Chapter 8Language & Thinking

LanguageLanguage

Communication: the sending and receiving Communication: the sending and receiving of informationof information Language: the primary mode of communication Language: the primary mode of communication

among humansamong humans A systematic way of communicating information A systematic way of communicating information

using symbols and rules for combining them using symbols and rules for combining them Speech: oral expression of languageSpeech: oral expression of language

Approximately 5,000 spoken languages exist today. Approximately 5,000 spoken languages exist today.

Language & the BrainLanguage & the Brain

Broca’s area: Broca’s area: small clump of neurons near front of small clump of neurons near front of brainbrain

Influences brain areas that control the muscles of the lips, Influences brain areas that control the muscles of the lips, jaw, tongue, soft palate, and vocal cords during speech; jaw, tongue, soft palate, and vocal cords during speech; thus, Broca's area is important in language production.thus, Broca's area is important in language production.

May also be involved when using grammatical language May also be involved when using grammatical language rules in both producing and comprehending sentences. rules in both producing and comprehending sentences.

Wernicke’s area: Wernicke’s area: connected by nerve bundle to Broca’s connected by nerve bundle to Broca’s areaarea

Important for language comprehensionImportant for language comprehension

Broca’s & Wernicke’s Broca’s & Wernicke’s Areas Areas

Do Animals Use Language?Do Animals Use Language?

Since 1930s, numerousSince 1930s, numerous attempts have been made attempts have been made to teach language to a few select species.to teach language to a few select species.

The most appropriate conclusion to draw:The most appropriate conclusion to draw:

Nonhuman species show no capacity to produce Nonhuman species show no capacity to produce language on their own, butlanguage on their own, but

Certain species can be taught to produce Certain species can be taught to produce languagelike communication.languagelike communication.

Infants Born Prepared Infants Born Prepared to Learn Languageto Learn Language

Language acquisition – learning vs. inborn Language acquisition – learning vs. inborn capacitiescapacities Behaviorism’s language theory Behaviorism’s language theory

People speak as they do because they have been People speak as they do because they have been reinforced for doing so. reinforced for doing so.

Behaviorists assumed children were relatively passive.Behaviorists assumed children were relatively passive. The problem with this theory is that it does not fit the The problem with this theory is that it does not fit the

evidence.evidence. Operant conditioning principles do not play the primary Operant conditioning principles do not play the primary

role in language development.role in language development.

Infants Born Prepared to Learn LanguageInfants Born Prepared to Learn Language

The nativist perspective: The nativist perspective: Language Language development proceeds according to an inborn development proceeds according to an inborn

program. program. Language Acquisition Device (Noam Chomsky): humans Language Acquisition Device (Noam Chomsky): humans

are born with specialized brain structures (Language are born with specialized brain structures (Language Acquisition Device) that facilitates the learning of Acquisition Device) that facilitates the learning of language. language.

Interactionist perspectives: Interactionist perspectives: Propose environmental and biological factors interact Propose environmental and biological factors interact

together to affect the course of language development. together to affect the course of language development. SocialSocial interactionist perspective strongly influenced by interactionist perspective strongly influenced by

Lev Vygotsky’s writingsLev Vygotsky’s writings

Infants Born Prepared Infants Born Prepared to Learn Languageto Learn Language

Assessing the three perspectives on language Assessing the three perspectives on language acquisition:acquisition: General consensus:General consensus:

Behaviorists place too much emphasis on conditioning Behaviorists place too much emphasis on conditioning principles.principles.

Nativists don’t give enough credit to environmental Nativists don’t give enough credit to environmental influences. influences.

Interactionist approaches may offer best possible Interactionist approaches may offer best possible solution.solution.

Stages of Language Stages of Language DevelopmentDevelopment

All human languages are composed of:All human languages are composed of:

Phonemes: smallest sound units in speechPhonemes: smallest sound units in speech

Morphemes: smallest units that carry meaningMorphemes: smallest units that carry meaning

Stages of Language DevelopmentStages of Language Development Language development begins with children Language development begins with children

using primitive-sounding phonemes. using primitive-sounding phonemes. One-word stage—use only one-word phrases. One-word stage—use only one-word phrases. Consequently, they overextend their words—application Consequently, they overextend their words—application

of the process of assimilation. of the process of assimilation. By the age of 2—two-word stage—begin using two By the age of 2—two-word stage—begin using two

separate words in the same sentence. separate words in the same sentence. A phase of telegraphic speech beginsA phase of telegraphic speech begins. .

Child-directed speech—motherese Child-directed speech—motherese Parents help infants recognize specific language forms Parents help infants recognize specific language forms

and skills necessary for future language learning by the and skills necessary for future language learning by the way they talk to them (slowly, high pitch, simple words, way they talk to them (slowly, high pitch, simple words, heightened expression). heightened expression).

The Linguistic Relativity The Linguistic Relativity HypothesisHypothesis

Does language determine thought? Does language determine thought? Benjamin Lee Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesisBenjamin Lee Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis

Proposed that the structure of language Proposed that the structure of language determinesdetermines the the structure of thoughtstructure of thought ( (without a word to describe an experience, without a word to describe an experience, you cannot think about it).you cannot think about it).

However, research indicates that just because a language lacks However, research indicates that just because a language lacks terms for stimuli does not mean that language users cannot terms for stimuli does not mean that language users cannot perceive features of the stimuli. perceive features of the stimuli.

The answer is The answer is nono. Most psychologists believe in a weaker . Most psychologists believe in a weaker version of Whorf’s hypothesis—that language can version of Whorf’s hypothesis—that language can influenceinfluence thinking. thinking.

ThinkingThinking

Thinking—cognitionThinking—cognition The mental activity of knowingThe mental activity of knowing The processes through which knowledge is The processes through which knowledge is

acquiredacquired The processes through which problems are The processes through which problems are

solved solved

Concept FormationConcept Formation

Concept: a mental grouping of objects, ideas, or Concept: a mental grouping of objects, ideas, or events that share common propertiesevents that share common properties Concepts enable people to store memories in an organized Concepts enable people to store memories in an organized

fashion. fashion. Categorization is the process of forming concepts.Categorization is the process of forming concepts.

We form some concepts by identifying We form some concepts by identifying defining features.defining features. Problem with forming concepts by definition is that many Problem with forming concepts by definition is that many

familiar concepts have uncertain or familiar concepts have uncertain or fuzzy fuzzy boundariesboundaries..

Concept FormationConcept Formation

Thus, categorizing has less to do with features that define Thus, categorizing has less to do with features that define all members of a concept and has more to do with features all members of a concept and has more to do with features that characterize the that characterize the typicaltypical member of a concept. member of a concept.

The most representative members of a concept are The most representative members of a concept are known as prototypes. known as prototypes.

When Is It a “Cup,” and When Is It a “Cup,” and When Is It a “Bowl”?When Is It a “Bowl”?

Fuzzy BoundariesFuzzy Boundaries

Determine whether something belongs to a Determine whether something belongs to a group by comparing it with the prototype.group by comparing it with the prototype.

Objects accepted and rejected define the Objects accepted and rejected define the boundaries of the group or concept.boundaries of the group or concept.

This is different for different people.This is different for different people.

Problem-Solving Problem-Solving StrategiesStrategies

Common problem-solving strategies: Common problem-solving strategies: Trial and error: trying one possible solution after Trial and error: trying one possible solution after

another until one works another until one works Algorithm: following a specific rule or step-by-step Algorithm: following a specific rule or step-by-step

procedure that inevitably produces the correct procedure that inevitably produces the correct solutionsolution

Heuristic: following a general rule of thumb to Heuristic: following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutionsreduce the number of possible solutions

Insight: sudden realization of how a problem can Insight: sudden realization of how a problem can be solvedbe solved

““Internal” Obstacles Can Internal” Obstacles Can Impede Problem SolvingImpede Problem Solving

Confirmation bias: tConfirmation bias: the tendency to seek information that he tendency to seek information that supports our beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming supports our beliefs, while ignoring disconfirming informationinformation

Mental set: the tendency to continue using solutions that Mental set: the tendency to continue using solutions that have worked in the past, even though a better alternative have worked in the past, even though a better alternative may existmay exist

Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of objects as Functional fixedness: the tendency to think of objects as functioning in fixed and unchanging ways and ignoring functioning in fixed and unchanging ways and ignoring other less obvious ways in which they might be usedother less obvious ways in which they might be used

The Candle ProblemThe Candle Problem

Decision-Making Decision-Making HeuristicsHeuristics

Representativeness heuristic:Representativeness heuristic: the tendency to make decisions based on how closely an the tendency to make decisions based on how closely an

alternative matches (or represents) a particular prototypealternative matches (or represents) a particular prototype

Availability heuristic:Availability heuristic: the tendency to judge the frequency or probability of an the tendency to judge the frequency or probability of an

event in terms of how easy it is to think of examples of event in terms of how easy it is to think of examples of that event that event

Decision-Making Decision-Making HeuristicsHeuristics

Five conditions most likely to lead to heuristic use:Five conditions most likely to lead to heuristic use: People don’t have time to engage in systematic analysis.People don’t have time to engage in systematic analysis. People are overloaded with information.People are overloaded with information. People consider issues to be not very important. People consider issues to be not very important. People have little information to use in making a decision.People have little information to use in making a decision. Something about the situation primesSomething about the situation primes a given heuristic.a given heuristic.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive

Development - Four StagesDevelopment - Four Stages

Jean Piaget contended that cognitive development occurs Jean Piaget contended that cognitive development occurs as children organize their structures of knowledge to as children organize their structures of knowledge to adapt to their environment. adapt to their environment.

A schema is an organized cluster of knowledge that A schema is an organized cluster of knowledge that people use to understand and interpret information.people use to understand and interpret information.

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive

Development - Four StagesDevelopment - Four Stages

Acquisition of knowledge occurs through Acquisition of knowledge occurs through the complementary processes of assimilation the complementary processes of assimilation and accommodation. and accommodation.

Assimilation: the process of absorbing new Assimilation: the process of absorbing new information into existing schemasinformation into existing schemas

Accommodation: the process of changing Accommodation: the process of changing existing schemas to absorb new informationexisting schemas to absorb new information

Piaget’s Stages Piaget’s Stages

Sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years): Sensorimotor stage (birth–2 years): experience the world through actions (grasping, experience the world through actions (grasping,

looking, touching, and sucking)looking, touching, and sucking) One of the major accomplishments at this stage is the development One of the major accomplishments at this stage is the development

of object permanence. of object permanence.

Preoperational stage (2–6 years):Preoperational stage (2–6 years): represent things with words and images but having represent things with words and images but having

no logical reasoning no logical reasoning

Piaget’s Stages Piaget’s Stages

Concrete operational stage (7–11 years):Concrete operational stage (7–11 years): think logically about concrete events; understanding think logically about concrete events; understanding

concrete analogies and performing arithmetic concrete analogies and performing arithmetic operations operations

Formal operational stage (12 years–adulthood): Formal operational stage (12 years–adulthood): develop abstract reasoningdevelop abstract reasoning

The Three-Mountains ProblemThe Three-Mountains Problem

ConservationConservation

Conservation of MassConservation of Mass

Conservation of NumberConservation of Number

Piaget’s Conclusions Have Piaget’s Conclusions Have Been QuestionedBeen Questioned

Development may be less “stagelike” than Development may be less “stagelike” than he proposed.he proposed.

Children may achieve capabilities earlier Children may achieve capabilities earlier than he thought.than he thought.

All adults may not reach formal operational All adults may not reach formal operational thought.thought.

Evaluating PiagetEvaluating Piaget

Despite criticisms, most developmental Despite criticisms, most developmental psychologists agree that Piaget has psychologists agree that Piaget has generally outlined:generally outlined: An accurate view of many of the significant changes An accurate view of many of the significant changes

that occur in mental functioning with increasing that occur in mental functioning with increasing childhood maturation; andchildhood maturation; and

That children are not passive creatures merely being That children are not passive creatures merely being molded by environmental forces, but that they are molded by environmental forces, but that they are actively involved in their own cognitive growth. actively involved in their own cognitive growth.