Chapter 9 Language and cultureChapter 9 Language and culture

Chapter 10 Language acquisition

Chapter 11 Second Language Acquisition

What is culture?What is culture?

In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a In a broad sense, culture means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community. life of the human community.

In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific In a narrow sense, culture may refer to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc. folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture, etc.

There are generally two types of culture: material and There are generally two types of culture: material and spiritual.spiritual.

The relationship between language and culture The relationship between language and culture The same word may stir up different associations in people under The same word may stir up different associations in people under

different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”.different cultural background, e.g. the word “dog”. Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes, Language expresses cultural reality, reflects the people’s attitudes,

beliefs, world outlooks, etc.beliefs, world outlooks, etc. The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially, The culture both emancipates and constrains people socially,

historically and metaphorically.historically and metaphorically. Culture also affects its people’s imagination or common dreams Culture also affects its people’s imagination or common dreams

which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life. which are mediated through the language and reflected in their life. On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being,

permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language permeates in his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, both expresses and embodies cultural reality; on the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesisSapir-Whorf hypothesis

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages the ways they think and behave, i.e. different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.linguistic relativity.

Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

Strong version & weak version Strong version & weak version Strong version believes that the language patterns determine Strong version believes that the language patterns determine

people’s thinking and behavior;people’s thinking and behavior; Weak version holds that the former influence the latter. Weak version holds that the former influence the latter. ----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two ----The study of the linguistic relativity or SWH has shed two

important insights:important insights: There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code, There is nowadays a recognition that language, as code,

reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think.people think.

More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how More than in Whorf’s days, however, we recognize how important context is in complementing the meanings important context is in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.encoded in the language.

Linguistic evidence of cultural differencesLinguistic evidence of cultural differences

Denotative meaning ---- a meaning that can be Denotative meaning ---- a meaning that can be found in a dictionary.found in a dictionary.

Connotative meaning ---- a meaning or idea Connotative meaning ---- a meaning or idea suggested by a word or thing in addition to the suggested by a word or thing in addition to the formal meaning or nature of the word or thing.formal meaning or nature of the word or thing.

Iconic meaning ---- the image or icon invoked in Iconic meaning ---- the image or icon invoked in mind by a word.mind by a word.

For example, For example, “rose”.“rose”.

Some cultural differences in language useSome cultural differences in language use

Greetings and terms of address Greetings and terms of address Thanks and compliments Thanks and compliments Color words Color words Privacy and taboos Privacy and taboos Rounding off numbers Rounding off numbers Words and cultural-specific connotations Words and cultural-specific connotations Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphor Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphor

The significance of cultural teaching and learningThe significance of cultural teaching and learning

Learning a foreign language is inseparable from Learning a foreign language is inseparable from learning its culture.learning its culture.

We need to learn enough about the language’s We need to learn enough about the language’s culture so that we can communicate in the target culture so that we can communicate in the target language properly to achieve not only the language properly to achieve not only the linguistic linguistic competencecompetence but also the but also the pragmatic or pragmatic or communicative competencecommunicative competence as well. as well.

Cultural overlap Cultural overlap

Cultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture Cultural overlap refers to the identical part of culture between two societies owing to some similarities in the between two societies owing to some similarities in the natural environment and psychology of human beings. natural environment and psychology of human beings. For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or For example, the superior tends to refer to himself or herself by means of kinship terms, such asherself by means of kinship terms, such as

“ “Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”Have daddy/mummy/teacher told you that?”

Cultural diffusionCultural diffusion Through communication, some elements of culture A enter Through communication, some elements of culture A enter

culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is culture B and become part of culture B, this phenomenon is known as known as cultural diffusioncultural diffusion. .

One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance One typical example of cultural diffusion is the appearance of loan words.of loan words.

The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and The practice of observing holidays of foreign origins and accepting concepts from other cultures.accepting concepts from other cultures.

The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural The attitude towards cultural diffusion (esp. cultural imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)imperialism owing to linguistic imperialism)

Intercultural communicationIntercultural communication

Intercultural or cross-cultural communication is Intercultural or cross-cultural communication is communication between people from different cultures communication between people from different cultures (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct (their cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.)enough to alter the communication event.)

In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special In cross-cultural communication, we need to pay special attention to the significant differences regarding social attention to the significant differences regarding social relations and concept of universe from different relations and concept of universe from different perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards perspectives such as language, food, dress, attitude towards time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that time, work habits, social behavior and religious belief that can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.can cause frustrations in communications and contacts.

Chapter 10 Language acquisitionChapter 10 Language acquisition

Language acquisition----refers to the child’s Language acquisition----refers to the child’s acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the acquisition of his mother tongue, i.e. how the child comes to understand and speak the child comes to understand and speak the language of his community. language of his community.

Theories of child language acquisitionTheories of child language acquisition

A behaviorist view of language acquisition A behaviorist view of language acquisition (Skinners) (Skinners)

An innatist view of language acquisition (Chomsky) An innatist view of language acquisition (Chomsky) An interactionist view of language acquisition An interactionist view of language acquisition Cognitive factors in child language development Cognitive factors in child language development

A behaviorist view of language acquisitionA behaviorist view of language acquisition

Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.of imitation and habit formation.

Imitation Imitation Recognition Recognition Reinforcement Reinforcement The inadequacy of behaviorist view lies in The inadequacy of behaviorist view lies in

explaining how children acquire complex language explaining how children acquire complex language system. (See examples in P144) system. (See examples in P144)

An innatist view of language acquisitionAn innatist view of language acquisition

According to the innatist view of language According to the innatist view of language acquisition, human beings are biologically acquisition, human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. functions such as walking.

An interactionist view of language acquisitionAn interactionist view of language acquisition

The interactionist view holds that language develops The interactionist view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. Integrated environment in which the child develops. Integrated with the innatist view, the interactionist further with the innatist view, the interactionist further claims that the modified language which is suitable claims that the modified language which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition. (motherese)acquisition. (motherese)

Cognitive factors in child language development Cognitive factors in child language development

1)      Language development is dependent on both the 1)      Language development is dependent on both the concepts children form about the world and what they feel concepts children form about the world and what they feel stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of stimulated to communicate at the early and later stages of their language development. (the acquisition of perfect tense their language development. (the acquisition of perfect tense and the concept of present relevance)and the concept of present relevance)

2)      The cognitive factors determine how the child makes 2)      The cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives and expresses. (the acquisition meanings the child perceives and expresses. (the acquisition of negative form)of negative form)

Language environment Language environment & the critical period hypothesis & the critical period hypothesis

Two important factors: Two important factors: the linguistic environment children are the linguistic environment children are exposed to and the age they start to learn the language.exposed to and the age they start to learn the language.

In behaviorist approach, language environment plays a major role in In behaviorist approach, language environment plays a major role in providing both language models to be imitated and necessary providing both language models to be imitated and necessary feedbacks.feedbacks.

The innatist view emphasizes more on children’s internal processing The innatist view emphasizes more on children’s internal processing of the language items to be learnt. The environment functions as a of the language items to be learnt. The environment functions as a stimulus that triggers and activates the pre-equipped UG to process stimulus that triggers and activates the pre-equipped UG to process the materials provided by the linguistic environment around the the materials provided by the linguistic environment around the children.children.

The interactionist view calls for the quality of the language samples The interactionist view calls for the quality of the language samples available in the linguistic environment, only when the language is available in the linguistic environment, only when the language is modified and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do modified and adjusted to the level of children’s comprehension, do they process and internalize the language items. they process and internalize the language items.

Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) ---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other ---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other

biological functions, works successfully only when it is biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.period for language acquisition.

The strong version of CPH suggests that children must The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.be able to learn from subsequent exposure.

The weak version holds that language learning will be The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases) Victor’s and Genie’s cases)

Stages in child language developmentStages in child language development

Phonological development Phonological development Vocabulary developmentVocabulary development 1) Under-extension1) Under-extension 2) Over-extension2) Over-extension 3) Prototype theory 3) Prototype theory Grammatical development Grammatical development 1) Telegraphic speech (2)1) Telegraphic speech (2) 2) Sentences of three main elements (2.5)2) Sentences of three main elements (2.5) Pragmatic development Pragmatic development

Atypical developmentAtypical development

Atypical or abnormal language development occurs due Atypical or abnormal language development occurs due to trauma or injury. Atypical language development to trauma or injury. Atypical language development includes:includes:

Hearing impairmentHearing impairment Mental retardationMental retardation autismautism stuttering stuttering AphasiaAphasia Dyslexia and dysgraphia Dyslexia and dysgraphia

Chapter 11 Second Language AcquisitionChapter 11 Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition ---- formally Second Language Acquisition ---- formally established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, established itself as a discipline around the 1970s, refers to the systematic study of how one person refers to the systematic study of how one person acquires a second language subsequent to his native acquires a second language subsequent to his native language. language.

Distinguish second language & foreign languageDistinguish second language & foreign language

Connections between first language acquisition Connections between first language acquisition and second language acquisitionand second language acquisition

The first language study has served as a backcloth The first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning (Littlewood, 1986).second language learning (Littlewood, 1986).

SLA is different from first language acquisition.SLA is different from first language acquisition. InterlanguageInterlanguage

Contrastive analysis (CA) (1960s)Contrastive analysis (CA) (1960s) Positive transfer----facilitate target language learningPositive transfer----facilitate target language learning Negative transfer----interfere or hinder target language Negative transfer----interfere or hinder target language

learninglearning It is believed that differences between the native language It is believed that differences between the native language

and the target language would pose difficulties in and the target language would pose difficulties in second/foreign language learning and teaching, e.g.second/foreign language learning and teaching, e.g.

*To touch the society .*To touch the society . *There are more people come to study in the states.*There are more people come to study in the states. *I wait you at the gate of the school. *I wait you at the gate of the school.

Shortcomings of CAShortcomings of CA

The CA was soon found problematic, for many of the The CA was soon found problematic, for many of the predictions of the target language learning difficulty predictions of the target language learning difficulty formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to formulated on the basis of contrastive analysis turned out to be either uninformative or inaccurate. Predicted errors did be either uninformative or inaccurate. Predicted errors did not materialize in learner language while errors did show up not materialize in learner language while errors did show up that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. “differences” that the contrastive analysis had not predicted. “differences” and “difficulties” are not identical concepts. and “difficulties” are not identical concepts.

Error analysis (EA)Error analysis (EA)

The contrastive approach to learners’ errors has The contrastive approach to learners’ errors has shed new light on people’s attitudes: the errors are shed new light on people’s attitudes: the errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught, in telling the researcher how learning taught, in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt.be learnt.

Two main sorts of errors: Interlingual errors & Two main sorts of errors: Interlingual errors & intralingual errorsintralingual errors

Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors

----Interlingual errors mainly result from cross-----Interlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,etc. For examples,

a. Substitution of [t] for [W] and [d] for [T]: a. Substitution of [t] for [W] and [d] for [T]: threethreetree, thistree, thisdis.dis.

b. Shortening of long vowels: sheepb. Shortening of long vowels: sheepship, ship, meetmeetmitmit

Intralingual errorsIntralingual errors

----The intralingual errors mainly from faulty or ----The intralingual errors mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.of the native language.

Two types of errors have been well exploited: Two types of errors have been well exploited:

overgeneralization & cross-associationovergeneralization & cross-association

OvergeneralizationOvergeneralization

Overgeneralization ---- the use of previously available Overgeneralization ---- the use of previously available strategies in new situations. strategies in new situations.

Walked, watched, washed…Walked, watched, washed…

*rided, *goed, *doed, *eated…*rided, *goed, *doed, *eated… Jane advise me to give up smoking.Jane advise me to give up smoking.

Jane told me to give up smoking.Jane told me to give up smoking.

*Jane hoped me to give up smoking.*Jane hoped me to give up smoking.

*Jane suggested me to give up smoking.*Jane suggested me to give up smoking.

Cross-associationCross-association

Cross-association refers to the phenomenon that the close Cross-association refers to the phenomenon that the close association of the two similar words often leads to association of the two similar words often leads to confusion, e.g.confusion, e.g.

Other/another, much/many, stalagmite/stalactite…Other/another, much/many, stalagmite/stalactite… It may alsoIt may also occurs at all levels of language from occurs at all levels of language from

phonological to syntactic, e.g.phonological to syntactic, e.g.

The coffee is too hot to drink.The coffee is too hot to drink.

*The apricot is too sour to eat it.*The apricot is too sour to eat it.

Errors & mistakesErrors & mistakes

Errors ---- unintentionally deviant from the target Errors ---- unintentionally deviant from the target language and not self-corrigible by the learner language and not self-corrigible by the learner (failure in competence)(failure in competence) ；；

Mistakes ---- either intentionally or unintentionally Mistakes ---- either intentionally or unintentionally deviant forms and self-corrigible (failure in deviant forms and self-corrigible (failure in performance).performance).

Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker) Interlanguage (S. Pit Corder & Larry Selinker)

Interlangauge ---- learners’ independent system of Interlangauge ---- learners’ independent system of the second language which is of neither the native the second language which is of neither the native language nor the second language, but a continuum language nor the second language, but a continuum or approximation from his native language to the or approximation from his native language to the target language. target language.

What learners produce, correct or wrong, are What learners produce, correct or wrong, are evidence or the approximation from their first evidence or the approximation from their first language to the target language.language to the target language.

Characteristics of interlanguageCharacteristics of interlanguage

Interlanguage has three important characteristics: Interlanguage has three important characteristics: systematicity, permeability and fossilization.systematicity, permeability and fossilization.

Fossilization---- a process occurring from time to Fossilization---- a process occurring from time to time in which incorrect linguistic features become a time in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes permanent part of the way a person speaks or writes a language.a language.

The role of native languageThe role of native language in 2nd language learning in 2nd language learning

Language transfer: positive & negative (behaviorism)Language transfer: positive & negative (behaviorism) Mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language Mentalists argued that few errors were caused by language

transfer; transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental transfer; transfer is not transfer, but a kind of mental process.process.

Three interacting factors in determining language transfer:Three interacting factors in determining language transfer: A learner’s psychologyA learner’s psychology Perception of native-target language distancePerception of native-target language distance Actual knowledge of the target languageActual knowledge of the target language

2nd language learning models and input hypothesis2nd language learning models and input hypothesis

Behaviorism model emphasizes the role of imitation and Behaviorism model emphasizes the role of imitation and positive reinforcement, a “nurture” position;positive reinforcement, a “nurture” position;

The mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position The mentalists or the innativists shift to a “nature” position by stressing that human beings equipped innately with by stressing that human beings equipped innately with language acquisition device, are capable of language language acquisition device, are capable of language learning provided with adequate language input. learning provided with adequate language input.

The social interactionists argue that language and social The social interactionists argue that language and social interaction cannot be separated.interaction cannot be separated.

Krashen’s Input Hypothesis Krashen’s Input Hypothesis

Krashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning.Krashen make a distinction between acquisition & learning. He put forward that learners advance their language He put forward that learners advance their language

learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input.learning gradually by receiving comprehensible input. He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” :He defined comprehensible input as “i + 1” : “ “i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next i” represents learners’ current state of knowledge, the next

stage is an “i + 1”.stage is an “i + 1”. Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.Krashen mistook input and intake, thus receive criticism.

Individual differencesIndividual differences

Language aptitude Language aptitude Motivation Motivation Learning strategies Learning strategies Age of acquisition Age of acquisition Personality Personality

Language aptitudeLanguage aptitude

Language aptitude refers to a natural ability for Language aptitude refers to a natural ability for learning a second language. It is believed to be learning a second language. It is believed to be related to a learner’s general intelligence. John related to a learner’s general intelligence. John Carroll identified some components of language Carroll identified some components of language aptitude:aptitude:

Phonemic coding abilityPhonemic coding ability Grammatical sensitivityGrammatical sensitivity Inductive language learning abilityInductive language learning ability Rote learning abilityRote learning ability

MotivationMotivation

Motivation can be defined as the learner’s attitudes Motivation can be defined as the learner’s attitudes and affective state or learning drive. It has a strong and affective state or learning drive. It has a strong impact on his efforts in learning a second language. impact on his efforts in learning a second language. Generally four types of motivations have been Generally four types of motivations have been identified:identified:

Instrumental motivationInstrumental motivation Integrative motivationIntegrative motivation Resultative motivationResultative motivation Intrinsic motivationIntrinsic motivation

Learning strategiesLearning strategies Learning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented Learning strategies are learners’ conscious, goal-oriented

and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning and problem-solving based efforts to achieve learning efficiency. According to Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990), efficiency. According to Chamot (1986) & Oxford (1990), three types of strategies have been identified:three types of strategies have been identified:

Cognitive strategies ---- analyzing,synthesis and Cognitive strategies ---- analyzing,synthesis and internalizing what has been learned.internalizing what has been learned.

Metacognitive strategies ---- planning, monitoring and Metacognitive strategies ---- planning, monitoring and evaluating one’s learning.evaluating one’s learning.

Affect/social strategies ---- the ways learners interact with Affect/social strategies ---- the ways learners interact with other speakers.other speakers.

Cohen (1998) further distinguishes language learning Cohen (1998) further distinguishes language learning strategies and language using strategies.strategies and language using strategies.

Age of acquisition Age of acquisition

The Critical Period Hypothesis The Critical Period Hypothesis

Recent studies support the hypothesis that in terms Recent studies support the hypothesis that in terms of learning achievement and grammaticality the of learning achievement and grammaticality the younger learners outperform the adults.younger learners outperform the adults.

Personality Personality

In terms of communicative ability rather than In terms of communicative ability rather than grammatical accuracy or knowledge of grammatical accuracy or knowledge of grammatical rules, the personality traits such grammatical rules, the personality traits such as extroversion, talkative, self-esteem, self-as extroversion, talkative, self-esteem, self-confidence can be found in successful second confidence can be found in successful second language learners language learners ( as in the case of Liyang: ( as in the case of Liyang: Crazy English).Crazy English).