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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Muslim World Expands,1300–1700

CHAPTER OVERVIEW A group of Turks called Ottomans set up a new empire inwhat is now modern Turkey. Farther to the east, the Safavid Empire arose inmodern Iran, where rulers embraced a special type of Islam that made them dif-ferent from their neighbors. Meanwhile, India saw the rise of yet another empireas Muslims created a powerful state there.

Summary

The Ottomans Build a Vast Empire

KEY IDEA The Ottomans established a Muslim Empirethat combined many cultures and lasted for more than600 years.

In 1300, the world of the eastern Mediterraneanwas seeing changes. The Byzantine Empire was

fading. The Seljuk Turk state had been destroyedby the Mongols. Anatolia, the area of modernTurkey, was now inhabited by groups of nomadicTurks. They saw themselves as ghazis, or warriorsfor Islam. They formed military groups and raidedthe lands where non-Muslims lived.

The most successful ghazi was Osman. WesternEuropeans took his name to be Othman and calledhis followers Ottomans. Between 1300 and 1326,Osman built a strong but small kingdom in Anatolia.Leaders who came after Osman called themselvessultans, or “ones with power.” They extended thekingdom by buying land, forming alliances withother chieftains, and conquering everyone theycould. The military success of the Ottomans wasaided by gunpowder—especially as used in cannons.

The Ottomans ruled kindly through local offi-cials appointed by the sultan. Muslims had to servein the army but paid no taxes. Non-Muslims paidthe tax but did not have to serve in the army. Manyjoined Islam simply to avoid the tax. Most people intheir empire adjusted quickly to their easy rule.

One warrior did not. Timur the Lame, calledTamerlane in the west, arose in central Asia. Heclaimed to be descended from Genghis Khan. Theclaim probably is not true—but he was as fierce asthe Mongol conqueror. He conquered Russia andPersia, where he burned the city of Baghdad to theground. In 1402, he defeated the Ottomans in bat-tle and captured the sultan. Timur died three yearslater on his way to conquer China.

Back in Anatolia, the four sons of the last sultanfought for control of the empire. Mehmed I won

control, and his son and the four following sultansbrought the Ottoman Empire to its greatest power.One of them—Mehmed II—took power in 1451and captured Constantinople. At first, his shipswere unable to sail near the city because barriersblocked the way. So he had his soldiers drag theships over hills so they could be launched onanother side of Constantinople. After several weeksof fighting, the Ottoman force was simply too strongfor the tiny army left in the city. In 1453, Constan-tinople finally fell to the Ottomans. Mehmed madethe city his capital, which was renamed Istanbul.The famous and beautiful church of the HagiaSophia became a mosque. The rebuilt city becamehome to people from all over the Ottoman Empire.

Other emperors used conquest to make theempire grow. After 1514, Selim the Grim took Persia,Syria, and Palestine. He then captured Arabia, tookthe Muslim holy cities of Medina and Mecca, andgained control of Egypt.

His son, Suleyman I, brought the OttomanEmpire to its greatest size and most impressiveachievements. He conquered parts of southeasternEurope by 1525. He won control of the entire easternMediterranean Sea and took North Africa as far westas Tripoli. Although he was defeated in a battle forVienna in 1529, his Ottoman Empire remained huge.

Suleyman ruled his empire with a highly struc-tured government. Serving the royal family and thegovernment were thousands of slaves. Among themwas an elite group of soldiers called janissaries.They were Christians taken as children and madeslaves with personal loyalty to the sultan. They weretrained as soldiers and fought fiercely for the sultan.Other slaves held important government jobs. Theempire allowed people to follow their own religion.Jews and Christians were not mistreated by theOttomans. Suleyman revised the laws of theempire, which won him the name Suleyman theLawgiver. Suleyman also oversaw an empire that

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was full of accomplished works of art. Using anexcellent architect, he built many fine buildings inhis capital.

The empire lasted long after Suleyman butspent the next few hundred years in decline. Noneof the sultans were as accomplished as he hadbeen, and the Ottoman Empire’s power slipped.

Cultural BlendingCase Study: The SafavidEmpire

KEY IDEA Many world cultures incorporate influencesfrom various peoples and traditions.

Throughout history, different peoples have livedtogether, and their cultures have influenced one

another. Often these people have blended one culture with another. This can be due to trade, conquest, movement of people from one area toanother, or conversion to a new religion.

Changes often happen in places where culturalblending takes place. Changes in language, arts andarchitecture or religion are examples. For example inthe Safavid empire the spoken language was Persian.But after Muslims came to live in the empire, Arabicwords appeared in the Persian language.

Cultural blending took place in the SafavidEmpire of Persia. The Safavids began as membersof an Islamic group that claimed to be related to theprophet Muhammad. In the 1400s, they becameallied with the Shi’a, a branch of Islam. The majorgroup of Muslims, the Sunnis, persecuted the Shi’afor their views. The Safavids, fearing their strongneighbors who were Sunni Muslims, decided tobuild a strong army to protect themselves.

In 1499, a 14-year-old leader named Isma’il ledthis army to conquer Iran. He took the traditionalPersian title of shah, or king, and made the newempire a state of Shi’a. He destroyed Baghdad’sSunni population. Ottoman Turk rulers—who wereSunni Muslims—in turn killed all the Shi’a thatthey met. This conflict between the two groups ofMuslims continues today.

The Safavids reached their height in the late1500s under Shah Abbas. He reformed the military,making two armies that were loyal to him and himalone. He also gave new weapons to the army tomake them better fighters. He reformed the gov-ernment, getting rid of corrupt officials. He alsobrought gifted artists to his empire, who helpedmake his capital and other cities very beautiful. In

taking these steps, Shah Abbas drew on good ideasfrom other cultures. He used Chinese artists andenjoyed good relations with nations of Europe.Through this contact, the demand for Persian rugsincreased greatly in Europe. In this period, rug-making, which had simply been a local craft inPersia, was changed into a major industry for thecountry.

As with the Ottoman Empire, the SafavidEmpire began to decline soon after it had reachedits greatest height. Shah Abbas had killed orinjured his most talented sons—just as Suleimanhad done—fearing that they would seize powerfrom him. As a result, a weak and ineffective grand-son became shah after him. Under his poor leader-ship, the empire lost power.

While the empire fell, the blended culture thatthe Safavid Empire had created continued. Themain elements of that culture were the joiningtogether of the Persian tradition of learning andsophistication and the devout faith of the Shi’a.These elements are found in Iran even today.

The Mughal Empire in IndiaKEY IDEA The Mughal Empire brought Turks, Persians,and Indians together in a vast empire.

Starting in the 600s, India went through a longperiod of unsettled life and trouble. After the

Gupta Empire fell, nomads from central Asiainvaded the area and created many small kingdoms.In the 700s, Muslims arrived on the scene. Theirarrival launched a long history of fighting betweenthem and the Hindus who had lived in India forcenturies.

The Hindus were able to prevent the Muslimsfrom taking their land for about 300 years. Then agroup of Muslim Turks conquered a region aroundthe city of Delhi and set up a new empire there.They treated the Hindus in their area harshly. Theirrule ended in 1398, when Timur the Lame totallydestroyed Delhi.

A little over a hundred years later, a new powerarose. Babur had a small kingdom north of India.He raised an army and began to win large parts ofIndia. Babur had many talents. He was a lover ofpoetry and gardens and a sensitive man who usedhis feelings for others to become a superb leader. Hewas also an excellent general. He once led a forceof only 12,000 soldiers to victory over an enemyarmy of 100,000. His empire was called the Mughal

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Empire because he and his families were related tothe Mongols.

Babur’s grandson, Akbar, was equally talented.His name means “Greatest One,” and the nameseems suitable to the man. He ruled with great wis-dom and fairness for almost 40 years.

Akbar was a Muslim, but he believed stronglythat people should be allowed to follow the religionthey chose. He set an example by letting his wivespractice whatever religion they chose. In his gov-ernment, too, Akbar hired people based on theirability and not their religion. Both Hindus andMuslims gained jobs as government workers.

Akbar ruled fairly. He ended the tax that Hindupilgrims had to pay. He also ended the tax that allnon-Muslims had to pay. To raise money, he imposeda tax based on a percentage of the food grown. Thismade it easier for peasants to pay the tax. His landpolicy was less wise. He generously gave land togovernment officials. However, when they died hetook it back and handed it to someone else. As aresult, workers did not see any point in caring forthe land because they were not preserving it fortheir children.

He had a strong, well-equipped army that helpedhim win and maintain control of more lands. Hisempire held about 100 million people—more thanlived in all of Europe at the time.

During Akbar’s reign, many changes in culturetook place. His policy of blending different culturesproduced two new languages. Hindi blended Persianand local languages. It is still widely spoken in Indiatoday. Urdu grew out of a mixture of Arabic, Persian,and Hindi and was spoken by the soldiers in Akbar’scamp. Today it is the official language of Pakistan.The empire became famous for its book illustra-tions, which were adapted from the art of Persia.Akbar—who could not read—had a huge library ofbooks and served as a patron to many writers. Healso sponsored the building of a new capital cityand many buildings.

After Akbar’s death in 1605, the empire beganto decline. During the reign of Jahangir, the realpower was his wife, Nur Jahan. She was an ableruler but had a bitter political battle with one ofJahangir’s sons. Since that son found help from theSikhs—members of a separate religion—that groupbecame the target of attacks by the government.

Jahangir’s successor was Shah Jahan, and he toochose not to follow Akbar’s policy of religious toler-ation. Shah Jahan was a great patron of the arts

and built many beautiful buildings, including thefamous Taj Mahal. It was a tomb for his belovedwife. However, his ambitious building plans requiredhigh taxes, and the people suffered under his rule.

His son Aurangzeb ruled for almost 50 years and made the empire grow once again with newconquests. However, his rule brought about newproblems. A serious Muslim, the new ruler putharsh new laws in place. He punished Hindus anddestroyed their temples, which produced a rebellionthat managed to take control of part of his empire.At the same time, the Sikhs had become skilledfighters, and they won control of another part ofthe empire. To fight these battles, Aurangzeb hadto increase taxes. Since he only taxed Hindus, notMuslims, this move only made large numbers ofpeople more and more angry.

After his death, the empire fell apart, and localleaders took control of small areas. There continuedto be a Mughal emperor, but he was only a figure-head, not a ruler with any real power.

Review1. Clarifying How did the Ottomans treat non-

Muslims?2. Summary What were Suleyman’s major

accomplishments?3. Determining Main Ideas Despite their bril-

liant rule, what critical mistake did Suleiman andShah Abbas make?

4. Drawing Conclusions What evidence of cul-tural blending can you find in Akbar’s rule?

5. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsHow did Akbar’s successors contribute to theend of the Mughal Empire?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF An Age of Exploration andIsolation, 1400–1800

CHAPTER OVERVIEW “God, glory, and gold” drove Europeans’ early exploration ofAsia. They took control of Asian trade, with Portugal leading the way. Eventually,nations of northern Europe displaced the Portuguese. Two dynasties in Chinaresisted the growing power of Europeans in Asia, limiting Chinese contact withforeigners. In Japan, a new system of government brought peace and isolation.

Summary

Europeans Explore the EastKEY IDEA Driven by the desire for wealth and to spreadChristianity, Europeans began an age of exploration.

For many centuries, Europeans had been largely,though not completely, isolated from contact

with people from other lands. That changed in the 1400s. One reason for this change was thatEuropeans hoped to gain new sources of wealth. Byexploring the seas far from Europe, traders hopedto find new, faster routes to Asia—the source ofspices and luxury goods. Their goal was to win accessto these lands and bypass the Muslims and Italianswho currently controlled this trade. Another reasonwas the desire to spread Christianity to new lands.The Crusades had ended, but bad feelings betweenChristians and Muslims remained. The Christiansof Europe wanted to convert the people of Asia.

Advances in technology made these voyagespossible. A new kind of ship, the caravel, wasstronger built than earlier ships. It had triangle-shaped sails that allowed it to sail against the wind.Ships could now travel far out into the ocean. Themagnetic compass allowed sea captains to betterstay on course.

The first nation to develop and use these newtechnologies was Portugal. Prince Henry ofPortugal was deeply committed to the idea ofexploring beyond the seas. In 1419, he started aschool of navigation where sea captains, mapmak-ers, and navigators could meet, learn, and exchangeideas. Over the next few decades, Portuguese cap-tains sailed farther and farther down the west coastof Africa. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias led the first voy-age to reach the southern tip of Africa. Ten yearslater, Vasco da Gama led a ship 27,000 milesaround Africa, to India, and back. The Portuguesehad found a sea route to Asia.

The Spanish, meanwhile, had plans of their own.Italian sailor Christopher Columbus convinced theking and queen that he could reach Asia by sailing

west. In 1492, instead of landing in Asia, Columbustouched land in the islands of the Americas, landunknown to Europeans. At first, though, peoplestill thought that he had landed in Asia. Spain andPortugal argued over which nation had the rights tothe land that Columbus had claimed. In 1494, theysigned the Treaty of Tordesillas. It divided the worldinto two areas. Portugal won the right to controlthe eastern parts and Spain the western parts—including most of the Americas.

Portugal moved quickly to make the new IndianOcean route pay off. In 1509, it defeated a Muslimfleet off the coast of India and thus became the mas-ter of Indian trade. Soon, it captured cities in Indiaand on the Malay peninsula. Portugal now hadpower over islands that were so rich in desirablespices that they were called the Spice Islands. Spicesnow cost Europeans one-fifth of what they had costbefore, while still making Portugal very wealthy.

Other European nations joined in this trade. Inthe 1600s, the English and Dutch entered the EastIndies to challenge Portugal. The Dutch fleet—about 20,000 ships—was the largest in the world.These two nations quickly broke Portuguese powerin the area. Then both nations set up an East IndiaCompany to control Asian trade. These companieswere more than businesses. They were like govern-ments, with the power to make money, signtreaties, and raise their own armies. The Dutchmanaged to drive out the English and grab theAsian trade for themselves.

The Dutch made their trading headquarters onthe island of Java in the East Indies. By 1700, theDutch ruled much of Indonesia. They had tradingposts in many other Asian countries and com-manded the southern tip of Africa. At the sametime, both England and France finally gainedfootholds in India.

While the Europeans controlled the tradebetween Asia and Europe, they had little impact

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on most people living in these areas. From 1500 to1800, the people of Asia were largely untouched bythe European traders.

China Limits EuropeanContacts

KEY IDEA Advances under the Ming and Qing dynastiesleft China self-contained and uninterested in Europeancontact.

Mongol rule in China ended in 1368 whenHongwu led a rebel army that took control of

the country. He declared himself the first emperorof the Ming Dynasty, which was to last for almost300 years. Hongwu began his rule by increasing the amount of food produced, improving irrigation,and raising cotton and sugar cane. He also madechanges that improved the government of China.Later he grew suspicious and untrusting. He causedthe deaths of many people whom he suspected ofplotting against him.

His son Yonglo continued his better policies andalso launched a major effort at making contact withother Asian peoples. Beginning in 1405, an admiralnamed Zheng He led several voyages to SoutheastAsia, India, Arabia, and Africa. The goal was toimpress other people with the power and wealth ofChina. He also wanted to convince them to paytribute to China each year. By sending gifts eachyear, these peoples would recognize that China wassuperior to them. Gifts did flow to China, butscholar-officials said that the voyages wasted valu-able resources. Zheng He’s journeys were stoppedafter seven years.

China allowed Europeans to trade officially atonly three ports. China became isolated. However,illegal trade took place all along the coast. BecauseEuropeans wanted Chinese silk and ceramics, thepeople began making large amounts of these goods.Europeans paid silver for them. Manufacturingnever grew very large in China, however. TheConfucian ideas that shaped Chinese thinking saidthat farming was a better way of life, so manufac-turing was heavily taxed. European missionariesentered China at this time, bringing bothChristianity and new technology.

The power of the Ming Dynasty declinedbecause the government could not solve several

problems. Rebels from Manchuria—a land to thenorth of China—took control of the country in1644 and started a new dynasty called the Qing. Atfirst, the Chinese people did not accept the newrulers, who were not Chinese. However, the Qingemperors won their support by taking steps toimprove conditions in the country and by preserv-ing Chinese traditions.

Two emperors were the most effective. Kangxiruled from 1661 to 1721 and his grandson Qian-longserved from 1736 to 1795. They brought China toits largest size, increased its wealth, and sponsoredan increase in artistic production.

Qian-long had problems to face, however. Onewas the matter of trade. The Chinese insisted thatEuropeans had to follow certain rules in order tocontinue trading with them. The Dutch were will-ing to do so, and they carried on the largest share oftrade with China. The British, though, did notagree to following these rules. This disagreementlater led to conflict that broke up China’s empire.

In China, the production of rice and the longperiod of peace gave the people better lives. In the1600s and 1700s, the number of people in Chinaalmost doubled, rising to more than 300 million by 1800. The huge majority of these people werefarmers. Because of the use of fertilizer and betterirrigation, they could grow more food. They alsobegan to grow new crops brought over from theAmericas, such as corn and sweet potatoes. As aresult, the level of nutrition improved, which led tothe growth in population.

Women suffered in this period, however. Sonswere valued over daughters. It was felt only sonscould carry out family religious duties and tend tothe family farm. For that reason, many infant girlswere killed, and adult women were given fewrights.

The invasions by the foreigners from Manchuriaand the pressure from European traders botheredthe Chinese. Artists created books and paintingsthat showed traditional Chinese values and ideas.Plays about Chinese history and heroes were popu-lar. They helped to unify the Chinese people. Atthe same time, a feeling of national pride also wasrising in neighboring Korea, a land that had longbeen dominated by China.

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Japan Returns to IsolationKEY IDEA The Tokugawa regime unified Japan and begana 200-year period of isolation, autocracy, and economicgrowth.

From 1467 to 1568, Japan entered a long, darkperiod of civil war. Powerful warriors took con-

trol of large areas of land. They were called daimyo.They became the most important powers in thecountry in a feudal system similar to that ofEurope’s Middle Ages. The daimyo built strongcastles. They also had small armies of samurai war-riors on horses and soldiers on foot with guns. Theyfought each other constantly to gain more land forthemselves.

In 1568, one of the daimyo took control of Kyoto,the site of the emperor’s capital. He was unable towin complete control of Japan, however. Anothergeneral, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, continued the workof bringing all of Japan under one rule. Using mili-tary conquest and clever diplomacy, he won thatgoal in 1590. He failed in his effort to captureKorea, however, and died in 1598.

The work of unifying Japan was completed byTokugawa Ieyasu, who became the shogun, or soleruler. He moved the capital of Japan to a smallfishing village named Edo. Later, it grew to becomethe city of Tokyo. While all of Japan was ruled byTokugawa, the daimyo still held much power in theirlands. Tokugawa solved that problem by forcing themto follow his orders. He required them to live everyother year in his capital—and leave their families inthe capital with him during the other years. As aresult, no daimyo was able to rebel against his power.Tokugawa died in 1616. All of the shoguns to followhim were from his family. They maintained a strongcentral government in Japan. This system of rule,called the Tokugawa Shogunate, lasted until 1867.

The new government brought about a longperiod of peace and prosperity for most people.Peasant farmers suffered greatly during this time,however. They worked long and hard on the farmsand paid heavy taxes. Many left the countryside tomove to the cities. By the mid-1700s, Edo hadmore than a million people and was perhaps thelargest city in the world. Women found moreopportunities for work in this and other cities thanthey had in the country.

A traditional culture thrived. It preferred cere-monial Noh dramas, stories of ancient warriors, andpaintings of classical scenes. However, in cities, newstyles emerged. Townspeople attended kabuki the-ater dramas of urban life. They hung woodblockprints of city scenes in their homes.

Europeans began to arrive in Japan. In 1543,the Portuguese were first. They brought such goodsas clocks, eyeglasses, and guns. Japanese merchantsand the daimyo welcomed them at first. They evenwelcomed the Christian missionaries who came after1549, hoping to convert the Japanese to Christianity.

Some missionaries scorned traditional Japanesebeliefs, though. Tokugawa became worried. In 1612,he banned Christianity from the country. Over thenext 20 years or so, Japan managed to rid the coun-try of all Christians. This effort became part of alarger plan to protect the country from Europeaninfluence. In 1639, leaders sealed Japan’s bordersexcept for one port city. It was open to only theChinese and the Dutch. The Tokugawa shogunscontrolled that port city, so they had tight controlover all foreign contact. For the next 200 years,Japan remained closed to virtually all Europeancontact.

ReviewAnalyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects1. Why did the Europeans begin to explore over-

seas, and what technological changes made itpossible?

2. Why did the Chinese stop the voyages of ZhengHe?

3. What factors led to the growth in the Chinesepopulation?

4. Determining Main Ideas What social changestook place in Tokugawa Japan?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Absolute Monarchs in Europe,1500–1800

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Spain lost territory and money. The Netherlands split fromSpain and grew rich from trade. For a time, France was Europe’s most powerfulcountry, where King Louis XIV ruled with total control. Austria’s queen resisted a Prussian land grab. Peter the Great modernized Russia. England’s Parliamentstruggled with different kings and became the greatest power in the country.

Summary

Spain’s Empire andEuropean Absolutism

KEY IDEA During a time of religious and economic insta-bility, Philip II ruled Spain with a strong hand.

Charles V ruled the Holy Roman Empire andvarious other European countries. In 1556, he

retired from the throne and split his holdings. Hisbrother Ferdinand received Austria and the HolyRoman Empire. His son, Philip II, got Spain and itscolonies.

Philip expanded his holdings by taking Portugaland gaining its global territories. When he tried toinvade England in 1588, though, he failed. Thedefeat made Spain weaker. However, Spain stillseemed strong because of its wealth—gold and sil-ver—that flowed in from the colonies in theAmericas.

This wealth led to some serious problems, how-ever. The prices of goods constantly rose. Also,unfair taxes hit the poor, keeping them from build-ing up any wealth of their own. As prices rose,Spaniards bought more goods from other lands.The silver from the colonies, then, began to flow toSpain’s enemies.

In the middle of these troubles, Spain lost land.Seven provinces of the Spanish Netherlands rose inprotest against high taxes. Also, they were Protestantand Spain was strongly Catholic. In 1579, theseseven provinces declared their independence fromSpain.

In the new Dutch republic, each province had aleader elected by the people. The Dutch also prac-ticed religious tolerance, letting people worship asthey wished. Dutch merchants established a tradingempire. They had the largest fleet of merchantships in the world and were the most importantbankers in Europe.

Though he lost possessions, Philip held tightcontrol over Spain. He and others who ruled in the

same way were called absolute monarchs. Theybelieved in holding all power. The Church’s powerhad weakened, which helped make this possible.Some absolute rulers ended conflict within theircountries by increasing their power. That is whathappened in France.

The Reign of Louis XIVKEY IDEA After a century of wars and riots, Louis XIV,the most powerful monarch of his time, ruled France.

France was torn by eight religious wars betweenCatholics and Protestants from 1562 to 1598.

In 1589, a Protestant prince, Henry of Navarre,became King Henry IV. He changed religions in1593, becoming a Catholic to please the majority ofhis people. In 1598, he issued an order called theEdict of Nantes. It gave Huguenots—FrenchProtestants—the right to live in peace and havetheir own churches in some cities.

Henry rebuilt the French economy and broughtpeace to the land. He was followed by his son, aweak king. However, that son had a very capablechief minister, Cardinal Richelieu. He ruled theland for him and increased the power of the crown.

The cardinal ordered that Huguenots could notbuild walls for their cities. He also said nobles hadto destroy their castles. As a result, Protestants andnobles could not hide within walls to defy the king’spower. Richelieu used people from the middleclass—not nobles—to work in his government.That also cut nobles’ power.

French thinkers had reacted to the religiouswars with horror. They developed a new attitude—skepticism. Nothing could be known for certain,they argued. Doubting old ideas was the first stepto learning the truth, they said.

In 1643, Louis XIV, age four, became king.Cardinal Mazarin ruled for him until Louis was 22.Louis became a powerful ruler, with total control.

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Louis determined never to let nobles challenge him.He froze the nobles out of his government. He

gave more power to government officials and madesure that they answered only to him. He alsoworked hard to increase the wealth of France. Hischief minister of finance, Jean Baptiste Colbert,tried to build French industry. Colbert aimed toconvince French people to buy French-made goodsand not those from other countries. He urged peo-ple to settle in the new French colony in Canada.The fur trade there brought wealth to France.

Louis enjoyed a life of luxury at his court. Hebuilt a huge and beautiful palace at Versailles nearParis. He also made sure that nobles had to dependon his favor in order to advance in society.

Louis made France the most powerful nation inEurope. France had more people and a larger armythan any other country. However, Louis made somemistakes that later proved costly. After winning somewars against neighboring countries, he becamebolder and tried to seize more land. Other nationsjoined together to stop France by the late 1680s.The high cost of these wars combined with poorharvests to produce problems at home in France.

The final war fought in Louis’s time lasted from1700 to 1714. In this War of the Spanish Succession,France and Spain attempted to set up unitedthrones. The rest of Europe felt threatened andjoined in war against them. Both France and Spainwere forced to give up some of their American andEuropean colonies to England, the new risingpower.

Central European Monarchs Clash

KEY IDEA After a period of turmoil, absolute monarchsruled Austria and the German state of Prussia.

Germany had suffered from religious wars thatended in 1555. Rulers of each state agreed

that they would decide whether their lands wouldbe Catholic or Protestant. Over the next decades,though, the two sides had tense relations. In 1618, anew war broke out and lasted for 30 terrible years.

In the first half of the war, Catholic forces ledby Ferdinand, the Holy Roman Emperor, won.However, Germany suffered, because he allowedhis large army to loot towns. Then the Protestantking of Sweden won several battles against him. In the last years of the war, France helped theProtestants. Although France was a Catholic nation,

Richelieu feared growing Hapsburg family power.The Thirty Years’ War ended in 1648 with the

Peace of Westphalia. It had been a disaster forGermany. About 4 million people had died, and theeconomy was in ruins. It took Germany two centuriesto recover. The peace weakened the power of Austriaand Spain and made France stronger. Because of thiswar, each nation of Europe was seen as having anequal right to negotiate with all the others.

While strong states arose in western Europe,none emerged in central Europe. The economiesthere were less developed than in the West. Mostpeople were still peasants. This region had not builtan economy based in towns. Nobles enjoyed greatpower, which kept the power of rulers in check.Still, two important powers arose.

The Hapsburg family ruled Austria, Hungary,and Bohemia in an empire that linked many differ-ent peoples. Maria Theresa, Queen of Austria,managed to increase her power and cut that of thenobles. She was opposed by the kings of Prussia, anew state in northern Germany. Those kings built a strong state with much power given to the large,well-trained army. In 1740, Frederick the Great ofPrussia invaded one of Maria Theresa’s lands. Thequeen fought hard to keep the territory, but lost.Still, in fighting this War of the Austrian Succession,she managed to keep the rest of her empire intact.The two sides fought again beginning in 1756. Inthis Seven Years’ War, Austria abandoned Britain,its old ally, for France and Russia. Prussia joinedwith Britain. The Prussians and British won. In thatvictory, Britain gained complete control overFrance’s colonies in North America and India.

Absolute Rulers of RussiaKEY IDEA Peter the Great made many changes inRussia to try to make it more like western Europe.

Ivan III had made Moscow the center of a newRussian state with a central government. His son

continued that work. His grandson, Ivan IV—calledIvan the Terrible—began as a successful ruler. Headded lands to Russia and gave the country a codeof laws. After his wife died, however, he ruledharshly. He used secret police to hunt down oppo-nents and kill them. Ivan even killed his own oldestson. A few years after he died, Russian nobles metto name a new ruler. They chose Michael Romanov,the grandnephew of Ivan IV’s wife. He began adynasty that ruled Russia for about 300 years.

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The Romanovs restored order to Russia. In thelate 1600s, Peter I—called Peter the Great—beganan intense program of trying to modernize Russia.Peter admired the nations of western Europe. Hetraveled in Europe to learn about new technologyand ways of working. He returned to Russia deter-mined to make his country more advanced. His firststeps were to increase the powers of the czar, orruler, so he could force people to make the changeshe wanted. He put the Russian Orthodox Churchunder his own control. He cut the power of nobles.He built up the army and made it better trained.

He took several steps to make Russia morewestern. He brought potatoes as a new food, beganRussia’s first newspaper, gave more social status towomen, and told the nobles to adopt Westernclothes. He promoted education and built a grandnew capital city, St. Petersburg, on the shores ofthe Baltic Sea.

Parliament Limits theEnglish Monarchy

KEY IDEA Absolute monarchs in England were over-thrown, and Parliament gained power.

When Queen Elizabeth I died, her cousin James,king of Scotland, became king of England.

James fought with Parliament over money. His reli-gious policies also angered the Puritans in Parliament.They wanted to reform the English church to rid it ofCatholic practices. James was unwilling to make thesechanges.

His son, Charles I, continued the tensionbetween king and Parliament. Parliament forcedhim to sign a Petition of Right in 1628. By signing,Charles allowed that the king was answerable toParliament. Then he dissolved the Parliament andtried to raise money without it—going directlyagainst the Petition of Right.

Other actions of Charles had caused Scotland tothreaten to invade England. To meet the danger,Charles needed some money, and to raise taxes heneeded Parliament. When Charles called a newParliament, it quickly passed laws to limit hispower. Charles responded by trying to arrest itsleaders. Soon England was plunged into a civil war:Charles and his Royalists against the supporters ofParliament, many of whom were Puritans.

The English Civil War lasted from 1642 to 1649.Under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, the forces

of the Puritans won. They tried and executed Charlesfor treason—the first time a king had ever been exe-cuted in public. Cromwell became a military dictator,ruling until 1658. He crushed a rebellion in Irelandand tried to reform society at home. Soon after hisdeath, though, the government collapsed. The newParliament asked Charles’s older son to restore themonarchy. Charles II began to rule in 1660.

Charles II’s reign was a period of calm after tur-moil. After his death in 1685, James II becameking. His pro-Catholic policies angered and worriedthe English, who feared that he would restoreCatholicism. Finally, in 1688, seven members ofParliament contacted James’s older daughter, Mary,and her husband, William of Orange, prince of theNetherlands—both Protestants. They wanted themto replace James II on the throne. The event wascalled the Glorious Revolution, a bloodless revolu-tion that forced James to flee to France. Williamand Mary agreed, swearing to rule according to thelaws made by Parliament. They agreed to acceptthe Bill of Rights, which guaranteed English peoplecertain rights. From then on, no king or queencould rule England without the consent ofParliament.

Review1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

Why did Spain weaken in power?2. Summarizing How did Richelieu and Louis

XIV increase the power of the French king?3. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

How did the Thirty Years’ War affect Germany?4. Clarifying What did Peter the Great do to

modernize Russia?5. Drawing Conclusions How did England

develop away from an absolute monarchy?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Enlightenment and Revolution,1550–1789

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Starting in the 1500s, European thinkers overturned old ideas about the physical world with a new approach to science. Thinkers of theEnlightenment hoped to use reason to make a better society in which people werefree. Enlightenment ideas spread throughout Europe. They had a profound effectin North America, forming the basis of the new government of the United States.

Summary

The Scientific RevolutionKEY IDEA In the mid-1500s, scientists began to questionaccepted beliefs and make new theories based onexperimentation.

During the Middle Ages, few scholars ques-tioned ideas that had always been accepted.

Europeans based ideas about the physical world onwhat ancient Greeks and Romans believed or whatwas said in the Bible. Therefore, people stillthought that the earth was the center of the uni-verse. To them, the sun, moon, other planets, andstars moved around it.

In the mid-1500s, however, attitudes changed.Scholars now started a scientific revolution drawnfrom a spirit of curiosity. One factor was the newfocus on careful observation. Another was the will-ingness to question old beliefs. European explo-rations were a third factor. When they reached newlands, Europeans saw new plants and animals neverseen by ancient writers. These discoveries led tothe opening of new courses of study in universities.

The first challenge came in astronomy. In theearly 1500s, Nicolaus Copernicus studied the starsand planets for many years. He concluded that theearth, like the other planets, revolved around thesun, and the moon revolved around the earth.Fearing attack, he did not publish his findings untiljust before his death. In the early 1600s, JohannesKepler used mathematics to confirm Copernicus’sbasic idea.

An Italian scientist—Galileo Galilei—made sev-eral discoveries that undercut ancient ideas. Hemade one of the first telescopes and used it to studythe planets. He found that Jupiter had moons, thesun had spots, and Earth’s moon was rough. Thesestatements went against church teaching, and Galileowas forced to deny their truth. Still, his ideas spread.

Interest in science led to a new approach, thescientific method. With this method, scientists ask a question based on something they have seen in

the physical world. They form a hypothesis, or anattempt to answer the question. Then they test thehypothesis by making experiments or checkingother facts. Finally, they change the hypothesis ifneeded. The English writer Francis Bacon helpedfoster this new approach to knowledge by tellingscientists they should base their ideas on what theycan see and test in the world. The French mathe-matician René Descartes also had great influence.His thinking was based on logic and mathematics.

In the mid-1600s, the English scientist IsaacNewton described the law of gravity. Using mathe-matics, Newton showed that the same force ruledthe motion of planets and the action of bodies onthe earth.

Scientists made new tools to study the worldaround them. One invented a microscope to studycreatures too small for the naked eye to see. Othersinvented tools for understanding weather.

Doctors also made advances. One made draw-ings that showed the different parts of the humanbody. Another learned how the heart pumped bloodthrough the body. In the late 1700s, Edward Jennerfirst used the process called vaccination to preventdisease. By giving a person the germs from a cattledisease called cowpox, he helped that person avoidgetting the more serious human disease of smallpox.Scientists made advances in chemistry as well. Onechallenged the old idea that things were made ofonly four elements—earth, air, fire, and water. Heand other scientists were able to separate oxygenfrom air.

The Enlightenment in Europe

KEY IDEA A revolution in intellectual activity changedEuropeans’ view of government and society.

New ways of thinking arose in other areas. In the intellectual movement called the

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Enlightenment, thinkers tried to apply reason andscientific method to laws that shaped human actions.They hoped to build a society founded on ideas ofthe Scientific Revolution.

Two English writers were important to thismovement. Thomas Hobbes wrote that without agovernment, there would be a war of “every managainst every man.” As a result, Hobbes said, peo-ple formed a social contract—an agreement—inwhich they gave up their rights so they couldsecure order and safety. The best government, hesaid, is that of a strong king who can force peopleto obey. John Locke believed that all people havethe rights to life, liberty, and property. The purposeof government is to protect those rights. When itfails to do so, he said, people have a right to over-throw the government.

A group of French thinkers had wide influence.They had five main beliefs: (1) thinkers can find thetruth by using reason; (2) what is natural is goodand reasonable, and human actions are shaped bynatural laws; (3) acting according to nature canbring happiness; (4) by taking a scientific view, people and society can make progress and advanceto a better life; and (5) by using reason, people cangain freedom.

Three French thinkers had great influence.Voltaire wrote against intolerance and criticized the laws and customs of France. The Baron deMontesquieu made a long study of laws and gov-ernments. He thought government power shouldbe separated into different branches. Each shouldbe able to check the other branches to preventthem from abusing their power. Jean JacquesRousseau wrote strongly in favor of human free-dom. He wanted a society in which all people wereequal. The Italian Cesare Beccaria wrote aboutcrime and justice. Trials should be fair, he said, andpunishments should be made to fit the crime.

Many Enlightenment thinkers held traditionalviews about women’s place in society. They urgedequal rights for all men but ignored the fact thatwomen did not enjoy such rights. Some womenprotested this unfairness. “If all men are born free,”wrote one, “how is it that all women are bornslaves?”

Enlightenment ideas had strong influence on theAmerican and French Revolutions, which came atthe end of the 1700s. They had three other effects.They helped spread the idea of progress. By usingreason, people thought, it is possible to make soci-

ety better. These ideas also helped make Westernsociety more secular—that is, more worldly and lessspiritual. Finally, Enlightenment ideas promotedthe notion that the individual person was important.

The Enlightenment Spreads KEY IDEA Enlightenment ideas spread through theWestern world, and influenced the arts and government.

In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural center ofEurope. People came there from other countries

in Europe and from the Americas to hear the newideas of the Enlightenment. Writers and artistsgathered in the homes of wealthy people to talkabout ideas. A woman named Marie-ThérèseGeoffrin became famous for hosting these discus-sions. She also supplied the money for one of themajor projects of the Enlightenment. With herfunds, Denis Diderot and other thinkers wrote and published a huge set of books called theEncyclopedia. Their aim was to gather together allthat was known about the world. The French gov-ernment and officials in the Catholic Church didnot like many of the ideas that were published inthe Encyclopedia. They banned the books at first,but later they revoked the ban.

Through the meetings in homes and works likethe Encyclopedia, the ideas of the Enlightenmentspread throughout Europe. The ideas also spreadto the growing middle class. This group of peoplewas becoming wealthy but had less social statusthan nobles and had very little political power.Ideas about equality sounded good to them.

Art moved in new directions, inspired by theEnlightenment ideas of order and reason. Artistsand architects worked to show balance and ele-gance. Composers wrote music of great appeal fortheir creative richness. In this period, the novelbecame a popular form of literature. This new formtold lengthy stories with many twists of plot thatexplored the thoughts and feelings of characters.

Some Enlightenment thinkers believed that thebest form of government was a monarchy. In it, aruler respected the rights of people. They tried toinfluence rulers to rule fairly. Rulers followed theseideas in part but were unwilling to give up muchpower. Frederick the Great made changes inPrussia. He gave his people religious freedom,improved schooling, and reformed the justice sys-tem. However, he did nothing to end serfdom,which made peasants slaves to the wealthy

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landowners. Joseph II of Austria did end serfdom.Once he died, though, the nobles who owned theland were able to undo his reform.

Catherine the Great of Russia was another ofthe rulers influenced by Enlightenment ideas. Shetried to reform Russia’s laws but met resistance.She hoped to end serfdom, but a bloody peasants’revolt convinced her to change her mind. Instead,she gave the nobles even more power over serfs.Catherine did manage to gain new land for Russia.Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed to dividePoland among themselves. As a result, Poland dis-appeared as a separate nation for almost 150 years.

The American RevolutionKEY IDEA Enlightenment ideas help spur the Americancolonies to create a new nation.

The British colonies in North America grew inpopulation and wealth during the 1700s. The

13 colonies also enjoyed a kind of self-government.People in the colonies began to see themselves lessand less as British subjects. Still, Parliament passedlaws that governed the colonies. One set of lawsbanned trade with any nation other than Britain.

The high cost of the French and Indian War,which ended in 1763, led Parliament to pass lawsthat put taxes on the colonists. The colonistsbecame very angry. They had never paid taxesdirectly to the British government before. Theysaid that the taxes violated their rights. SinceParliament had no members from the colonies,they said, Parliament had no right to pass tax lawsthat affected the colonies. They met the first tax,passed in 1765, with a boycott of British goods.Their refusal to buy British products was veryeffective and forced Parliament to repeal the law.

Over the next decade, colonists and Britaingrew further apart. Some colonists wanted to pushthe colonies to independence. They took actionsthat caused Britain to act harshly. These harshresponses, in turn, angered some moderatecolonists. Eventually, the conflict led to shooting.Representatives of the colonists met in a congressand formed an army. In July of 1776, theyannounced that they were independent of Britain.They issued a Declaration of Independence thatwas based on the ideas of the Enlightenment.

From 1775 to 1781, the colonists and Britainfought a war in North America. The colonists had a poorly equipped army and the British were pow-

erful. However, in the end, they won their in-dependence. The British people grew tired of thecost of the war and pushed Parliament to agree to apeace. The Americans were also helped greatly byaid from France. In 1783, the two sides signed atreaty in which Britain recognized the independentUnited States.

The 13 states formed a new government thatwas very weak. It struggled for a few years, butstates held all the power and the central govern-ment had little. In 1787, many leaders met againand wrote a new framework of government.

The Constitution of the United States drew onmany Enlightenment ideas. From Montesquieu, itput in effect the separation of powers into threebranches of government. Each branch was able toprevent other branches from abusing their power.From Locke, it put power in the hands of the peo-ple. From Voltaire, it protected the rights of peopleto free speech and freedom of religion. FromBeccaria, it set up a fair system of justice. Many ofthese rights were ensured in a set of additions tothe Constitution called the Bill of Rights. Approvalof these additions helped win approval of theConstitution as a whole.

Review1. Contrasting Contrast how people in the Middle

Ages and people in the scientific revolutionlooked at the physical world.

2. Determining Main Ideas How is the scientificrevolution connected to the Enlightenment?

3. Drawing Conclusions What were three majorideas of the Enlightenment?

4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsWhat factors led to the spread of theEnlightenment?

5. Analyzing Issues How did the government ofthe United States reflect Enlightenment ideas?

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The French RevolutionBegins

KEY IDEA Economic and social inequalities in the OldRegime helped cause the French Revolution.

In the 1700s, France was the leading country ofEurope. It was the center of the new ideas of

the Enlightenment. However, beneath the surfacethere were major problems causing unrest. Soonthe nation would be torn by a violent revolution.

One problem was that people were not treatedequally in French society. The French were dividedinto three classes, or estates. The First Estate con-sisted of the Roman Catholic clergy. The SecondEstate was made up of rich nobles. Only about twopercent of the people belonged to these twoestates. Yet they owned 20 percent of the land andpaid little or no taxes. They had easy lives.

Everybody else belonged to the Third Estate.This huge group included three types of people:• the bourgeoisie—mostly well-off merchants and

skilled workers who lacked the status of nobles• city workers—cooks, servants, and others who

were poorly paid and often out of work• peasants—farm workers, making up more than 80

percent of the French peopleMembers of the Third Estate were angry. They

had few rights. They paid up to half of their incomein taxes, while the rich paid almost none.

Three factors led to revolution. First, theEnlightenment spread the idea that everyoneshould be equal. The powerless people in the ThirdEstate liked that. Second, the French economy wasfailing. High taxes kept profits low, and food sup-plies were short. The government owed money.Third, King Louis XVI was a weak, unconcernedleader. His wife, Marie Antoinette, was a bigspender and was disliked.

In the 1780s, deeply in debt, France neededmoney. Louis tried to tax the nobles. Instead, theyforced the king to call a meeting of delegates of thethree estates to decide tax issues. The meeting began

in May 1789 with arguments over how to countvotes. In the past, each estate had cast one vote.The top two estates always voted together and gottheir way. Now the Third Estate delegates wantedto change the system. The Third Estate had asmany delegates as the other two estates combined.They wanted each delegate to have a vote. Theking and the other estates did not agree to the plan.

The Third Estate then broke with the others andmet separately. In June 1789, its delegates voted torename themselves the National Assembly. Theyclaimed to represent all the people. This was thebeginning of representative government for France.

Louis tried to make peace. He ordered the clergyand nobles to join the National Assembly. However,trouble erupted. Rumors flew that Swiss soldierspaid by Louis were going to attack French citizens.On July 14, an angry crowd captured the Bastille, aParis prison. The mob wanted to get gunpowderfor their weapons in order to defend the city.

A wave of violence called the Great Fear sweptthe country. Peasants broke into and burned nobles’houses. They tore up documents that had forcedthem to pay fees to the nobles. Late in 1789, a mobof women marched from Paris to the king’s palaceat Versailles. They were angry about high breadprices and demanded that the king move to Paris.They hoped he would end hunger in the city. Theking and queen left Versailles, never to return.

Revolution Brings Reformand Terror

KEY IDEA The revolutionary government of France madereforms but also used terror and violence to retain power.

In August 1789, the National Assembly took stepsto change France. One new law ended all the

special privileges that members of the First andSecond Estates had enjoyed. Another law gave allFrench men equal rights. Though women did notget these rights, it was a bold step. Other laws cutthe power of the Catholic Church. The government

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The French Revolution andNapoleon, 1789–1815

CHAPTER OVERVIEW France’s lower classes revolted against the king. Thousandsdied. Napoleon took control of France and created an empire. After his defeat,European leaders restored the rule of monarchs to the continent.

Summary

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took over church lands, hoping to sell them andraise money.

The new laws about the church divided peoplewho had backed the Revolution. Catholic peasantsremained loyal to the church. They were angry thatthe church would be part of the state. Thereafter,many of them opposed the Revolution’s reforms.

For months the assembly worked on plans for anew government. During this time, Louis was fear-ful for his safety in France. One night he and hisfamily tried to escape the country. They were caught,brought back to Paris, and lived under guard. Afterthis, the king and queen were even less popular.

In the fall of 1791, the assembly drew up a newconstitution that gave the king very little power.The assembly then handed over its power to a newassembly, the Legislative Assembly. After the newassembly began to meet, however, it divided intoopposing groups. Some wanted an end to revolu-tionary changes. Others wanted even more radicalchanges.

At the same time, France faced serious troubleon its borders. Kings in other countries feared thatthe French Revolution would spread to their lands.They wanted to use force to restore control ofFrance to Louis XVI. Soon France found itself atwar—a war it quickly began to lose. Foreign sol-diers were coming near to Paris. Many peoplethought that the king and queen were ready to helpthe enemy. Angry French citizens imprisoned them.Many nobles were killed in other mob action.

The government took strong steps to meet thedanger from foreign troops. It took away the king’spowers. In 1792, the National Convention—anothernew government—was formed. It declared Louis acommon citizen and then put him to death. It alsoordered thousands of French people into the army.

Soon one man, Maximilien Robespierre, beganto lead France. He made many changes. Heordered the death of many people who did notagree with him. His rule, which began in 1793, wascalled the Reign of Terror. It ended in July 1794,when Robespierre himself was put to death.

France got a new, but less revolutionary, plan ofgovernment. Tired of the killing and unrest, theFrench people wanted a return to order.

Napoleon Forges an EmpireKEY IDEA Napoleon Bonaparte, a military genius, seizedpower in France and made himself emperor.

Napoleon Bonaparte became the master ofFrance. In 1795, he led soldiers against

French royalists who were attacking the NationalConvention. For this, he was hailed as the savior ofthe French republic. Later he invaded Italy to endthe threat from Austrian troops located there.

By 1799, the unsettled French government hadlost the people’s support. In a bold move, Napoleonused troops to seize control of the government. Hethen wielded complete power over the country.Other nations feared his power and attacked Franceagain. Napoleon led his armies into battle. In 1802,the three nations fighting him agreed to a peace.Napoleon went back to solve problems at home.

He made several changes that were meant tobuild on the Revolution’s good ideas:1. He made tax collection more fair and orderly. As

a result, the government could count on a steadysupply of money.

2. He removed dishonest government workers.3. He started new public schools for ordinary

citizens.4. He gave the church back some of its power.5. He wrote a new set of laws that gave all French

citizens the same rights. However, the new lawstook away many individual rights won during theRevolution. For example, they limited freespeech and restored slavery in French colonies.Napoleon had hoped to make his empire larger

in both Europe and the New World. In 1801, hehad sent soldiers to retake the island of present-dayHaiti. During a civil war, slaves on the island hadseized power. But Napoleon had to give up on hisplan. Too many of his soldiers died in battle orfrom disease. Napoleon eventually abandoned hisNew World plans. In 1803, he sold the largest partof France’s North American land—the hugeLouisiana Territory—to the United States.

Stopped in the Americas, Napoleon moved toadd to his power in Europe. In 1804, he made him-self emperor of France. He quickly captured coun-try after country. Other nations joined against him.However, after Napoleon won a major battle inAustria in 1805, almost all of his European enemiesagreed to a peace treaty. Napoleon’s only loss dur-ing this time was to the British navy off the south-west coast of Spain. This loss prevented him from

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invading and conquering Britain. That failurewould be costly.

Napoleon’s Empire CollapsesKEY IDEA Napoleon’s conquests aroused nationalisticfeelings across Europe and contributed to his downfall.

Napoleon loved power. He took steps to makehis empire larger. However, these steps led to

mistakes that brought about his downfall.Napoleon’s first mistake was caused by his desire

to crush Britain. He wanted to hurt the British econ-omy. So in 1806 he tried stopping all trade betweenBritain and the lands he controlled. The effort failed,for some Europeans secretly brought in Britishgoods. At the same time, the British put their ownblockade around Europe. Because their navy was sostrong, it worked very well. Soon the French econ-omy, along with others, began to grow weak.

Napoleon’s second mistake was to make hisbrother king of Spain in 1808. The Spanish peoplewere loyal to their own king. With help fromBritain, they fought back against Napoleon for fiveyears. Napoleon lost 300,000 troops.

Napoleon’s third mistake was perhaps his worst.In 1812, he tried to conquer Russia, far to the east.He entered Russia with more than 400,000 sol-diers. He got as far as Moscow, which was desertedand on fire. His soldiers found no food or suppliesthere. Winter was coming, and Napoleon orderedthem to head back to France. As the soldiersmarched west, bitter cold, hunger, and attacks byRussian troops killed thousands. Thousands moredeserted. By the time the army exited Russian ter-ritory, only 10,000 of its men were able to fight.

Other leaders saw that Napoleon was weakernow, and they moved to attack. He was defeated inGermany in 1813. In 1814, Napoleon gave up histhrone and was sent away. Nevertheless, in March1815, he boldly returned to France. He took powerand raised another army. By June, though,Napoleon had lost his final battle near a Belgiantown called Waterloo. This time he was sent to afar-off island in the southern Atlantic Ocean. Hedied there in 1821.

The Congress of Vienna KEY IDEA After exiling Napoleon, European leaders atthe Congress of Vienna tried to restore order andreestablish peace.

After Napoleon’s first defeat, in 1814, leaders ofmany nations met for months. They tried to

draw up a peace plan for Europe that would lastmany years. They called the meeting the Congressof Vienna. The key person there was the foreignminister of Austria, Klemens von Metternich. Heshaped the peace conditions that were accepted.

Metternich insisted on three goals. First, hewanted to make sure that the French would notattack another country again. Second, he wanted abalance of power in which no one nation was toostrong. Third, he wanted to put kings back incharge of the countries from which they had beenremoved. The leaders agreed with Metternich’sideas. An age of European peace began.

Across Europe, kings and princes reclaimedtheir thrones. Most of them were conservatives anddid not encourage individual liberties. They did not want any calls for equal rights. However, manypeople still believed in the ideals of the FrenchRevolution. They thought that all people should beequal and share in power. Later they would fightfor these rights again.

People in the Americas also felt the desire forfreedom. Spanish colonies in the Americas revoltedagainst the restored Spanish king. Many nationswon independence from Spain. National feelinggrew in many places in Europe, too. Soon people inareas such as Italy, Germany, and Greece would rebeland form new countries. The French Revolution hadchanged the politics of Europe and beyond.

Review1. Analyzing Causes What factors led to the

French Revolution?2. Following Chronological Order Trace the

fate of Louis XVI during the Revolution.3. Summarizing What did Napoleon do to restore

order in France?4. Making Inferences Why did Napoleon’s empire

collapse?5. Determining Main Ideas What were the goals

of the Congress of Vienna?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West, 1789–1900

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Spurred by the French Revolution, Latin American colonieswon independence. In Europe, liberals and radicals pushed for change but con-servatives resisted. Nationalism spread throughout Europe, and Germany andItaly formed as nations. Artistic and intellectual movements emphasized natureand feelings, true life, and “impressions” of a subject or moment.

Summary

Latin American Peoples Win Independence

KEY IDEA Spurred by discontent and Enlightenmentideas, peoples in Latin America fought colonial rule.

In the early 1800s, colonial peoples throughoutLatin America followed the example of the

French Revolution. In the name of freedom andequality, they fought for their independence.

In Latin America, society was divided into sixclasses of people. Peninsulares—those born inSpain—were at the top. Next came creoles, orSpaniards who had been born in Latin America.Below them were mestizos, with mixed Europeanand Indian ancestry. Next were mulattos, withmixed European and African ancestry, and Afri-cans. At the bottom were Indians.

The first movement for independence was theFrench colony of Saint Domingue, on the island ofHispaniola. Almost all of the people who lived inthe colony were slaves of African origin. In 1791,about 100,000 of them rose in revolt. ToussaintL’Ouverture became the leader. By 1801, he hadmoved to the eastern part of the island and freedthe slaves there. In 1804, the former colonydeclared its independence as Haiti.

Meanwhile in other parts of Latin America, cre-oles felt that they were unfairly treated by the gov-ernment and the peninsulares. This bad feelingboiled over when Napoleon overthrew the king ofSpain and named his own brother as king. Creoles inLatin America had no loyalty to the new king andrevolted. However, even after the old king wasrestored, they did not give up their fight for freedom.

Two leaders pushed much of South America toindependence. Simón Bolívar was a writer, fighter,and political thinker. He survived defeats and exileto win independence for Venezuela in 1821. Joséde San Martín helped win independence forArgentina in 1816 and Chile in 1818. Bolívar ledtheir combined armies to a great victory in 1824

that gave independence to all the former Spanishcolonies.

Turmoil continued in the region. Local leadersdisagreed and split the new countries up into smallerunits. In 1830, the territory of Gran Colombiadivided into Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

In Mexico, mestizos and Indians led the fightfor independence. The struggle began in 1810when Miguel Hidalgo, a village priest, called for arevolt against Spanish rule. Creoles united withthe Spanish government to put down this revolt bythe lower classes, whom they feared. Fightingcontinued until 1815, when the creoles won. In1820, a new government took charge in Spain.Fearing that they would lose their rights this time,the creoles now united with the rebels and foughtfor independence. In 1821, Spain acceptedMexico’s independence. In 1823, the region ofCentral America separated itself from Mexico. In1841, the United Provinces of Central Americasplit into five republics.

In Brazil, independence took a different turn.When Napoleon’s armies entered Portugal in 1807,the royal family escaped to Brazil, its largest colony.For the next 14 years, it was the center of thePortuguese empire. By the time Napoleon wasdefeated, the people of Brazil wanted their inde-pendence. In 1822, 8,000 creoles signed a paperasking the son of Portugal’s king to rule an inde-pendent Brazil. He agreed, and Brazil became freethat year through a bloodless revolt.

Europe Faces RevolutionsKEY IDEA Liberal and nationalist uprisings challengedthe old conservative order of Europe.

In the first half of the 1800s, three forces strug-gled for power within the countries of Europe.

Conservatives supported the kings who had ruledthese lands for many centuries. These were noblesand other people who owned large amounts of

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property. Liberals wanted to give more power toelected legislatures. They were typically middle-class merchants and business people. They wantedto limit voting rights to people who were educatedand owned property. Radicals wanted the end ofrule by kings and full voting rights for all people,even the poor.

At the same time, another movement arose inEurope—nationalism. This was the belief that aperson’s loyalty should go not to the country’s rulerbut to the nation itself. Nationalists thought thatmany factors linked people to one another. Firstwas nationality, or a common ethnic ancestry.Shared language, culture, history, and religion werealso seen as ties that connected people. Peoplesharing these traits were thought to have a right toa land they could call their own. Groups with theirown government were called nation-states. Leadersbegan to see that this feeling could be a powerfulforce for uniting a people. The French Revolutionwas a prime example of this.

The first people to win self-rule during thisperiod were the Greeks. For centuries, Greece hadbeen part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1821, Greeksrevolted against this Turkish rule. Rulers in Europedid not like the idea of revolts, but the Greek causewas popular. Other nations gave aid to the Greeks,helping to defeat the Ottomans’ forces in 1827. TheGreeks won their independence by 1830.

Other revolts broke out. In 1830, the Belgiansdeclared their independence from rule by theDutch. Nationalists began a long struggle to unifyall of Italy, which had been broken into many dif-ferent states. Poles revolted against Russian rule.Conservatives managed to put down these rebel-lions. However, new ones broke out again in 1848among Hungarians and Czechs. Once again, theywere put down forcefully.

Events differed in France. Riots in 1830 forcedthe king to flee and put a new king in his place. Anew revolt broke out in 1848 that overthrew theking and established a republic. However, the radi-cals who had won this victory began arguing overhow much France should be changed. Somewanted only political changes. Others wanted socialand economic changes that would help the poor.When these forces fought in the streets, the Frenchgave up on the radical program. They introduced anew government, with a legislature and a strongpresident. The new president was Louis-Napoleon,Napoleon Bonaparte’s nephew. He later named

himself emperor of France. He built railroads andpromoted the growth of France’s industry. Theeconomy revived and more people had jobs.

Russia in the early 1800s had yet to build anindustrial economy. The biggest problem was thatserfdom still existed there. Peasants were bound tothe nobles whose land they worked. Russia’s rulersdid not wish to free the serfs, though. They fearedthey would lose the support of the nobles. In the1850s, the Russian army lost a war to take over partof the Ottoman Empire. The new ruler of Russia,Alexander II, decided that Russia’s lack of a mod-ern economy caused the defeat. He decided tobegin many reforms.

The first, in 1861, was to free the serfs. Thoughit seemed bold, Alexander’s move went only partway. Nobles kept half their land and were paid forthe half that went to the peasants. The former serfswere not given the land. They had to pay for it, andthis debt kept them still tied to the land. The czar’sefforts to make changes ended short when he wasassassinated in 1881. Alexander III, his successor,brought back tight control over the country andmoved to make the economy more industrial.

Nationalism Case Study:Italy and Germany

KEY IDEA The force of nationalism contributed to theformation of two new nations and a new political orderin Europe.

Nationalism can be a force uniting people whoare divided from others like themselves. The

case studies on Germany and Italy will show this.However, nationalism can also cause the break-upof a state. This may occur when a group resistsbeing part of a state. The Greeks in the Ottomanempire are an example. Finally, nationalism canpull different groups together to build a nation-state. The United States is a good example of this.

In the late 1800s, feelings of nationalism threat-ened to break apart three aging empires. TheAustrian Empire was forced to split in two parts,Austria and Hungary. However, nationalist feelingcontinued to plague these rulers for 40 years andthe kingdoms later broke up into several smallerstates. In Russia, harsh rule and a policy of forcingother peoples to adopt Russian ways helped pro-duce a revolution in 1917 that overthrew the czar.The Ottoman Empire, like the other two, brokeapart around the time of World War I.

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Italians used national feeling to build a nation,not destroy an empire. Large parts of Italy wereruled by the kings of Austria and Spain. Nationaliststried to unite the nation in 1848, but the revolt wasbeaten down. Hopes rested with the Italian king ofthe state of Piedmont-Sardinia. His chief minister,Count Cavour, worked to expand the king’s controlover other areas of the north. Meanwhile, GiuseppiGaribaldi led an army of patriots that won controlof southern areas. He put those areas under controlof the king. In 1866, the area around Venice wasadded to the king’s control. Four years later, theking completed the uniting of Italy.

Germany had also been divided into many differ-ent states for many centuries. Since 1815, 39 stateshad joined in a league called the German Con-federation. Prussia and Austria-Hungary controlledthis group. Over time, Prussia rose to become morepowerful. Leading this move was prime ministerOtto von Bismarck. He joined with Austria to gaincontrol of new lands. He then quickly turned againstAustria, defeating it in war to gain even more terri-tory. Other German states formed a new confedera-tion that Prussia alone controlled. Bismarck’s nextstep was to win the loyalty of the remaining Germanareas in the south. He purposefully angered a weakFrance so that it would declare war on Prussia.When the Prussian army won, Bismarck reached hisgoal. The war with France had given the southernGerman states a nationalistic feeling. They joinedthe other states in naming the king of Prussia ashead of united Germany.

As a result of these events, the balance of powerin Europe had changed. Germany and Britain werethe strongest powers, followed by France. Austria,Russia, and Italy were all even weaker.

Revolutions in the ArtsKEY IDEA Artistic and intellectual movements bothreflected and fueled changes in Europe in the 1800s.

In the early 1800s, the Enlightenment wasreplaced by another movement, called romanti-

cism. This movement in art and ideas showed greatinterest in nature and in the thoughts and feelingsof the individual person. Gone was the idea thatreason and order were good things. Romanticthinkers valued feeling, not reason, and nature, notsociety. Romantic thinkers held idealized views ofthe past as simpler, better times. They valued thecommon people. As a result, they enjoyed folk sto-

ries, songs, and traditions. They also supported callsfor democracy. However, not all romantic artistsand thinkers supported these ideas.

Romantic writers had different themes. Frenchwriter Victor Hugo—who wrote The Hunchback ofNotre Dame—told stories of the poor individualwho fights against an unfair society. English poetWilliam Wordsworth celebrated the beauty ofnature. Novels such as Mary Shelley’s Frankensteinwere horror tales about good and evil.

Romanticism was important in music as well.Composers wrote music that tried to appeal to thehearts and souls of listeners. The German Ludwigvan Beethoven was the foremost of these composers.

In the middle 1800s, however, the grim realitiesof industrial life made the dreams of romanticismseem silly. A new movement arose—realism. Artistsand writers tried to show life as it really was. Theyused their art to protest social conditions that theythought were unfair. French writer Emile Zola’sbooks revealed harsh working conditions for thepoor, which led to new laws aimed at helping thosepeople. In England, Charles Dickens wrote manynovels that showed how poor people suffered in thenew industrial economy.

A new device, the camera, was developed inthis period. Photographers could use it to capture areal moment on film. In the 1860s, Parisian paintersreacted against the realistic style. This new art style—impressionism—used light and shimmering colors toproduce an “impression” of a subject or moment.Composers created moods with their music. Theyused combinations of musical instruments and tonepatterns to create mental pictures. Things like thesight of the sea or a warm day were favorites of thecomposers.

Review1. Making Inferences How did the divisions

of Mexican society affect the movement to independence?

Drawing Conclusions2. Explain how the freeing of Russia’s serfs in 1861

was an example of both liberal and conservativethought.

3. Give one example each of how nationalism was aunifying and a destructive force.

4. Determining Main Ideas How did artisticideas change in the 1800s?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Industrial Revolution,1700–1900

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Britain fueled an Industrial Revolution, which changed soci-ety. Workers benefited eventually, but at first they suffered bad working and living conditions. Other nations followed Britain’s example and industrialized.Thinkers reacted to these changes by developing new views of society.Reformers pushed for changes to make society better.

Summary

The Beginnings ofIndustrialization

KEY IDEA The Industrial Revolution started in GreatBritain and soon spread elsewhere.

In the early 1700s, large landowners in Britainbought much of the land that had been owned

by poorer farmers. They introduced new ways offarming. One technique was to use a seed drill.This machine planted seeds in well-spaced rows.Before this, seeds were scattered by hand over theground. As a result, more seeds sprouted. Anothertechnique was to rotate crops annually. Those whoraised livestock used new methods to increase thesize of their animals. As a result of these improve-ments, farm output increased. More food was avail-able, and people enjoyed healthier diets. The popu-lation of Britain grew. The agricultural revolutionhelped produce the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution refers to the greatlyincreased output of machine-made goods thatbegan in Great Britain in the mid–1700s.

For several reasons, Britain was the first countryto have an economy based on industry. It had 1) coal and water to power machines, 2) iron ore to make machines and tools, 3) rivers to move peo-ple and goods, and 4) good harbors for shippinggoods to other lands. Britain also had a system ofbanks that could fund new businesses. Finally, theBritish government was stable, which gave thecountry a positive attitude.

The Industrial Revolution began in the textileindustry. Several new inventions helped businessesproduce cloth and clothing more quickly. Businessowners built huge buildings—factories—thathoused large machines powered by water.

The invention of the steam engine in 1705brought in a new source of power. The steamengine used fire to heat water and produce steam,which was used to drive the engine. Eventuallysteam-driven machines were used to run factories.

At the same time, improvements were beingmade in transportation. An American invented thefirst steam-driven boat. This allowed people to sendgoods more quickly over rivers and canals. TheBritish also built better roads that included layersof stone and rock to prevent wagons from beingstuck in the mud.

Starting in the 1820s, steam fueled a new burstof industrial growth. At that time, a British engineerset up the world’s first railroad line. It used a steam-driven locomotive. Soon, railroads were being builtall over Britain. The railroad boom helped businessowners move their goods to market more quickly.The boom in railroad building created thousands ofnew jobs in several different industries. The railroadhad a deep effect on British society. For instance,people who lived in the country moved to cities.

Industrialization Case Study: Manchester

KEY IDEA The factory system changed the way peoplelived and worked, ibringing both benefits and problems.

The change to an industrial economy broughtmany benefits to British people. They used coal

to heat their homes, ate better food, and wore bet-ter clothing. Many people also suffered, however.Industrialization caused many changes.

One change was a rise in the proportion of peo-ple who lived in cities. For centuries, most peoplein Europe had lived in the country. Now more andmore lived in cities. The number of cities withmore than 100,000 people doubled between 1800and 1850. Because they grew quickly, cities werenot ideal places to live. People could not find goodhousing, schools, or police protection. The citieswere filthy with garbage, and sickness sweptthrough slum areas. The average life span of a per-son living in a city was 17 years—compared to 38years in the countryside.

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Working conditions were harsh as well. Theaverage worker spent 14 hours a day on the job, 6days a week. Factories were dark, and the powerfulmachines were dangerous. Many workers werekilled or seriously injured in accidents. Some riotedagainst the poor living and working conditions.

Some people improved their lives in the neweconomy. The middle class—made up of skilledworkers, professionals, business people, andwealthy farmers—did well. They enjoyed comfort-able lives in pleasant homes. This class began togrow in size, and some people in it grew wealthierthan the nobles who had dominated society formany centuries. Still, nobles looked down on thepeople who gained their wealth from business.They, in turn, looked down on the poor workers.

Overall, the Industrial Revolution had many goodeffects. It increased the amount of goods and servicesa nation could produce and added to its wealth. Itcreated jobs for workers and over time helped themlive better lives. It produced better diets, betterhousing, and cheaper, better clothing. Many of thesebenefits were far in the future, however.

The English city of Manchester showed howindustrialization changed society. Rapid growthmade the city crowded and filthy. The factory own-ers risked their money and worked long hours tomake their businesses grow. In return, they enjoyedhuge profits and built huge houses. The workersalso worked long hours, but had few benefits.

Many workers were children, some only sixyears old. Not until 1819 did the British govern-ment put limits on using children as workers. Withso much industry in one place, Manchester suf-fered in another way. Coal smoke and cloth dyespolluted the air and water.Yet, Manchester also cre-ated many jobs, a variety of consumer goods, andgreat wealth.

Industrialization SpreadsKEY IDEA The industrialization that began in GreatBritain spread to other parts of the world.

Other countries followed the example of Britainand began to change their economies to an

industrial base. The United States was one of thefirst. Like Britain, it had water power, sources ofcoal and iron, and a ready supply of workers. TheUnited States also benefited from conflict withBritain. During the War of 1812, Britain stoppedshipping goods to the United States. As a result,

American industries had a chance to supply thegoods that Americans wanted.

The switch to an industrial economy began in theUnited States in the textile industry. In 1789, basedon memory and a partial design, a British workerbrought the secret of Britain’s textile machines toNorth America. He built a machine to spin thread. In1813, a group of Massachusetts investors built a com-plex of factories that made cloth. Just a few yearslater they built an even larger complex in the town of Lowell. Thousands of workers, mostly young girls,came to these towns to work in the factories.

In the United States, industry grew first in theNortheast. In the last decades of the 1800s, a rapidburst of industrial growth took place that was morewidespread. This boom was fueled by large suppliesof coal, oil, and iron. Helping, too, was the appear-ance of a number of new inventions, including theelectric light. As in Britain, railroad building wasalso a big part of this industrial growth.

Businesses needed huge sums of money to takeon big projects. To raise money, companies soldshares of ownership, called stock. All those whoheld stock were part owners of the company. Thisform of organizing a business is called a corporation.

Industrial growth spread to Europe as well.Belgium was the first to adopt British ways. It wasrich in iron and coal and had good waterways. Ithad the resources needed.

Germany was politically divided until the late1800s. As a result, it could not develop a wide indus-trial economy. However, west-central Germany wasrich in coal and did become a leading industrial site.

Across Europe, small areas began to change tothe new industries. Industrial growth did not occurin France until after 1830. It was helped by thegovernment’s construction of a large network ofrailroads. Some countries—such as Austria-Hungary and Spain—had problems that stoppedthem from building new industries.

The Industrial Revolution changed the world.Countries that had adopted an industrial economyenjoyed more wealth and power than those thathad not. The countries of Europe soon began totake advantage of lands in Africa and Asia. Theyused these lands as sources of raw materials neededfor their factories. They saw the people only asmarkets for the goods they made. They took con-trol of these lands, a practice called imperialism.

The Industrial Revolution changed life foreverin the countries that industrialized. Problems

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caused by industrialization led to movements forsocial reform.

Reforming the IndustrialWorld

KEY IDEA The Industrial Revolution led to economic,social, and political reforms.

The new industrial economy led to new ways of thinking about society. Some economists

thought that the government should leave businessowners alone. Their view was called laissez-faire,from a French phrase meaning “let people do asthey please.” Adam Smith argued that putting nolimits on business or on trade would help a nation’seconomy grow the most. He and other economistssupported a system called capitalism. In a capitalisteconomy, people invest their money in businessesto make a profit. Over time, society as a wholewould benefit, said Smith and the others. Thesepeople warned the government not to make lawstrying to protect workers. Such laws would upset theworkings of the economy, they said.

Other thinkers challenged these ideas. Onegroup was called the Utilitarians. They thought thatan idea or practice was good only as it proved use-ful. They thought it was unfair that workers shouldwork so hard for such little pay and live in suchpoor conditions. They thought the governmentshould do away with great differences in wealthamong people.

Some thinkers went farther and urged that busi-nesses should be owned by society as a whole, notby individuals. Then a few people would not growwealthy at the expense of many. Instead, all wouldenjoy the benefits of increased production. Thisview—called socialism—grew out of a belief inprogress and a concern for justice and fairness.

A German thinker named Karl Marx wroteabout a radical form of socialism called Marxism.He said that factory owners and workers werebound to oppose one another in the struggle forpower. Over time, he said, the capitalist systemwould destroy itself. The great mass of workerswould rebel against the wealthy few. Marx wroteThe Communist Manifesto in which he describedcommunism, a form of complete socialism in whichall production is owned by the people. Privateproperty would not exist. In the early 1900s, theseideas would inspire revolution.

While thinkers discussed these different ideas,workers took action to try to improve their lives.Many formed into unions that tried to bargain withbusiness owners for better pay and better workingconditions. When business owners resisted theseefforts, the workers went on strike, or refused towork. The struggle to win the right to form unionswas long and hard for workers in Britain and theUnited States. Still, by the late 1800s, workers inboth countries had made some progress.

The British Parliament and reformers in theUnited States also took steps to try to fix some ofthe worst features of industrialism. Britain passedlaws that put limits on how much women and chil-dren could work. Groups in the United Statespushed for similar laws.

Another major reform movement of the 1800swas the drive to abolish slavery. The BritishParliament took the first step by ending the slavetrade in 1807. It abolished slavery completely in1833. Slavery was finally ended in the United Statesin 1865, after the Civil War. Spain ended slavery inPuerto Rico in 1873 and in Cuba in 1886. Brazilbecame the last country to ban slavery, which it didin 1888.

Women were active in these and other reformmovements. As they fought for the end of slavery,many women launched an effort to win equal rightsfor women. The movement for equality began inthe United States in 1848. In 1888, women fromaround the world formed a group dedicated to thiscause.

Reformers took on other projects as well. Somepushed for—and won—improved education.Others hoped to improve conditions in prisons.

Review1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

Why did the Industrial Revolution begin inBritain?

Determining Main Ideas2. What was the impact of the railroad?3. What reforms were popular in the 1800s?4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

What effects did industrialization have on society?

5. Developing Historical Perspective How didindustrialization spread in the United States?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Age of Imperialism,1850–1914

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Several factors led Europeans to claim control of almost allof Africa. Some Africans resisted, but most efforts failed. The Ottoman Empirebroke apart, and European powers took some of its lands. The British took con-trol of India, where they modernized the economy to benefit themselves.Europeans gained lands in Southeast Asia, and the United States sought colonies.

Summary

The Scramble for AfricaKEY IDEA Ignoring the claims of African ethnic groups,kingdoms, and city-states, Europeans established colo-nial claims.

In the early 1800s, European nations had just atoehold in Africa, holding only areas along the

coast. In the mid-1800s, though, Europeans hadrenewed interest in Africa. This rose, in part, from adesire to create overseas empires, a movementcalled imperialism. European nations wanted tocontrol lands that had raw materials they needed fortheir industrial economies. They also wanted toopen up markets for the goods they made. National-ism fed the drive for empires as well. A nation oftenfelt that gaining colonies was a measure of its great-ness. Racism was another reason. Europeansthought that they were better than Africans. Finally,Christian missionaries supported imperialism. Theythought that European rule would end the slavetrade and help them convert native peoples.

As a result of these factors, the nations ofEurope began to seize lands in Africa. Technologyhelped them succeed. Steamships, railroads, andtelegraphs made them able to penetrate deep intoAfrica and still have contact with the home country.Machine guns gave them a weapon of far greaterpower than any African peoples possessed. Finally,the drug quinine gave doctors a weapon againstmalaria, which struck Europeans. They were alsohelped by the lack of unity among African peoples.

The competition for African land, called the“scramble for Africa” began in the 1880s. The dis-covery of gold and diamonds in Africa increasedEuropean interest in the continent. So that theywould not fight over the land, European powersmet in Berlin in 1884–85. They agreed that anynation could claim any part of Africa simply bytelling the others and by showing that it had controlof the area. They then moved quickly to grab land.

By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia were independ-ent of European control.

The Europeans began to build plantationswhere they grew peanuts, palm oil, cocoa, and rub-ber. They also mined Africa’s important minerals.The Congo produced copper and tin. South Africahad gold and diamonds.

In South Africa, three groups struggled over the land. In the early 1800s, the Zulu chief Shakacreated a large kingdom. The British seized controlof this land in 1887. Meanwhile, the British woncontrol of the Dutch colony on the southern coast.Many thousands of Dutch settlers, called Boers,moved north to escape the British. At the end ofthe century, the Boers fought a vicious war with theBritish. The Boers lost, and they joined the British-run Union of South Africa.

ImperialismCase Study: Nigeria

KEY IDEA Europeans embarked on a new phase ofempire-building that affected both Africa and the rest ofthe world.

European nations wanted to control more of thelife of their conquered peoples. As a result, each

colonized region operated under one of these forms:• colony—governed by a foreign power• protectorate—allowed its own government but

was under the control of a foreign power• sphere of influence—claimed as the exclusive

investment or trading realm of a foreign power• economic imperialism—controlled by private

businesses rather than by a foreign governmentThe imperialist powers had two main methods

of running their colonies. Britain and the UnitedStates used indirect control. In this system, localrulers had power over day-to-day matters. Therewere also councils of native peoples and govern-

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ment officials. These councils were a first step fornative peoples to someday govern themselves.

Britain tried to rule Nigeria through indirectcontrol. Because the area was huge and peopled bymany different groups, it was difficult for the Britishto rule directly. They let local chiefs maintain orderover their areas and collect taxes. The system didnot always work. Chiefs had ruled before in thesoutheast and southwest of Nigeria. The chiefsresented having their power limited.

France and other European nations used theother method—direct control. Feeling that nativepeoples could not handle the complex business ofrunning a country, the European power governed.The French also had a policy of assimilation. Allinstitutions were patterned after their counterpartsin France. They hoped that the native peopleswould learn and adopt French ways.

Some Africans tried to resist imperialism.People in Algeria fought against the French foralmost 50 years. In German East Africa, thousandsdied when they tried to use spiritual power to fightGerman machine guns. Only in Ethiopia did resis-tance succeed. There, Emperor Menelik II cleverlyplayed one European country against another. In1896, he used European weapons to defeat aninvading Italian army. With this victory, Ethiopiastayed independent.

Africans did enjoy some benefits from colonialrule. European governments put an end to ethnicconflict. Colonial powers brought Africaneconomies fully into the world market and builtrailroads, dams, and telephone and telegraph lines.

For the most part, though, imperialism causeddamage. Traditional African society was destroyed.People were forced out of their homes and made towork under horrible conditions. Finally, the politi-cal boundaries that Europeans drew had no rela-tion to ethnic divisions in Africa. These boundariescreated problems many decades later when thecolonies became independent nations.

Europeans Claim Muslim Lands

KEY IDEA European nations expand their empires byseizing territories from Muslim states.

The Ottoman Empire, based in modern Turkey,had lasted for hundreds of years. By the 1800s,

it was weak. In 1830, Greece won its independenceand Serbia won the right to govern itself. European

nations eyed what remained of the empire hungrily.Russia hoped to win control of the Black Sea so

it could ship grain across the Mediterranean Sea. Itfought a war with the Ottomans in the 1850s butlost when Britain and France joined against it. Still,the Ottomans later lost almost all of their land inEurope and parts of Africa. By 1914, the empirewas much smaller than it had ever been. Muslimleaders, seeing this decline, decided to modernizetheir countries.

In Egypt, Muhammad Ali broke away fromOttoman control. He put in place reforms to changethe army and the economy. He pushed Egypt’sfarmers to grow cotton, a cash crop in demand inEurope. However, peasants suffered when theywere turned away from growing food. His grandsoncontinued to modernize. He joined with the Frenchin building the Suez Canal, which connected theMediterranean to the Red Sea. When Egypt hadmoney troubles, Britain took control of the canal—and the country.

In Persia, the Russians and the British com-peted for control with local powers. Russia wantedto win Persia to have access to the Indian Ocean.Britain wanted some land there as a barrierbetween Russia and its colony in India. In the early1900s, oil was discovered in Persia. A British com-pany signed an agreement with Persia’s ruler todevelop these oil fields. Persians rebelled againsttheir ruler—who was corrupt—and the growinginfluence of Europeans. Then Russia and Britainstepped in and took control of the land.

British Imperialism in IndiaKEY IDEA As the Mughal Empire declined, Britainseized almost the whole subcontinent of India.

In the early 1700s, the Mughal Empire of Indiafell into decline. By the middle of the century,

the British East India Company was becoming themost important power in India. It held hugeamounts of land—almost the entire subcontinent.

British law forced India to supply raw materialssuch as tea, indigo (a dye), coffee, and cotton. Thelaw also forced Indian manufacturing out of business.India became even more important when the EastIndia Company built rail lines that linked growingregions in the interior with ports on the coast.

India enjoyed some gains from British rule. Itsrail system was the third largest in the world andhelped make the economy more modern. The

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British made other improvements, too. They builttelephone and telegraph lines, dams, bridges, andcanals. They also improved sanitation and publichealth and built schools. More and more Indianslearned to read.

British rule caused problems as well. Many eco-nomic benefits flowed out of India to Britain. Indianindustry died out because of British trade laws.Many farmers and villages lost their ability to feedthemselves because they were made to grow cashcrops. Many peoples died when famines struck.British racist attitudes damaged Indian culture.

By the mid-1800s, many Indians felt growingresentment. When Indian soldiers heard rumorsthat offended their religious feelings, manyrebelled. The East India Company needed a year—and British troops—to put it down. The Indianslost because of their own divisions. Muslims andHindus did not trust each other. After the revolt,the British government took direct control ofBritish India.

Indians tried other ways of resisting British con-trol. Leaders such as Ram Mohun Roy urgedchanges in traditional Indian practices to makeIndian society more modern. He hoped to freeIndia of foreign control with these changes. Indiansresented the fact that they were treated unfairly.They formed two groups—the Indian NationalCongress and the Muslim League. Both began topush the British to make changes. In the early1900s, they called for self-government.

Imperialism in Southeast Asia

KEY IDEA Demand for Asian products drove Westernimperialists to seek possession of Southeast Asian lands.

European nations also grabbed land in SoutheastAsia and the islands on the edge of the Pacific

Ocean. They wanted the area for its resources andbecause it was close to China. The United Statesjoined this quest for colonies.

European powers found that these lands weregood for growing such cash crops as sugar, coffee,cocoa, rubber, and fruit. As trade in these itemsgrew, Europeans moved to take more land. TheDutch ran Indonesia, where their settlers remainedat the top of society. The British took the port ofSingapore plus Malaysia and Burma (modernMyanmar). Needing workers, the British broughtmany Chinese to Malaysia. France grabbed

Indochina (modern Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam).They made farmers grow rice for export. Becausemost of the rice was shipped away, the farmers hadless to eat even though they were growing morerice than before. One land—Siam (modernThailand)—stayed independent. King Mongkut andhis son modernized Siam without giving up power.

Colonialism brought some features of modernlife to these regions. However, economic changesbenefited European-run businesses, not local people.The native peoples did benefit from better schooling,health, and cleanliness. Plantation farming broughtmillions of people from other areas to Southeast Asia.The mix of cultures and religions did not always gosmoothly. Even today, some conflict between groupsresults from this period.

In the late 1800s, the United States also beganto seek colonies. In 1898, as a result of the Spanish-American War, the United States won possession of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands.Filipino nationalists fought Americans for theirfreedom, just as they had fought the Spaniardsbefore. The United States defeated the rebels andpromised to give the Philippines self-rule later. Inthe meantime, American businesses took advantageof Filipino workers.

Some American businessmen grew wealthyfrom sugar plantations in Hawaii. In the 1890s,when Queen Liliuokalani tried to regain control ofher country, they overthrew her. They declared arepublic and asked the United States to annex—take possession of—Hawaii. In 1898, it became aterritory of the United States.

Review1. Summarizing What led to European imperial-

ism, and why did it succeed?2. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

What happened when Africans tried to resistimperialism?

3. Comparing and Contrasting Contrast how theBritish and French ruled their colonies.

4. Drawing Conclusions How were the effects ofimperialism in Southeast Asia typical of those forother regions?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Transformations Around theGlobe, 1800–1914

CHAPTER OVERVIEW In China, a weak government could not resist Europeanpower. In Japan, a reforming emperor modernized the country and launchedimperialist expansion. The Latin American economies fell prey to European businesses, and the United States became the dominant power in the region. A revolution freed Mexico from France, but civil war raged for decades.

Summary

China Resists OutsideInfluence

KEY IDEA Western economic pressure forced China toopen to foreign trade and influence.

In the late 1700s, China was self-sufficient. It hada strong farming economy based on growing rice.

Other crops, introduced from the Americas, helpedto feed its large population. Industry made silk, cot-ton, and ceramics. Mines produced salt, tin, silver,and iron. China needed nothing from the outsideworld.

China allowed only limited trade with Europeanpowers, and it all had to come through one port.Also, the trade at this port was in China’s favor. Inother words, the Chinese sold more than theybought. Europeans, especially the British, wereeager to find something that the Chinese wouldwant in large quantities. In the early 1800s, theyfound it—the drug opium, shipped mostly fromIndia. Soon millions of Chinese were addicted toopium, and the Chinese government complained.When the British refused to stop the trade, warbroke out. Because British ships had more power-ful guns, China lost the war. As a result, in 1842 theBritish took possession of Hong Kong. Later, theUnited States and European nations won the rightto trade in five ports. The Chinese resented thesetreaties but could not stop them.

China had internal problems as well. The popu-lation had grown quickly. Yet food production hadbarely increased, so millions starved. The Chinesebegan to rebel against their government. A leaderarose in southern China who hoped to save China.He launched a rebellion that won control of largeparts of the south, including the city of Nanjing.The government needed 14 years to put down theTaiping Rebellion. The fighting resulted in the deathof millions.

In the late 1800s, European powers and Japaneach won a foothold in China—a “sphere of

influence.” This is a region in which a foreignnation controls trade and investment. The UnitedStates opposed these steps. It urged an Open DoorPolicy, in which all powers had equal access toChinese markets. While the Europeans agreed, theresult had little benefit for China. Though it wasnot formally carved into colonies, it was clearlydominated by foreign powers.

The Empress Cixi ruled China in fact, eventhough younger emperors ruled in name. She supported some reforms. She backed the self-strengthening movement, which produced newships for China. The program was not a completesuccess, though. In 1898, the young EmperorGuangxu tried to put in place broader reforms.Conservatives didn’t like this. The retired Cixi hadhim arrested and took back control of the govern-ment. China had lost a chance to change.

Many Chinese grew increasingly resentful offoreign influence. They formed the Society ofHarmonious Fists, known as the Boxers. Theywanted to get rid of all Western influence—includ-ing any Chinese who had accepted Western cultureor the Christian religion. In early 1900, an army ofBoxers surrounded Beijing’s European section.After many weeks, they were finally driven out by amultinational army of soldiers.

Finally Cixi began to allow major reforms.Change came slowly, though. In 1908, the court saidthat China would become a constitutional monarchyby 1917. However, unrest would soon return.

Modernization in JapanKEY IDEA Japan followed the model of Western powersby expanding its foreign influence.

From the early 1600s to the mid-1800s, Japanwas virtually isolated. It did have relations with

China and Korea and had limited contact with Dutchtraders. That changed in 1853 when Americansteamships, with cannons, entered Japanese waters.

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The next year, Japan agreed to open up trade to theUnited States. Soon after, it made similar dealswith European nations.

Many Japanese were upset with the shogun, themilitary dictator, who had agreed to these newtreaties. The Emperor Mutsuhito rallied their sup-port and managed to overthrow the shogun. Forthe first time in centuries, the emperor ruled Japandirectly. He reigned for 45 years, from 1867 to1912, in what is called the Meiji era. The nameMeiji, which he chose for his reign, means “enlight-ened rule.”

The emperor was determined to modernize hiscountry. He sent government officials to Europeand the United States. From what they saw, theyshaped a new Japan. They modeled the govern-ment after the strong central government ofGermany. They patterned the army after Germany’sand a new navy after Britain’s. They adapted theAmerican system of schooling for all children. Theemperor also supported changes to Japan’s econ-omy. The country built railroads, mined coal, andconstructed factories.

These steps had results. In just a few years,Japan’s industrial economy equaled almost any inthe world. By 1890, it was the strongest militarypower in Asia. It asked foreigners to give up theirspecial rights in Japan. The countries agreed, and aproud Japan felt equal to them. Now, it wanted todemonstrate its power.

Japan began to expand its influence like theEuropean powers. When China broke an agreementnot to send armies into Korea, Japan went to war. Itdrove China out of Korea and gained Taiwan andsome other islands as new colonies. In 1904, Japanand Russia fought a war over China’s Manchurianterritory. Japan surprised the world by defeating alarger power that was supposed to be stronger.

The next year, Japan attacked Korea, and by1910 it had won complete control. The Japaneseproved to be harsh rulers. They shut down Koreannewspapers and changed schools so that onlyJapanese language and history were taught. Theytook away land from Korean farmers and gave it toJapanese settlers. They built factories to be run byJapanese only. Koreans were not allowed to startnew businesses. Koreans bitterly resented theseactions. They began a nationalist movement andprotested against Japanese rule.

U.S. Economic Imperialism KEY IDEA The United States put increasing economicand political pressure on Latin America in the 1800s.

In the early 1800s, the new nations of LatinAmerica had serious problems. Most people

were poor. They worked on farms for largelandowners who took advantage of them. Anotherproblem was political unrest. Local leaders rivaledone another for power. Military dictators, or caudil-los, generally held power with the backing of thelandowners, because the dictators refused to givepower to the mass of poor people. Only peoplewith property could vote. Sometimes reformers didtake office and lead their countries. They neverlasted long, though. When their reforms upset thepower of the wealthy too much, a caudillo wouldrise and remove them from office.

With Spain no longer ruling the lands, old tradelaws were gone. The new countries could now tradewith any nation. Britain and the United Statesbecame the chief trading partners. Soon businessesin these nations dominated Latin Americaneconomies.

The economies of Latin America depended onexporting goods. They shipped goods such as cof-fee, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Each countryfocused on producing and exporting one or twogoods. The volume of exports rose rapidly duringthe 1800s. The coming of railroads and steamshipshelped. The invention of refrigerated cars helpedalso, allowing producers to increase food exports.

This trade mainly went to benefit other coun-tries, though. Latin America did not develop indus-tries of its own. It had to import manufacturedgoods, which cost more than what was earned fromexports. Also, Latin American countries often bor-rowed money to expand the facilities used to increasethose exports. They had to borrow the money fromforeign banks. When they could not repay the loans,lenders took control of the businesses. In this way,much of Latin American business fell into foreignhands.

In the 1890s, the United States began to take amore active role in Latin American affairs. Thepeople of Cuba were fighting for their independencefrom Spain. American businesses had importantinterests on the island. Also, Spain had placedCuban citizens in concentration camps, which out-

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raged many Americans. For these reasons, theUnited States joined the war. The Spanish quicklygave up, and the United States gained several newterritories. After the war, though, the United Statesput a military government in place in Cuba. Thisstep and others helped promote anger among manyCubans against the United States.

The United States next set its sights on Panama.Ships traveling from the east to the west coast hadto go around the southern tip of South America,which took many weeks. Americans hoped to builda canal across Panama. President Roosevelt offered$10 million to Colombia—to which Panamabelonged—for the right to build this canal. WhenColombia asked for more money, the United Stateshelped the people of Panama revolt for independ-ence. In return, the United States won a ten-mile-wide zone in Panama in which to build a canal. Thecanal opened in 1914.

In 1904, Roosevelt said that the United Stateshad the right to act as “an international policepower” in the western hemisphere. Over the nextdecades, it acted on that belief many times. Whentrouble arose in various countries, the UnitedStates sent its troops. Sometimes they stayed formany years.

Turmoil and Change inMexico

KEY IDEA Political, economic, and social inequalities inMexico triggered a period of revolution and reform.

Antonio López de Santa Anna was a leadingfigure in the early history of independent

Mexico. He fought to win independence fromSpain and led in another war when Spain tried torecapture Mexico. He served as president fourtimes, shrewdly changing his positions in order toretain power.

In the 1830s, though, he was unable to preventpeople in Texas from winning their freedom fromMexico. In the 1840s, the United States annexedTexas, which angered many Mexicans. When a bor-der dispute broke out, the United States invadedMexico. Santa Anna led his nation’s army and wasdefeated. Mexico had to surrender huge amountsof land.

Another important leader of the middle 1800swas Benito Juárez. A Zapotec Indian, Juárezwanted to improve conditions for the poor in

Mexico. He led a movement called La Reforma—the reform—that aimed at breaking the power ofthe large landowners and giving more schooling tothe poor. He and his liberal supporters won controlof the government in the late 1850s. The conserva-tives who opposed them did not give up, however.They plotted with France to retake Mexico. In1862, Napoleon III of France sent an army thatcaptured the country in 18 months. He named aEuropean noble as emperor. But, Juárez and hisfollowers kept fighting. In 1867, they drove theFrench from Mexican soil and killed the emperor.

Juárez once again pressed for his reforms. Hemade some progress but died in office in 1872. Soonafter, a new leader emerged. Porfirio Díaz dominatedMexican politics for more than 30 years. Díazbrought order to the country and encouraged eco-nomic growth. However, he sharply limited politicalfreedom.

In the early 1900s, calls for reform got louder.Leaders “Pancho” Villa and Emiliano Zapata gath-ered support with their demand for better lives forthe poor. They raised small armies and forced Díazto step down. Fighting continued, however, formany years as several leaders struggled for power.In the midst of this turmoil, Mexico adopted a newconstitution in 1917. It called for breaking up largelandholdings and for limits on foreign ownership ofbusiness. It promoted the right to strike for work-ers and promised some rights for women. Conflictcontinued until a new political party gained controlof Mexico in 1929. The Institutional RevolutionaryParty (PRI) brought peace and political stability toa troubled land.

Review1. Summarizing Describe China’s two major

attempts to remain isolated from the outsideworld.

2. Recognizing Effects What was the result ofJapan’s feelings of pride and strength in the late1800s?

3. Evaluating Courses of Action Through whatmethod did the Japanese modernize during theMeiji era?

4. Drawing Conclusions Why did the LatinAmerican nations not benefit from growing trade?

5. Comparing What did Juárez, Villa, and Zapatahave in common?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Great War, 1914–1918CHAPTER OVERVIEW Strong national feelings and strong armies produced com-petition between European nations and led to war. The system of alliancesturned a local conflict into a general European war and then a world war.Horribly brutal, it changed the lives of millions and transformed Russia when ithelped cause a revolution.

Summary

Marching Toward WarKEY IDEA In Europe, military buildup, nationalistic feel-ings, and rival alliances led to a continental war.

In the later 1800s, many people in Europe joinedgroups to promote peace. They met several

times between 1843 and 1907 to urge their cause.While this movement for peace was building, sowere other developments. These other factorswould soon plunge Europe into war.

One of those factors was nationalism—the deepfeeling of attachment to one’s own nation. Thisforce helped unify the people of a country. It alsohelped promote competition between countries. By1900, six nations were rivals for power in Europe.These nations, called the Great Powers, wereGermany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia,Italy, and France. They competed economically,and they competed for neighboring land.

Imperialism was another force that helped leadto war. France and Germany, each seeking controlof parts of Africa, almost came to war twice in theearly 1900s. Such competition bred mistrust.

The third factor leading to war was a growingarms race. Each country in Europe—except GreatBritain—built a large army. Generals in each countrymade complex plans to be able to mobilize theirarmies or rush troops to battle as quickly as possible.

Growing rivalry led the nations to make allianceswith one another. Fearing that France would wantrevenge for its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War,Otto von Bismarck set out to isolate France. In1879, he formed a Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy, and a treaty with Russia.However, when Wilhelm II became kaiser, oremperor, of Germany, he did not want to sharepower. He forced Bismarck out and followed hisown policy. He let the agreement with Russiaexpire, and Russia quickly allied itself with France.This alliance meant that Germany would have tofight enemies on east and west borders if there werea war with either country. Wilhelm II then moved tomake the German navy larger. Britain grew alarmed

and began to build more ships of its own. It made aTriple Entente alliance with France and Russia. Thesix Great Powers had now formed two camps:Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy against Britain,France, and Russia.

Meanwhile, trouble was brewing in the Balkans,in southeastern Europe. The Ottoman Empire,which controlled this area, was breaking apart.Both Austria-Hungary and Russia wanted some ofthis land. The kingdom of Serbia, which was in thisregion, wanted to bring other Slavic peoples wholived in the Balkans under its control. In 1908,Austria-Hungary seized Bosnia and Herzegovina.These lands had Slavic peoples, and the Serbs wereangered. However, their Russian allies were unwill-ing to support them, and they backed down.

By 1914, the situation was different. Serbia hadgained land in other parts of the region and feltstrong. Austria worried that Serbia might interferewith its control of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Amidthese tensions, a shot rang out. In June 1914, aSerbian shot and killed the heir to the throne ofAustria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary declared war onSerbia, Russia came to Serbia’s defense, and soonmost of Europe was at war.

Europe Plunges into WarKEY IDEA One European nation after another wasdrawn into a large and industrialized war that resulted inmany casualties.

The system of alliances turned the war betweenAustria-Hungary and Serbia into a wider war.

Russia moved against Austria-Hungary. Figuringthat Germany would support Austria-Hungary,Russia moved troops against Germany as well.Germany declared war on Russia. Soon after, it alsodeclared war on France, Russia’s ally.

Germany had a plan for winning the war on twofronts. It called for a rapid push through France, aquick defeat of that nation, and a turn to face Russiain the east. To capture France quickly, Germany

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moved through Belgium, which was a neutral coun-try. Britain was outraged by this and declared waron Germany. France, Britain, and Russia were laterjoined by Italy, which broke from Germany andAustria-Hungary. They were called the Allies.Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined Germanyand Austria-Hungary. They were called the CentralPowers.

After the German army moved almost to Paris,French defenses strengthened and stopped them inSeptember 1914. Both sides became bogged downin a bloody conflict. Soldiers dug deep trenches intothe ground, protecting themselves with barbed wireand machine guns. Inside the trenches, they lived inmud, suffered the lack of food, and were killed orwounded by exploding bombs. Attacks were evenworse. Generals still hoped to win ground withmassed attacks of huge armies. But, when soldiersleft the trenches to storm enemy lines, they facedpowerful weapons. Machine guns, tanks, poison gas,and larger pieces of artillery killed hundreds ofthousands of soldiers. This was the war in France,which was called the Western Front.

The war on the Eastern Front showed moremovement at first—but it was equally destructive.Russian armies attacked both Germany andAustria-Hungary. After some early success, theywere driven back in both places. One reason wasthat Russia did not have a fully industrial economy.It could not keep troops supplied. Still, Russia hada huge population and could send millions to war.The large Russian army provided a constant threatto Germany, preventing it from putting its fullresources against the allies in the west.

A Global ConflictKEY IDEA World War I spread to several continents andused the full resources of many governments.

The war moved into Southwest Asia when theAllies hoped to take a part of the Ottoman

Empire called the Dardanelles. That would allowthem to capture Constantinople—the Ottomancapital—and send supplies to Russia through theBlack Sea. The attack failed with great loss of life.In another thrust at that empire, a British officernamed T. E. Lawrence helped lead an Arab revoltagainst Ottoman rule. As a result, the Allies wereable to capture several important cities inSouthwest Asia.

Japan took German colonies in China and thePacific Ocean. The Allies also captured three of thefour German colonies in Africa. People in the Allies’colonies joined in the war effort. Some worked forthe Allied cause. Others fought in the armies.

The British had used their strong navy to blockall supplies from reaching Germany. In response,the Germans increased their submarine attacks onships that brought food and supplies to the Allies.U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had protested thispolicy before, and did so again. When Americanships were sunk, the American people grew angry.Then the British intercepted a secret message fromGermany to Mexico. It offered to help Mexicoregain land lost to the United States in the 1840s ifMexico allied itself with Germany. This and thesubmarine attacks turned many Americans againstGermany. In April 1917, Congress declared war onGermany.

By that year, the war had had a terrible impact,killing millions and radically changing the lives ofmillions more—people at home as well as soldiers.This “Great War,” as it was called, was a total war.It demanded all the resources of the countries thatfought it. Governments took control of factories,telling them what to produce and how much of it tomake. Governments rationed food and other goods,limiting how much people could buy and hold.That way they were sure to provide needed suppliesto the armies in the field. They used propaganda togenerate support for the war. They also took stepsto put down any dissent against the war.

With so many men in the field, women played agrowing role in the economies of the countries atwar. They worked in factories, offices, and shops.They built planes and tanks, grew food and madeclothing. These changes had an impact on people’sattitudes toward what kind of work women could do.

In 1917, the United States entered the war, andRussia left it. Suffering during the war chippedaway at the Russian people’s support for the czar.In March, he stepped down. The new governmenthoped to continue fighting the war, but the Russianarmies refused. Just months later, a new revolutionstruck. Communists seized Russia’s government.They quickly made a treaty with Germany, givingup huge amounts of land in return for peace. InMarch 1918, Germany tried one final attack. Onceagain, the German army nearly reached Paris. Thesoldiers were tired, and supplies were short, though.

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The Allies—now with fresh American troops—drove the Germans back.

Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire surrendered.In October, a revolution toppled the emperor ofAustria-Hungary. In November, Kaiser Wilhelm IIwas forced to step down in Germany. The new gov-ernment agreed to stop fighting, and on November11, 1918, Europe was finally at peace.

The war had made a great and terrible mark onthe world. About 8.5 million soldiers had died andanother 21 million had been wounded. Countlesscivilians had suffered as well. The economies of thewarring nations had suffered serious damage, too.Farms were destroyed and factories ruined. Oneestimate said the war had caused $338 billion indamage.

Along with this death and destruction, the warhad an emotional cost. People felt disillusionedsince all the suffering did not seem to have a pur-pose. The art and literature of the years after thewar reflected a new sense of hopelessness in people.

A Flawed PeaceKEY IDEA After winning the war, the Allies dictated aharsh peace that left many nations feeling betrayed.

Many nations sent delegates to peace talks inParis. The main leaders were Woodrow

Wilson of the United States, Georges Clemenceauof France, and David Lloyd George of Britain.Germany and its allies and Russia were not present.

Wilson pushed for his peace plan called theFourteen Points. He wanted to end secret treatiesand alliances and give people the right to formtheir own nation. He also hoped to set up a worldorganization that could police the actions of nationsand prevent future wars.

Britain and especially France had different views.They had suffered greatly in the war and wanted topunish Germany. After long debates, the leadersfinally agreed on a peace settlement called theTreaty of Versailles.

The treaty called for a League of Nations—theworld organization that Wilson wanted. It wouldinclude 32 nations, with the United States, Britain,France, Japan, and Italy making up the leadership.Germany and Russia were left out of the League.The treaty took away German land in Europe andtook away its colonies. Limits were placed on thesize of Germany’s armed forces. Finally, Germany

was given complete blame for the war, whichmeant it would have to make payments to the Alliesfor the damage caused.

Germany’s former colonies were given to theAllies to govern until they decided which were readyfor independence. Poland, Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia were all declared independent. Finland,Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—once part ofRussia—were made independent nations as well.The Ottoman Empire was broken up. The Ottomanskept control only of Turkey.

The treaty never made a lasting peace. This wasin part because the United States Senate neverapproved either the treaty or joining the League ofNations. Also, Germans bitterly resented the treaty,which placed all the blame for the war on them.Colonial peoples in Africa and Asia had hoped thatthey could win their independence. They were angrywhen the treaty did not allow for that. Japan andItaly were also upset with the treaty. They had bothjoined the war in hopes of winning more land andwere disappointed by getting few territorial gains.

ReviewAnalyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects1. What factors led to World War I?2. Why did a revolution occur in Russia?3. Summarizing What was the war like on the

Western Front?4. Analyzing Issues How did the war change the

countries that fought it?5. Forming and Supporting Opinions Discuss

the weaknesses of the Treaty of Versailles.

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