second where the language is taught as a foreign or second language. language.

Pidgin and CreolePidgin and Creole

A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or A pidgin is a special language variety that mixes or blends languages and it is used by people who speak blends languages and it is used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.trading.

When a pidgin has become the primary language of When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.it is said to have become a Creole.

Bilingualism and Diglossia Bilingualism and Diglossia

In some speech communities, two languages are used side In some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. This language switching occurs when the situation changes. This constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.constitutes the situation of Bilingualism.

According to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a According to Ferguson (1959), diglossia refers to a sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But in stead sociolinguistic situation similar to bilingualism. But in stead of two different languages, in a diglossia situation of two different languages, in a diglossia situation two two varieties of a languagevarieties of a language exist side by side throughout the exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play. community, with each having a definite role to play.

The role of native languageThe role of native language in 2nd language learning in 2nd language learning

Language transfer: positive & negative (behaviorism)Language transfer: positive & negative (behaviorism) Mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language Mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language

transfer; transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental transfer; transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental process.process.

Three interacting factors in determining language transfer:Three interacting factors in determining language transfer: A learner’s psychologyA learner’s psychology Perception of native-target language distancePerception of native-target language distance Actual knowledge of the target languageActual knowledge of the target language

2nd language learning models and input hypothesis2nd language learning models and input hypothesis

Behaviorism model emphasizes the role of imitation and Behaviorism model emphasizes the role of imitation and positive reinforcement, a “nurture” position;positive reinforcement, a “nurture” position;

The mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position The mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position by stressing that human beings equipped innately with by stressing that human beings equipped innately with language acquisition device, are capable of language language acquisition device, are capable of language learning provided with adequate language input. learning provided with adequate language input.

The social interactionists argue that language and social The social interactionists argue that language and social interaction cannot be separated.interaction cannot be separated.

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

Krashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning.Krashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning. He put forward that learners advance their language He put forward that learners advance their language

learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input.learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input. He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” :He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” : “ “i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next

stage is an “i + 1”.stage is an “i + 1”. Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.

Individual differencesIndividual differences

Language aptitude Language aptitude Motivation Motivation Learning strategies Learning strategies Age of acquisition Age of acquisition Personality Personality

Language aptitudeLanguage aptitude

Language aptitude refers to a natural ability for Language aptitude refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence. John related to a learner’s general intelligence. John Carroll identified some components of language Carroll identified some components of language aptitude:aptitude:

Phonemic coding abilityPhonemic coding ability Grammatical sensitivityGrammatical sensitivity Inductive language learning abilityInductive language learning ability Rote learning abilityRote learning ability

MotivationMotivation

Motivation can be defined as the learner’s attitudes Motivation can be defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive. It has a strong and affective state or learning drive. It has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language. impact on his efforts in learning a second language. Generally four types of motivations have been Generally four types of motivations have been identified:identified:

Instrumental motivationInstrumental motivation Integrative motivationIntegrative motivation Resultative motivationResultative motivation Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation

Learning strategiesLearning strategies Learning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented Learning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented

and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. According to Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990), efficiency. According to Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990), three types of strategies have been identified:three types of strategies have been identified:

Cognitive strategies ---- analyzing,synthesis and Cognitive strategies ---- analyzing,synthesis and internalizing what has been learned.internalizing what has been learned.

Metacognitive strategies ---- planning, monitoring and Metacognitive strategies ---- planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.evaluating one’s learning.

Affect/social strategies ---- the ways learners interact with Affect/social strategies ---- the ways learners interact with other speakers.other speakers.

Cohen (1998) further distinguishes language learning Cohen (1998) further distinguishes language learning strategies and language using strategies.strategies and language using strategies.

Age of acquisition Age of acquisition

The Critical Period Hypothesis The Critical Period Hypothesis

Recent studies support the hypothesis that in terms Recent studies support the hypothesis that in terms of learning achievement and grammaticality the of learning achievement and grammaticality the younger learners outperform the adults.younger learners outperform the adults.

Personality Personality

In terms of communicative ability rather than In terms of communicative ability rather than grammatical accuracy or knowledge of grammatical accuracy or knowledge of grammatical rules, the personality traits such grammatical rules, the personality traits such as extroversion, talkative, self-esteem, self-as extroversion, talkative, self-esteem, self-confidence can be found in successful second confidence can be found in successful second language learners language learners ( as in the case of Liyang: ( as in the case of Liyang: Crazy English).Crazy English).

SLA & its pedagogical implicationsSLA & its pedagogical implications