chapter 8: thinking starting on p. 344 guest lecturer: leah shapira, m.a. music: “imagine” john...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 8: ThinkingStarting on p. 344
Guest Lecturer: Leah Shapira, M.A.
Music: “Imagine”
John Lennon“Think Like A Man”
Orianthi
Thinking: Agenda 1. The Cognitive Revolution 2. Reasoning:
a) deductive b) inductive
3. Problem Solving: a) approaches b) barriers
4. Judgments & Decision Making Problems (a-f)
5. Common Cognitive Distortions 6. Thinking Critically
Pointers
1.The Cognitive Revolution “I think therefore I am…” Descartes How do we know what we know?
Authority Reason:
Considered by Renaissance scholars to be the most reliable source of knowledge
Observation: Basis for empirical knowledge
Cognitive Psychologists: Study reasoning, judgments, decision making, and
problem solving
2. Reasoning a) Deductive:
Drawing a conclusion that follows logically from two or more statements or premises
Note: **If one of the premises is false, then conclusion must be false
Example: Premise 1: All human beings have cognitions Premise 2: All cognitions are intelligent Conclusion: All human beings have intelligent
cognitions…. Valid but false conclusion
2. a) Deductive Reasoning (cont’d) Invalid Conclusions:
Conclusions must follow logically from 2 or more premises to be valid
Example: Premise 1: Some A’s are B’s Premise 2: Some B’s are C’s Conclusion: Some A’s are C’s?
OR Premise 1: Some women are intelligent beings Premise 2: Some intelligent beings are men Conclusion: Some women are men?
A’s B’s C’s
2. a) Deductive Reasoning (cont’d) Belief Bias Effect:
We tend to judge as true those conclusions with which we agree, and as untrue those with which we disagree
2. a) Confirmation bias: p. 362
A Look at Critical Thinking… http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=6OLPL5p0fMg
2. b) Inductive Reasoning Problem solver goes from the particular to the general Typical in process in science
Base a hypothesis on limited evidence, and test it against other evidence
Example: Problems of inducing structure (p. 344): Can you supply missing number?
1 3 4 7 ___ 5 9 13 __ 21
Analogies: Carpenter: House Author:_____ Star: Constellation Room:______
3. Problem Solving Thinking directed toward solving a specific problem. Approaches:
Clarify! What is initial state? What is goal state? Means-end analysis:
specify subproblems and subgoals to move from initial state to goal b) Barriers: p. 326-327
Functional Fixedness Mental Sets: Can help or hinder
E.g. O-T-T- __ -__ -__ J- F- M- A- __ - __ - __
Stress: leads to fixation e.g. soldiers in war action
4. Judgments & Decision Making
Judgments: Processes by which we form opinions, reach conclusions, make
evaluations of people and events Problems:
a) Overconfidence effect p. 342 b) Availability Heuristic p. 337
Basing a probability on the ease with which an example comes to mind E.g. Which is the most frequent cause of death?
1) Homicides vs diabetes 2) Leukemia vs drowning 3) Earthquakes vs asthma
c) Representativeness Heuristic: Basing a probability on the similarity with a prototype
“The Second Mind” http://
www.gladwell.com/blink/blink_excerpt1.html
4. Heuristics cont’d c) Representativeness Heuristic (con’d):
E.g. You hear about a person who is short, slim, and likes to read poetry.
Is this person more likely to be a Literature Professor, or a truck driver?
d) Conjunction Fallacy: (p. 338) E.g. Bill is 34 years old, intelligent, unimaginative,
compulsive, and somewhat boring. Which is more likely to be true?
Bill plays jazz as a hobby OR Bill is an accountant who plays jazz as a hobby
Jazz as hobby Accountants
p.357
4. Judgments & Decision Making (cont’d)
e) Framing: (p. 362) Decisions are heavily influenced by the way in which a
question is asked E.g. Will you undergo a particular surgery if: a) 90% chance of recovery b) 10% chance of death
f) Alternative Outcomes Effect Perceived likelihood of a certain outcome is influenced by
the distribution of alternative outcomes Another example of “bounded rationality”
People deviate in predictable ways from optimal decision making
5. Common Cognitive Distortions
Arbitrary Inference: Drawing unfavorable conclusions about oneself without
evidence (e.g. mind-reading/ fortune-telling) Magnification and minimization:
Dwelling on the negative and discounting the positive Overgeneralization:
Viewing a negative event as a never-ending pattern of defeat Reasoning from how you feel:
E.g. “I feel like an idiot… Therefore, I must be one.” Personalization:
Taking blame for events that are unintended or beyond one’s control
6. Thinking Critically Critical Thinking:
Ability to make objective judgments on the basis of well-supported reasons and evidence
Rather than basing your judgment on emotion or anecdotal evidence
To improve: Remember common pitfalls Define your terms concretely Examine the evidence
Be aware of your biases Avoid emotional reasoning Avoid simplistic explanations Tolerate uncertainty
Form convictions with care, and carry them lightly!
Wishing You: