Chapter 9Chapter 9

Facilitating Structures and StrategyFacilitating Structures and Strategy

Brandon and BillyBrandon and Billy

If students’ learning and retention If students’ learning and retention require that they interact with, require that they interact with,

rehearse and critically examine rehearse and critically examine information, how will you provide the information, how will you provide the

opportunity? List some ways you opportunity? List some ways you can think of to get students to can think of to get students to

participate in a classroom discussion.participate in a classroom discussion.

Questioning and DiscussionQuestioning and Discussion

QuestioningQuestioning

Focuses student attentionFocuses student attention Helps student interact with contentHelps student interact with contentEncourages students to express values or Encourages students to express values or

opinionsopinionsFacilitates classroom managementFacilitates classroom management

Questioning:Questioning:Research finds that-Research finds that-

Cues and questions should focus on what is Cues and questions should focus on what is important as opposed to what is unusual.important as opposed to what is unusual.

Higher level questions produce deeper learning Higher level questions produce deeper learning than lower level questions.than lower level questions.

Waiting briefly before accepting responses has Waiting briefly before accepting responses has the effect of increasing the depth of student the effect of increasing the depth of student responsesresponses

Questions are effective learning tools even when Questions are effective learning tools even when asked before a learning experience.asked before a learning experience.

Teacher and Student Q & DTeacher and Student Q & DTeacher:Teacher:

Plans- OrderPlans- Order PurposePurpose

Asks- Wait TimeAsks- Wait Time

PhrasingPhrasing Equal Distribution Equal Distribution

Responds- PraiseResponds- Praise

FeedbackFeedback AcknowledgingAcknowledging ProbeProbe

PromptPrompt AttendAttend

Student: poses questionsStudent: poses questions

Planning Teacher QuestionsPlanning Teacher Questions Checking students’ understanding (formative)Checking students’ understanding (formative) Tying information to students’ prior knowledge or Tying information to students’ prior knowledge or

experiences.experiences. Having students process information by looking for Having students process information by looking for

inferences, implications etc…inferences, implications etc… Allowing students to practice supporting ideas and Allowing students to practice supporting ideas and

opinions with evidence.opinions with evidence. Leading students to discover a new concept, principle or Leading students to discover a new concept, principle or

generalization.generalization. Learning about students’ interests, ideas or concerns.Learning about students’ interests, ideas or concerns. Focusing students attention on important ideas.Focusing students attention on important ideas. Modeling the importance of questioning.Modeling the importance of questioning.

Pacing and Phrasing QuestionsPacing and Phrasing Questions

Wait time—the period between the time a Wait time—the period between the time a teacher asks a question and the time the teacher asks a question and the time the teacher asks another question, questions teacher asks another question, questions another student or answers the question.another student or answers the question.

--- the average wait time is one second--- the average wait time is one second

Pacing and Phrasing QuestionsPacing and Phrasing Questions

Length of responses increased.Length of responses increased.Number of voluntary responses increased.Number of voluntary responses increased.Complexity of responses increased.Complexity of responses increased.Student questions increased.Student questions increased.Student confidence increased.Student confidence increased.Student failure to respond decreased.Student failure to respond decreased.

Pacing and Phrasing QuestionsPacing and Phrasing Questions

When phrasing a question, it is best not to When phrasing a question, it is best not to start a question with a student’s name.start a question with a student’s name.

Instead of “David, who was the first Instead of “David, who was the first explorer sail to America?”, try “Everyone, explorer sail to America?”, try “Everyone, who was the first explorer to sail to who was the first explorer to sail to America? (wait time) David? (wait time).”America? (wait time) David? (wait time).”

Distributing Questions EquitablyDistributing Questions Equitably

Popsicle sticks and index cards with Popsicle sticks and index cards with student names on them pulled at random.student names on them pulled at random.

Making a mark on seating chart each time Making a mark on seating chart each time the student is asked a question.the student is asked a question.

Have a friend or peer observe a lesson Have a friend or peer observe a lesson and note the students with whom you and note the students with whom you interact.interact.

Responding to Student AnswersResponding to Student Answers

Praise. (Informational feedback)Praise. (Informational feedback)Acknowledge.Acknowledge.Redirect.Redirect.Probe.Probe.Prompt.Prompt.Correct.Correct.Ask a new question.Ask a new question.

Attending BehaviorsAttending Behaviors

Verbal responses.Verbal responses.Nonverbal signals.Nonverbal signals.Active listening.Active listening.Reflective listening.Reflective listening.

Encouraging Students’ QuestionsEncouraging Students’ Questions

Teach students the difference between Teach students the difference between checking for understanding and genuine checking for understanding and genuine questions.questions.

Model questioning behaviors.Model questioning behaviors.Teach students to ask questions.Teach students to ask questions.Respond to student questions with Respond to student questions with

respect.respect.Teach students the investigative skill of Teach students the investigative skill of

the disciplines.the disciplines.

Conducting DiscussionsConducting Discussions

Questioning—teacher is focus of attention.Questioning—teacher is focus of attention.Discussion—initial stimulus is from Discussion—initial stimulus is from

teacher. Comments may travel from teacher. Comments may travel from student to student, with students adding student to student, with students adding questions. questions.

Discussion is an open-ended exchange of Discussion is an open-ended exchange of ideas designed to share information and ideas designed to share information and possibly to reach a consensus, rather than possibly to reach a consensus, rather than to seek the so-called correct answer.to seek the so-called correct answer.

Conducting Discussions:Conducting Discussions:Teacher RoleTeacher Role

Provide the initial stimulus for discussion.Provide the initial stimulus for discussion. Provide additional information, clarification, or Provide additional information, clarification, or

correction of misinformation as needed.correction of misinformation as needed. Maintain the focus of the discussion. Try to Maintain the focus of the discussion. Try to

keep discussion on the topic of concern.keep discussion on the topic of concern. Respond to student comments with acceptance, Respond to student comments with acceptance,

rather than praise or criticism.rather than praise or criticism. Draw discussion to a close through summarizing Draw discussion to a close through summarizing

and/or seeking compromise or consensus.and/or seeking compromise or consensus.

Group LearningGroup Learning

Social learning theory suggest that Social learning theory suggest that students need to interact with adults and students need to interact with adults and with peers in order to develop new with peers in order to develop new concepts.concepts.

Almost all sets of instructional reform call Almost all sets of instructional reform call for a greater use of small-groups for a greater use of small-groups (cooperative learning)(cooperative learning)

This strategy fulfills students’ need for This strategy fulfills students’ need for affiliation while teaching explicitly how to affiliation while teaching explicitly how to work productively and courteously in a work productively and courteously in a groupgroup

If students are to have choice and If students are to have choice and challenge, they must spend part of the challenge, they must spend part of the school day outside whole-group school day outside whole-group instruction, either as individuals or in small instruction, either as individuals or in small groups.groups.

If they are to learn cooperation, they must If they are to learn cooperation, they must spend time in cooperative groups.spend time in cooperative groups.

Students should be included in multiple Students should be included in multiple groupings so they do not become labeled groupings so they do not become labeled as a result of always being in the same as a result of always being in the same group.group.

How do we group students?How do we group students?

Groups based on the need for a particular Groups based on the need for a particular skill.skill.

Groups based on students’ expressed Groups based on students’ expressed interest.interest.

Cooperative Group LearningCooperative Group Learning

A mixed group that “sinks or swims” A mixed group that “sinks or swims” together.together.

Students work to help their team members Students work to help their team members achieve the objectives.achieve the objectives.

Each is held individually accountable and Each is held individually accountable and receives an individual score. receives an individual score.

They learn the value of giving and They learn the value of giving and receiving help and also how to work receiving help and also how to work together toward a common goal.together toward a common goal.

The main reason to use cooperative The main reason to use cooperative learning is that it can assist student learning is that it can assist student learning. learning.

Students who receive some cooperative Students who receive some cooperative activities had higher achievement, better activities had higher achievement, better retention, higher level of reasoning skills, retention, higher level of reasoning skills, greater empathy for those who are greater empathy for those who are different, and higher self-esteem. different, and higher self-esteem.

Face-to-Face InteractionFace-to-Face Interaction

Groups in sizes of two, three, or four seem Groups in sizes of two, three, or four seem to be the most productive.to be the most productive.

Working closely together (face to face) is Working closely together (face to face) is essential to group learningessential to group learning

When students who don’t typically interact When students who don’t typically interact with one another are placed in a group, with one another are placed in a group, social barriers are broken down and social barriers are broken down and students learn to value those who are students learn to value those who are different from themselves. different from themselves.

Positive InterdependencePositive Interdependence

Def – “A cooperative learning situation in Def – “A cooperative learning situation in which students are responsible for the which students are responsible for the success of each group member”success of each group member”

But students need a reason to begin to But students need a reason to begin to help each other learn.help each other learn.

How is this done?!How is this done?!

ANSWERSANSWERS

Limiting materials (e.g., one copy of the Limiting materials (e.g., one copy of the worksheet, one pencil given to the group)worksheet, one pencil given to the group)

Jigsawing the materials into sectionsJigsawing the materials into sectionsAssigning roles to students (recorder, Assigning roles to students (recorder,

materials manager, reader, etc.)materials manager, reader, etc.)Offering group rewardsOffering group rewards

All students must do their part in helping All students must do their part in helping the others learn the material or accomplish the others learn the material or accomplish the task.the task.

If one person does not learn, the whole If one person does not learn, the whole group has failed to help that student.group has failed to help that student.

Thus, students learn how to help each Thus, students learn how to help each other!other!

Individual and Group AccountabilityIndividual and Group Accountability

Have you ever worked on group projects Have you ever worked on group projects and felt resentful that one or two people and felt resentful that one or two people did all the work, but everyone got the did all the work, but everyone got the same grade?same grade?

Instead of the whole group learning, one Instead of the whole group learning, one person’s competence is assumed to person’s competence is assumed to represent the groups level of represent the groups level of understanding.understanding.

It is essential for the teacher to assess It is essential for the teacher to assess each students understanding.each students understanding.

How Is It Done?!How Is It Done?!

Giving the students a quizGiving the students a quizRotate among groups making random spot Rotate among groups making random spot

checks and asking students questions checks and asking students questions over the material.over the material.

Have students all write their names down Have students all write their names down on the same worksheet indicating all on the same worksheet indicating all members agree to the answers and can members agree to the answers and can explain why each answer is correct.explain why each answer is correct.

CAUTIONCAUTION

Improperly used groups can have Improperly used groups can have problems.problems.

Less able students can rely on more able Less able students can rely on more able students to carry out the task for themstudents to carry out the task for them

More able students can become resentful More able students can become resentful or bored having to explain to team. or bored having to explain to team. members information that they have easily members information that they have easily mastered.mastered.

Cooperative Learning tasks should…Cooperative Learning tasks should…

Have more than one answer and/or more Have more than one answer and/or more than one path toward a solution.than one path toward a solution.

Be intrinsically motivating and should offer Be intrinsically motivating and should offer challenge to all students.challenge to all students.

Allow students to make different kinds of Allow students to make different kinds of contributions.contributions.

Involve multiple media and multisensory Involve multiple media and multisensory experiences in addition to traditional textexperiences in addition to traditional text

Academic Service LearningAcademic Service Learning

Academic service learning is a teaching Academic service learning is a teaching methodology that utilizes community methodology that utilizes community service as a means of helping students service as a means of helping students gain a deeper understanding of specific gain a deeper understanding of specific course objectives, acquire new course objectives, acquire new knowledge, and engage in civic activities.knowledge, and engage in civic activities.

Academic Service LearningAcademic Service Learning

For learning to be meaningful, students must For learning to be meaningful, students must have ample opportunities for metacognition and have ample opportunities for metacognition and reflection of their experiences.reflection of their experiences.

ASL develops a sense of community. To serve ASL develops a sense of community. To serve and be served.and be served.

Works best when students enter a community Works best when students enter a community ready to share responsibilities with and respect ready to share responsibilities with and respect those they serve rather than to fix things.those they serve rather than to fix things.

Activities for Academic Service Activities for Academic Service LearningLearning

Creation and implementation of strategies to welcome and support Creation and implementation of strategies to welcome and support newly arrived immigrant children in the school community.newly arrived immigrant children in the school community.

Development of oral histories for individuals in nursing homes.Development of oral histories for individuals in nursing homes. Instruction of younger students to become critical television viewers.Instruction of younger students to become critical television viewers. Creation and implementation of solutions to environmental problems Creation and implementation of solutions to environmental problems

in the community such as a neglected park.in the community such as a neglected park. Development of a peer-tutoring/mentoring program for younger Development of a peer-tutoring/mentoring program for younger

students.students. Beautification projects in the community of school environment.Beautification projects in the community of school environment.

Technology in InstructionTechnology in Instruction

One of the challenges of teaching today One of the challenges of teaching today will be finding ways to use technology to will be finding ways to use technology to improve teaching.improve teaching.

Schools have been given the responsibility Schools have been given the responsibility to assure that all students have to assure that all students have opportunities to develop technological opportunities to develop technological skills essential for success in our rapidly skills essential for success in our rapidly changing environment while also attending changing environment while also attending to their developmental needs!to their developmental needs!

The International Society for Technology The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) has developed in Education (ISTE) has developed National Educational Standards (NETS) National Educational Standards (NETS) for students.for students.

NETS outline the technical literacy skills NETS outline the technical literacy skills appropriate for each level.appropriate for each level.

The complete standards are available at The complete standards are available at the ISTE website (www.iste.org)the ISTE website (www.iste.org)

Keys to understanding the effective Keys to understanding the effective use of technology:use of technology:

Technology is not a type of lesson nor a Technology is not a type of lesson nor a teaching approach.teaching approach.

Technology simply provides us with an Technology simply provides us with an assortment of tools that can be used in a assortment of tools that can be used in a variety of types of lessons. variety of types of lessons.

It makes since to use technology when It makes since to use technology when doing so allows us to do something new or doing so allows us to do something new or to do more effectively something we to do more effectively something we already do.already do.

Technology and Direct TeachingTechnology and Direct Teaching

Can be used for a set to catch the Can be used for a set to catch the students attentionstudents attention

Can also be used in the middle of the Can also be used in the middle of the lesson to clarify or bring life to the lecturelesson to clarify or bring life to the lecture. . BrainPopBrainPop

Technology and Inductive TeachingTechnology and Inductive Teaching

One of the most powerful ways to use One of the most powerful ways to use technology is through inductive teaching.technology is through inductive teaching.

The internet can enhance our classroom The internet can enhance our classroom environments.environments.

Students develop concepts through Students develop concepts through interactions with posters, plants, and interactions with posters, plants, and animals, but now they can follow scientist animals, but now they can follow scientist who explore under the ocean and who explore under the ocean and communicate with classes in other parts of communicate with classes in other parts of the country or in a different country. the country or in a different country.

More and Better ToolsMore and Better Tools

Using word processors to facilitate student Using word processors to facilitate student writing greatly eases the editing and writing greatly eases the editing and revising process.revising process.

The research opportunities presented by The research opportunities presented by the Internet vastly expands the materials the Internet vastly expands the materials available in school libraries.available in school libraries.

By bookmarking sites that the teacher By bookmarking sites that the teacher finds appropriate, students can make the finds appropriate, students can make the most efficient use of research time.most efficient use of research time.

ATTENTIONATTENTION

As you reflect on gender and cultural As you reflect on gender and cultural issues, special attention should be paid to issues, special attention should be paid to activities involving technology.activities involving technology.

Give time for assigned activities and free-Give time for assigned activities and free-choice activities.choice activities.

Centers, Contracts and Skills Centers, Contracts and Skills of Independent Learningof Independent Learning

All students must be taught the All students must be taught the skills of independent work skills of independent work

CentersCenters

Learning centersLearning centers Interest development centersInterest development centersExploratory/independent play areasExploratory/independent play areas

Learning CenterLearning Center

Designed to introduce or reinforce a Designed to introduce or reinforce a specific part of the regular curriculum.specific part of the regular curriculum.

When constructing a center, the first When constructing a center, the first decision is topic (reading maps or solving decision is topic (reading maps or solving word problems).word problems).

Gather available materials (activities Gather available materials (activities should include data gathering, problem should include data gathering, problem solving, individual research and creative solving, individual research and creative expression).expression).

Interest Development CenterInterest Development Center

Designed to spur curiosity and interest in Designed to spur curiosity and interest in areas outside the regular curriculum.areas outside the regular curriculum.

Start with a topic that is not part of Start with a topic that is not part of curriculum.curriculum.

The goal is not to have everyone in the The goal is not to have everyone in the class understand a certain topic, but to class understand a certain topic, but to have as many students as possible find have as many students as possible find some question, idea or activity that looks some question, idea or activity that looks interesting enough to investigate.interesting enough to investigate.

Exploratory/Independent Play Exploratory/Independent Play AreasAreas

Designed to allow students to interact with Designed to allow students to interact with materials in ways that provide background materials in ways that provide background or reinforcement for concept development, or reinforcement for concept development, not to organize specific tasks.not to organize specific tasks.

Help students develop and practice key Help students develop and practice key concepts through play.concepts through play.

Multiple Centers:Multiple Centers:Multiple IntelligencesMultiple Intelligences

Clifford the Big Red Dog (example)Clifford the Big Red Dog (example) Linguistic—Read and write about CliffordLinguistic—Read and write about Clifford Logical Mathematical—Solve problems about Clifford’s Logical Mathematical—Solve problems about Clifford’s

size.size. Visual /Spatial—Build a model house for Clifford, plan a Visual /Spatial—Build a model house for Clifford, plan a

yard.yard. Bodily Kinesthetic—Pantomime a story about Clifford.Bodily Kinesthetic—Pantomime a story about Clifford. Interpersonal—Discuss how Clifford might have felt Interpersonal—Discuss how Clifford might have felt

when he grew so big.when he grew so big. Intrapersonal—Write or draw something that makes you Intrapersonal—Write or draw something that makes you

different.different. Naturalist—Learn about animals who are related to Naturalist—Learn about animals who are related to

dogs, make a chart of their family tree.dogs, make a chart of their family tree.

ContractsContracts

Allows a student and a teacher to agree Allows a student and a teacher to agree upon a series of tasks to be completed in upon a series of tasks to be completed in a given time frame.a given time frame.

Vary with students’ maturity and Vary with students’ maturity and experience with independent work.experience with independent work.

Gradual, starting with short-term forms Gradual, starting with short-term forms and working up to more complex tasks.and working up to more complex tasks.

Teaching Skills of IndependenceTeaching Skills of Independence

Must be taught, can’t be told (plan a series of lessons on Must be taught, can’t be told (plan a series of lessons on working independently).working independently).

Becoming independent.Becoming independent. Uses of independent time.Uses of independent time. Planning your time.Planning your time. What to do if you are stuck or don’t understand a task.What to do if you are stuck or don’t understand a task. How to signal the teacher for assistance.How to signal the teacher for assistance. Expectations about noise, conversation…Expectations about noise, conversation… Rules about materials.Rules about materials. Choice activities and what to do when tasks are Choice activities and what to do when tasks are

complete.complete. Long-term versus short-term planning.Long-term versus short-term planning.

Teaching Skills of IndependenceTeaching Skills of Independence

Goal is to move students from seatwork to Goal is to move students from seatwork to a period of time in which many activities a period of time in which many activities are planned, organized and implemented are planned, organized and implemented by students.by students.

Do not introduce new content. The Do not introduce new content. The important lesson is independence.important lesson is independence.

Build from simple to complex tasks.Build from simple to complex tasks.

Pulling it All TogetherPulling it All Together

Using instructional time wisely requires many Using instructional time wisely requires many levels of planning. levels of planning.

Beginning teachers should create a global plan Beginning teachers should create a global plan for the school year, either for single subjects or for the school year, either for single subjects or interdisciplinary themes, identifying large blocks interdisciplinary themes, identifying large blocks of time for particular areas of content.of time for particular areas of content.

Having a yearlong outline will help you gauge Having a yearlong outline will help you gauge whether you and your students are moving whether you and your students are moving toward your long-range outcomes in a timely toward your long-range outcomes in a timely manner.manner.

Pulling it All TogetherPulling it All Together

Plan the timing and order of subjects and Plan the timing and order of subjects and activities through the school day.activities through the school day.

Establish routines that give shape to your Establish routines that give shape to your school day.school day.

A predictable routine not only makes it A predictable routine not only makes it easier to plan, but provides security to easier to plan, but provides security to children with high need for structure.children with high need for structure.