CHAPTER - FIVE

PAINTINGS IN

PUDUKKÓTTAI DISTRICT

CHAPTER – FIVE

PAINTINGS IN PUDUKKÓTTAI DISTRICT

5.1. Historical Development of Paintings

The Indian paintings tradition is the product of the composite culture

of a land of great physical splendor, a rich racial mix, a long history and a

complex in the northwest by the Hindu Kush and the Pamirs and the

northeast by the Patka and Naga Hills. They provided geographical

seclusion and security. The Himalayas, considered the abode of God, have

become a cultural icon.

A high plateau stretches across the Decan and is cut on the sides by

the Eastern and Western Ghats along the coastline. The Peninsula has the

hill ranges of the Vindhyas and Satpura. India has fertile plains in the north,

endowed with large perennial rivers like the Indus, Satluj, Beas, Ravi,

Ganga and Yamuna. In the south flow the Kaveri and the Godavari, in the

west the Narmada and Tapti, and in the northeast the Brahmaputra.

There are deserts in the northwest. India has rich flora and fauna,

mineral wealth of diamonds, gold, iron, copper, zinc and magnetic, many

climatic zones varieties of soils, and rains provided mostly by the

monsoons, which have acquired a mythical quality. Great civilizations rose

on riverbanks with fertile soils, which provided a good living. The absence

of struggle for existence spared time for intellectual pursuits and generated a

speculative turn of mind ready to delve into philosophy and literature. The

long summers of the desert lands, the heavy monsoons of the northeast and

the costal areas, and the extreme winter of the mountains provided time for

handicrafts and arts.

There are different theories about the origin of the Indus Valley

civilization of 2700 BC. The Aryan (300-1500 BC)113

origin and migration

to India is also controversial. The Greeks invaded India in 326 BC and again

two centuries later, but touched only the northwest border. The Islamic

onslaught began in the seventh century and the arrival of Westerners in the

16th

and 17th

centuries. Only the people from Europe went back the rest

were all absorbed, contributing to a rich culture.

In political terms, there were city-states to start with, then trial

kingdoms and finally big and small kingdoms. The Mauryas (320 – 187 BC)

founded a large empire, contributing to culture in the form of architecture

and sculpture, a new image of kingship enunciated by Emperor Ashoka in

his edicts, and the spread of Buddhism outside India. The Guptas (AD 329-

570) whose rule is considered the Golden Age of Indian history in literature,

architecture, and sculpture - saw the production of the first book on

painting, namely the chitrasutra, and ruled primarily in the north and east of

India114

. Several smaller kingdoms rose in the Decan and in the south,

contributing to the development of Indian art, especially painting.

The most significant of these were the Satavahanas (first to fourth

century AD). The Vakatakas (fourth to fifth century AD), Chalukyas (sixth

to eighth century AD) and the Rashtraklutas (eighth AD), were other

dynasties during whose political predominance centers of paintings came up

in Badami and Ellora. Further south in Tamil Nadu were the Cholas (first

century BC), the pallavas (fourth century AD) and the Pándyas (during

Ashoka’s time and later on in the ninth century), while Kerala had the

Cheras (third century BC). In the north and northwest were powerful kings,

like Lalitaditya (AD 724-760) of kashmir. In Rajasthan, the Gurjara

Praitháras rose in Mandore and Alwar, the Chauhans in Bundi, the Jhalas,

Malots and the Guhilas in Mewar, the Rashtrakutas in Marawar and the

Yadavs in Jaisalmer all of whom were great patrons of paintings.

India first came in contact with islamic influence in the seventh

century, but significant political influence was established only through the

raids of the Yamini dynasty of Ghazni in the 11th

century. The Ghuris and

the Slave dynasty ruled in parts of north India the 12th

century until the

Khiljis established a large empire (AD 1296 – 1316). After them came the

Tughlaqs (AD 1320 – 1462). This period known as the “Sultanate period”,

produced a genre of paintings incoporating Mid-Eastern influences an

Indian traditions. During this period, powerful kindoms emerged in the

Deccan and further south, namely the Bahmanis and the Vijayangara rulers

who produced distinguished schools of painting.

The most prominent invading dynasty to arrive was that of the

Mughals under Babar, orignally form Ferghana. Central Asia, Humayun

(A.D 1530 – 1556) brought in two persianpainters, and his son Akbar (A.D

1556 – 1605) later set up an atelier with both Muslim and Hindu Painters.

Akbar’s son jahangir (A.D 1605 – 1627) was a remarkable aesthete and

introduced greater naturalism in Indian painting. Shanhjahan (A.D 1605 -

1627) was a remarkable aesthete and introduced greater maturalism in

Indian painting. Shahjahan (A.D 1628 – 1658), the builder of the Taj Mahál,

was also a patron of painting. This dynasty brought in Persian, Tukish and

Arab influences, which had a great impact on Indian artistic traditions. The

Marathas, who were a predominant political power in the 18th century, and

the European commercial undertakings, that started arriving in the 15th

century did not influence the art ofpaintings in any direct way.

The world’s major religions – Hinduism, Buddhism, jainism and

Sikhism –originated here, and these faiths provided the greatest impetus to

painting. The Indo – Sanskrit linguistic group that produced the Vedas in

their oral form as early as 1500 BC were not the only contributors to the

development of Hinduism. It was further enriched by the aboriginal tribal

communities and the Dravidians. The Indo-Sanskrit linguistic group were

pastoral people constantly on the move.

They defied the various natural phenomenon they encountered so that

thunder became Indra Varuna represented water Surya, the sun Agni fire,

Mitra, activity Soma, a nectar fit for the gods Chandra, the moon and the

two stars that showed the way at night along with the moon, the Aswins.

The clamer elements became the female goddess, like Aditi the earth Usha,

the dawn and the night. These deities did not have anthropomorphic forms

in the beginning, though they had human attributes. They were upholders of

rita, mortal order. The concept of Karma, action was born.

Śiva, the god of destruction and compassion, has been equally well

identified. He was first worshipped in his generative aspects as the linga or

phallic symbol generally black though sometimes white. He usually has a

dark blue complexion matted hair that is tried in a knot on the top of his

head and adorned with the moon and the river Ganga cascading through it

sankes all over his body as ornaments and rudraksha malas, rosaries made of

barries of the Elaeocarpus ganitrus, around his neck and his arms. He is

depicted on hilltops or with mountains in the background. He is sometimes

depicted with two arms and sometimes with four, holding a trishul, trident a

damru, small drum agni fire and a mriga, deer. He usually sits in the

padmasana, cross-legged yogic pose, but sometimes with one leg crossed

under him and the other hanging down. He is often seen with Parvati at his

side and their and their two children, Ganesha – with an elephant head, and

Kartikeya – seated on a mouse. Nandi, the bull, is Śiva’s vehicle He is

frequently illustrated as Nataraja, the lord of dance as Kalyanmurti,

marrying Parvati as Tripurantaka, destroying demons as Ardhanarishvara,

half man and half woman and as Hari Hara, half vishnu and half Śiva, to

emphasize the unity of Vaishnavism and Shaivism.

The earliest iconographic117

symbology of jain deities is described in

Hindu texts like the Brihat Samhita. The Manasara and the Rupmandala

which precribe nudity, long arms, the auspicious Srivastsa mark on the

Chest, and meditative poses. The Rupmandala prescribes the colors to be

used. The Tirthankaras are further shown either in Yoga mudra, seated with

hands held in a lotus-bud mudra (hand gesture) or in varda mudra, where the

hands are held outward. Tirthankaras are depicted with trees in the

background bearing celestial fruits with yakshas, yakshis and gandharvas as

their attendants, holding umbrellas over their heads. Separate identifying

marks were prescribed for each Tirthankara later. The janins also had

female goddess who are not as frequently illustrated as the Tiruthankaras

but still have their own iconographic formulate.

The jains incorported various Hindu gods called dikpalas, like Indra,

agani, yama, Varuna, Kubera, Isanna, Brahma and Nagas. The jyotish

devas, gods of astrology, called the navgrahas or nine planets – Surya,

Mangala, Buddha, Brihaspati, Shukra, Shani, Rahu, Ketu and Chandra were

also adopted. The Jains innovated with new iconographic formulae like

samavasarana the circles containing the Tirthankara to be meditated upon in

the center, with pilgrims of different jain worlds traveling towards the

center. The jains also started illustrating their pilgrimage centers. As the

jains belong mostly to the commmerical class, they started the practice of

writing illustrated patras, letter – vijnan patras for information, kshana

patras for pardon, and chitrakavyas, poems with vivid pictures used for

communication. The jains also created illustrated playing cards gyanbazi.

Finally, we have jain cosmographic figures painted on cloth, on paper and

on s.

The social norms of Indian society also had a powerful impact on the

tradition of painting. Certain social norms cut across all religious divides.

The first and foremost was that ofa holilstic view of life in which all forms

of creation were pervaded by atman. The second was that life was for the

pursuit not only of dharma, righteousness, and moksha, salvation but also of

artha, wealth, and kama, erotic desire. Society was not stratified in the

beginning and though the concept of caste was initiated by the “Purush

Sukta” in the Rigveda.116

it was based more on occupations. Kingship cut

across caste lines with Brahmin kings like the Satavahanas and vakatakas,

Vaishya rulers like the Guptas, and sudra dynasties like the Nandas and the

Náyáks. The patronage ofpainting was a function of political power and

wealth. Kings, aristocrats, merchants, monks, mathas or temples,

monasteries men and women were patrons.

All the classes of society celebrated both seasonal and religious

festivals, and loved color and embellishment. All this had an impact on the

wonderful colors of thepaintings. A concept common to Hindus, Buddhists

and Jains and Later, Muslim was pilgrimage to sacred places associated

with their gods and holy men. This was a great mode of culturalization

because it served as a means of communication of ideas, through pilgrims

carrying sacred books, icons, sculpted images, illustrated thangkas and

patachitras paintings on cloth. When the pilgrims rested for the night they

were often given shelter by the local communities and in this way ideas

were exchanged. Literary and artistic style, as well as religious influences,

traveled with these pilgrims. The concept of daana, charity, which cuts

across all religions, was practised everywhere. This led to donations to

many temples, as stated in their inscriptions117

, and to monasteries and

mathas which resulted in the creation of a great number of works of art.

The jains too produced Mahákavayas and puranas, divine legends, but

the subject matter of jain painting is mostly charitas, biographies of the

Tirthankaras. The most famous of these are the Mahákavyas of

Gunachandra, the Adhinatha charita of vardhamana, and the santinath

charita of Devachandra – all written in AD 1103 the parshavnath charita of

AD 1108 and the Neminath charita, Haribhadra charita, Mallinath charita

and Chandraprabha charita of the 12th

century. Regional languages created a

vast body of literature whose thematic content influenced the painting

tradition. Similarly, the sultanate, Mughal, Deccani, Malwa and Oudh

Kingdoms – and some feudatory states – were to produce their own literary

masterpieces, which would influence the tradition of painting.

Indian history118

is the story of centrifugal an centripetal tendencies.

Various races came and were drawn into the cultural vortex of India,

enriching it, and no confrontation lasted forever. India was the Golden

Hindi; legendary for its wealth. Virile predators pillaged the country and

took untold wealth, literally tons of rubies, diamonds, gold, animals and

humans, and later destroyed its trade and industry. They traumatized the

polity but in cultural terms many caused no ripples in the stream, while

others brought rich rivulets to join the main stream, which grew and devised

new forms. It is this stream that produced the great Indian tradition of

painting.

5.1.1. Development of the Indian Temple Paintings

Indian painting may be divided into murals and miniatures. All

paintings consist of the paint, the ground and the support. The pigments in

the paint need a binding substance which preserves it and prevents it from

flaking. In murals, the paint unites itself to the ground (lime plaster) which

is applied to a durable support (e.g. stone or rock) Murals (Generally

paintings as the name implies) are naturally bigger than miniatures, where

the name itself implies smallness. The support of these miniatures is more

perishable and smaller in size than in the case of murals. Painting is one of

the attractive visual arts in the category of fine arts.

5.1.2. Classification of Paintings

1. Art Painting – Colour sense is the important features of the paintings.

2. Fresco Paintings – It is a form of painting done on well or a roof,

otherwise calledpainting.

3. Ganvas paintings – Pictures were drawn on canves with exquisite

skill by the painter.

4. Falk Paintings – It represents the heart of the interior village folk

maintained by urban influence.

5. Toyyil – Figures drawn on the breast and shoulders of women with

sandal paste or any such solution.

5.1.3. Mural Paintings

In the corridor that leads from the Mammal gallery to the garden, are

exhibited on the s, forty collotype reproductions of the mural paintings of

the Mattancheri palace and temples in Cochin, which date from the sixteeth

to the eighteeth century A.D. The murals were initiated by Vira Kerala of

Cochin and developed by his successors. Fortunately, they have been spared

by the unskilled renovators and vandals down these centuries, and so retain

their antique value in full. The figures are conventional and drawn from the

puanas, a good number of them illustrating scenes from the Ramayana. In

general effect, they rival Ajanta frescores.

5.1.4. Fresco Paintings

In the apartment housing the Art and Industries gallery are exhibited

pictures and paintings relating to the frescoes of Śittannaváśal Ajanta,

Sigiriya and Iran.

5.1.4.1. Ajanta Paintings

The Ajanta caves lie about a hundred and six km by road north of

Aurangabad, cradled in the precipitious face of the Mahárashtra plateau set

like a huge amphitheatre. Below this splashes the little stream Waghora,

after leaping down in seven precipitious steps from the highlands above,

forming little pools at each step and cutting a deep crescent-like ravine at

the base before coming out into the open vallery. To this idyllic sylvan

setting, so conductive to meditation with the peaceful grandeur of its natural

surroundings, sheltered from the wind, but filled with the music of running

water, the singing of birds and the voices of animals, and fresh with the

smell of sun-kissed greenery, came the Buddhist monks in the second

century B.C. In order to seek shelter from the rains during the monsoon,

they scooped caves out of the volcanic rock of the mountain side.

Since the caves are not far from the ancient trade routes, in course of

time they attracted travelers and pilgrims. Merchants and princes hoped to

attain salvation by contributing to the construction of Buddhist temples.

Pictures and inscriptions show that pilgrims and traders came here from far

and near and the art style was diffused as far as china and Japan.

In order to proclaim the message of the Buddha to these pilgrims, the

monks employed artists who turned the stone s into picture books of his life

and teaching, Representations from the Jataka tales illustrate his intelligence

noble character, selfless service and compassion by means of legends from

his previous births. Though the pictures depict stories related to the Buddha,

the artists portrayed at the same time the costumes and customs of their own

epoch, especially the extravagance of court life. Nor did they overlook life’s

comedy and tragedy, its pathos and humour. The main theme of the stories

seems to be the enduring teachings of the Buddha as against the

impermanence and vanity of life, hanging precariously like the thin coat of

paint on the rocky durability of the walls.

The paintings cover not only the s and ceilings of the caves, but also a

time-span of seven hundred years, thus showing changes in style. The

monastery, one of the oldest in the worlds, first reveals the Hinayana119

period (200 B.C. to 200 A.D.), where the Buddha is represented only by

symbols, or in his supposed previous existences as related in the Jataka

stories.

The paintings reveal a well-developed technique right from the

earliest caves, but we know nothing about its development nor about the

artists themselves. While they were restricted to the representation of

Buddhist motifs on the s, they were more free to use their initiative and

imagination on the ceilings. The Caves having been chiselled out of porous

volcanic trap rock, provided the requisite rough surface to hold the plaster.

This, however having been made of mud and vegetable fibres instead of

lime and gypsum, was not very durable. Though they strengthened the mud

plaster, the vegetable fibres were subject to attack by insects and to bacterial

decay. The medium of the Ajanta painting was tempera. They applied the

mud plaster in two coats the first was rough to fill in the pores of the rocks

and cover the chisel strokes, and then they laid a fine coat of lime plaster

over it. Generally they allowed the entire ground to dry before applying the

colours.

The paintings first they drew the outlines in red ochre. After wards

they applied the colours and renewed the contours in brown, deep red or

black. The pigments of the paint came mainly from the local volcanic rock

various shades of ochre and green resulting from the weathering of the

basalt. They only organic colour used was lamp black. Later on, expensive

lapis lazuli was imported and ground to make blue pigment. The other

colours were vermilion, terraverde and ultramarine. However, since they

bonded the colours chiefly with animal glue and vegetable gums, these too

suffered from insect’s oxidation and water seepage. As a result, many of the

paintings have been the case if they had tried fresco method applying

pigments mixed with water on wet plaster.

The Ajanta paintings show a great variety of dhammilas (hair styles)

from the simplest to the most elaborate. Never left plain, the hair was

decorated. Never left plain, the hair was decorated with pearl strands and

diverse gold jewellery, and the women wore ear and fingers rings, bangles

and armlets, necklaces, tiaras and diadems of various patterns.

The elegant features, high forehead and downcast eyes produce an

impression of dignity and serene meditation. The highlights on cheek nose

and chin, as well as on the arms and breast, together with warm colours and

inward shading of the outline, give fullness to his appearance. The high

sapphire crown indicates his royal birth. Here jewellery is not profuse but

select. He wears a pearl and sapphire necklace. The long strings of pearls

over the left shoulder, across the chest and falling over the right arm are

highly artistic. The scanty dress may perhaps suggest an ascetic life, but at

Ajanta kings generally have no upper garment. The cloth round the loins

resembles a dhoti of striped silk worn in an ascetic style.

5.1.4.2. Bagh Paintings

A bagh, in Madhya Pradesh another flourishing Buddhist monastery

existed in the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. In their heyday the nine caves

were real storehouses of paintings and one of the viháras was in fact named

Kalayana (abode of art). Unfortunately little remains now except fragments

and blotches of colour which continue to decay with every passing day.

Luckily artists made many copies of them. From these and the best

preserved murals in cave No 4 we can see that the paintings of Bagn

resembled the best works of Ajanta120

in style. Here too the earth pigments

were enriched by the brillant blue of lapislazuli. As Bagh lay on a trade

route, it may be that this colour was first introduced here and travelled to

Ajanta later on.

On one of the pilasters of cave No.Four at Bagh we find an interesting

figure of Badhisatva Padmapani remarkably akin in pose and omamentation

to the famous Bodhisatva Padmapani at Ajanta. On stylistic grounds

consider it as the foreunder of the great masterpiece in cave No.1 at Ajanta.

On the outerof the veranda of cave No.Four appear many scenes as

yet unidentified either from a Játaka or Avadána. Particularly interseting is

the halisálasya (folk dancer) in which women playing musical instruments

form a double ring around a pair of male dancers. The pulsating rhythm in

the poses and gestures of the figures is complemented by the judicious use

of colours. There is also a procession of people riding elephants and horses

as magnificent as any such theme found at Ajanta. Birds and flowers too are

delineated with exquisite charm.

5.1.4.3. Badami Paintings

The splendid caves and temples at Badami in the Deccan were

commissioned by king Mangalesa of the western Chalukya dynasty. On the

evidence of an inscription, the Vaisnava cave No.Three at Badami can be

assigned to around 578 A.D. The same inscription shows that the court

painters of Mangalesa continued the excellent tradition of Ajanta, even

though inside of the cave. The court scene depicts a dark prince possibly

King Kirtivarman, Mangalesa’s elder brother.

5.1.4.4. Ellora Paintings

Remnants of mural paintings as Ellora121

are found in the Kailasa,

Lankeśvara, Indra Sabhá and Ganesá Lena temples but only in the Kailasa

they are less decayed. The porch ceiling of the second story of the Kailasa

temple has the most important of these murals. The first series of paintings

were made at the same time as the excavations, while the second series was

done several centuries later. The earliest paintings show Vishnu and

Lakshmi borne through the clouds by garudas. Clouds fill the Background

of the pannel. The thin sinewy figures have sharp features and long pointed

noses. The protruding eye typical of he later Gujarati style appears for the

first time in Ellora. In the Later series the main composition shows a

procession of Śiva holy men.

Though the Jaina rock temples at Ellora were also profusely painted,

only few remains survive. The flying apsará s are quite graceful but the

repetition of Tirthankaras lacks vitality. In south Indian paintings have been

found both in the early rock-cut caves and later structural temples. They

were executed under the royal patronage of the Pallavas, Pándyas, Cheras

and Cholas during the course of many centuries. unfortunately most of the

examples are very fragmentary.

5.1.4.5. Vijayanagar Paintings

Vijayanagara conjures up images of heroism, grandeur and national

pride. After the Muslim had established their predominance on the throne of

Delhi many of the small states and a few of the big ones rejected their

expansion, and some openly challenged them. The state of Mewar in the

north, vijayanagara in the south, and the Marathas in the Deccan stand out

as the predoninant challengers.

The kingdom of Vijayanagara was founded by the brothers Harihara

and Bukka. Some historians think that they were employed as ministers in

the state of kampili in the Decan while others believe that they were in the

armies of Balala III, a Hoysala king (AD 1336 – 1346). The great martial

abilities of the brothers led to the expansion of the Kingdom, and by 1377 it

already included Tondaimandalam, Madura and Rameshvaram122

. By 1565

the kingdom extended from the river krishna in the north to almost the

whole of peninsular India, with the exception of Kerala and a very small

area outside it. It had humbled the might of the Gajapatis of Orissa and of

sri Lanka.

Vijayanagara was to become the largest state ever founded in south

India. It propounded a new Concept of kingship. Kings were no longer the

pride of one linguistic group. They needed different groups to Identify with

them. This notion led them to adopt a strategy that would have far-reaching

effects on the development of art. They set about winning over influential

group by promoting the idea that they had aristen to protect Hindu dharma.

They cultivated that heads of powerful mathas like that of sringeri. and

made donations to temples on a large scale, enabling them no promote

agriculture through “storage economy” and support the rulers in turn by

identifying them with divinity.

Various sects proliferacted, and increased resources led to the

building of more shrines. The mathas became intellectual centers, and

pilgrimages increased with the greater security. The kings also promoted

Vaishnava literature. Great works were written in Tamil, Telugu, Kannada

and Sanskrit. Mandalpurusha, Hariharadas and Janprakasar were great

writers in Tamil. Telugu produced great scholars like Nandi Timana, the

author of Parijata Parharnam, Jakhana, Srinath and Yellana. In Sanskrit,

Sayana wrote his commentary on the Vedas named Sayana Bhashya, and

Vidyamadhavia on astronomy among others.

The well planned city of Vijyanagara is an architectural and town-

planning marvel it has many small palaces, the lotus Mahál, a beautiful tank

built on zondical considerations and a Mahánavmi (a festival which is held

in honour or Mahámaya Devi) platform, along with numerous sculptures.

Devaraya built the Ramachandra Temple, Krishnadevaraya built the krishna

and possibly the Anantshyana and Vithalasvami temples. Achutaraya may

have been associated with pattabhirama temple complex. Army general

Viranna and treasurer Virupanna built the Leepakshi Temple, Tirmala, a

minister built the Tiruvengalanatha Temple, Irrugappa, the sangeeta

mandapam. What is awe inspring is the presence of almost five hundred

temples built here devoted to various gods. At sunset over this dead city the

vibrations of the tinkling of bells in these temples can be heard some of

which to this day receive adoration and worship.

One account but think that the splendid buildings of Vijayanagara

would have been adorned with paintings, a tradition which was already well

developed in the Deccan and in the earlier Kingdoms of the south. The facts

that it was prevalent in the 14th century itself is indicated from an inscription

dated 1378 which makes a reference to the gods “who dwelt unknown to

him Hrihara II in their pictures on the s” This would indicate that paintings

existed in Vijayangara in the last quarter of the 14th

century. The

Vijayanagara painting tradition was spread over all the areas of the empire’s

rule, including Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Since this style

is the contribution of a single kingdom, the paintings of this period will be

discussed as one genre.

5.1.4.6. Virupaksha Temple Paintings

In Vijayanagara city, the earliest extant paintings are found in the

Virupaksha Temple. The temple was definitely in existence in the early 14th

century a fact implied by a 1347 inscription the mentions Marappa Vodayar

making obeisance to Virupaksha. It seems likely that it started off as a small

shrine and was gradually expanded. It is also likely that all the Harihara

kings contributed to its growth for it is unlikely that Hrihara I, Bukka I and

Bukka II did not make any contributions to its expansion. An inscription

mentions that saluva Narasimha usurped the throne in 1485. Paes mentions

that Krishnadevaraya used to visit this temple after his bath.

Dallapiccloa has strong arguments against dating the Virupaksha

paintings to the 16th

century123

, based on considerations of style. An

agrument has been advanced that as there are differences in style between

the paintings of the Virupaksha and Leepakshi temples, and as the date of

the Leepakshipaintings has been accepted as the 16th century, the

Virupaksha paintings that look different in style must belong to a later

period. This point of view is further supported by the fact that Virupaksha

paintings share distinct similarities with the later styles of

Tirupparutikanram and Shravana Belagola, both presumed to have come

into existence in the 18th

and 19th

centuries.

The Vijayangar Paintings mirrored the great revival of Hindu religion

and art in South India. Paintings which had yielded in importance to ornate

sculptural decorations in the temples until the fifteeth century, now made a

cameback. At Hampi under the rule of Krishnadeva Raya (1511-1528 A.D.)

the magnificent Vijayanagar (city of victory) sprang up with temples, places

and bazaars.

The important examples of paintings in the Vijayanagar style survive

in the Virupaksa temple at Hampi and the Virabhadraswami temple at

Lepakshi and some fragments that had been enlarged under Vijayanagar

rule. But nothing remains of any paintings in the palatial buildings since the

Muslim invaders razed their brick and timber superstructures to the ground

after the Battle of Talikota in 1565.

The Virupaksa temple at Hampi has murals representing episodes

from the Mahábharata and Ramayana the exploits of Śiva and dynastic

history. The series of paintings on the ceiling of its mandapa needs repairs

and cleaning. One of he scenes shows Vidyaranya, the guru of Harihara and

Bukka, the founders of he Vihayanagar empire being carried on a palanquin

and followed by a retinue. The composition shows a rhythmic forward

movement and does not look over crowded.

The Virabhadra temple at Lapakshi contains the best preserved

paintings of the style. During the time of Achyuta Raya, two nobles who

were brothers (Virupanna and Viranna) undertook the erection and painting

of this temple. Originally paintings covered the ceilings of many of the

mandapas and corridors which form the temple complex but now they are

partially damaged.

Beams supporting the roof divide the ceiling of its mukha or range

mandapa. The longest of these shows an episode from the life of king

Manunitikanda Chola who granted justice to a cow whose calf was run over

by his son’s chariot wheels, but Śiva restored life to both the victims and

praised the King’s sense of Justice.

The same ceiling has scenes from Draupadi’s wedding. Kiratajuniya

(Arjuna’s penance) with a view to obtain pasupatastara from Śiva, and the

story of Bhukailasa. The adjacent panels of Vatapatrasayi and

Virabhadranugraha exemplify the spirit of tolerance. Vatapatrasayi is the

aspect of Krsna as a boby lying on a banyan leaf floating over the

primordial waters. Since the eyes are painted in full front view, they seem to

follow the viewer whereever he goes.

Next to this panel comes an interesting one showing Viruppana and

viranna with their sons and guards, all standing with clasped hands. They

wear long white, full sleeved robes, with a printed cloth tied round the

waist. Their conical caps belong to the same type as the one on the statue or

Krishnadeva Raya in Tirupati.

Another panel from the same ceiling depicts maids in attendance on

Parvati. The composition reveals easy movement and charning grace. The

texile patterns of the sarees reveal not only the skill of the artists but also the

craftsmanship of the weaves of that period. Textile design from the borders

of the painting.

Different aspects of the adorn the long narrow ceiling of the ardha

mandapa. A colossal Virabhadra standing in an aweinspiring pose, ocuupies

the ceiling of the mandapa of the main shrine.

The ceiling of the mandapa of the Raghunathalaya a temple inside the

Virabhadra temple complex, shows the first seven avataras of visnu.

Even though the subject matter of these paintings consists mainly of

mythological legends of Śiva and stories from the epics the costumes,

jewellery, hair styles and other elements represent the life and customs of

the great Vijayanagar empire.

In general the Lepakshi paintings are highly decorative. They are no

more than line drawings with no attempt at modeling in the round. Human

faces usually appear in profile or three quarter view. The figures stand with

a slight tilt, both feet pointing in the same direction like the leather puppets

that constitute popular folk art in the area. Most of the ladies have the same

type of hair-do, but the turbans and hair-styles of the men and rises vary a

great deal. The most noteworthy feature of these paintings lies in the

exquisite textile designs both for the clothing of the figures as well as for the

borders and backdrops of the scenes. Few colours have been used – chiefly

earth-red, yellow-ochre, green, black and grey on a brilliant white

background. Blue is missing and is replaced by green wherever necessary.

The Vijayanagar style is not a direct development of classical

painting, but it serves its decorative purpose exceptionally well with its

undercurrent of folk art discernible in the tableau-like placing of flat figures

against a patterned background. Historically its importance lies in its

influence on the later Muslim painting in the Decant kingdoms.

5.1.5. Development of Tamilnadu temple Paintings

Tamil Nadu the heart of Dravidian Culture, was made up of small

kingdoms right up to the sixth century. Large kingdoms rose here with the

Pallavas in the seventh century. The Pándyas ruled in the Madura region and

were in the ascendant for a short time after the Pallavas. The 9th

, 10th

, 11th

and 12th

centuries belonged to the Chola. The 31st century was a rather

chaotic period with the Kandambas, Gangas, Hoysalas and Pándyas ruling

over portions of Tamil Nadu. In the 14th

century, the vijayanagara kings

conquered Tondaimandalam. After the fall of the Vijayanagara kingdom in

the 17th century, the Nayákás of this region became autonomous and ruled

up to the middle of the next century and even later.

Tamil Nadu were interested in the promotion of architecture sculpture

and painting. Unlike some North Indian states, the art of miniature painting

does not seen to have developed here, though there is a continuous tradition

of painting. The explanation lies perhaps in the fact that most arts were used

for the glorification of the divine, in the creation of beautiful temples.

Tamilnadu is the land of temples, with temples both big and small dotting

the entire countryside. Although literary references exist, even in Sangam

literature and in early works like the Silappadikaram and the Manimekkalai,

to the existence ofpaintings in the large palaces of the kings and the lordly

mansions of the nobility and the merchant class, the surviving examples are

to be found almost exclusively in temples.

There were many reasons for the patronage of art in Tamil Nadu, the

most important being the extreme religiosity of the people of this region due

perhaps to their devotion to local religious cults, the continuance of which

was ensured by arranging matrimonial relations within a radius of four to

five kilometers, thus keeping the inheritance of property within a small area.

Though local cults were most powerful, Buddhism and Jainism were quite

influential until the seventh and eighth centuries124

. Classical Hinduism was

also present, with the emergence of the Shaiva and Vaishnava cults form the

beginning of the Christian era. Intense religious fervor was aroused by a

number of poets and spiritualists, among whom Vishnu’s devotes, were

known as the Alvars-Poykaiyalvar, Putattalvar, Periyalvar and his daughter

Andal. The Shaiva saint poets were the Nayanmars, the most famous among

them being Kulasekharam Inriayana, Nathamuni, Madhurakavi, Appar,

Sambhandar, Sundarar and Manikkavachakkar. Ascetics went from place to

place and were reverted. While religious mathas owned vast properties,

produced religious literature, preached among the masses, and became

facilitators of education. The temples, richly endowed with land, money and

jewelry from kings further aroused religious fervor, and also funded the

creation of large sculptures andpaintings along with the king, aristocracy

and even the general public.

5.1.6. Pallava paintings

Tamil Nadu paintings seem to exist from the seventh century onward

thought literary mention of them exists from an earlier time. The Tamil

Classics, the Manimekalai and the Silappadiharam, written in the fifth

century AD, mention their existence. Remains of sculptures and temples

from earlier dates have been found.

The pallava monarch who first came to light as a great patron of art

architecture was Mahéndra Varman I (AD 600 – 630) with appellations like

“Vichitra Chitta”, curious one “Chettakri” temple builder and

“Chitrakarppulli”, a tiger among painters. He was responsible for

introducing rock-cut Cave structures and temples in Tamil Nadu. The cave

at Mamandur, which has indistinct paintings, seems to have been caved

during his time. He also seems to have begun the work at Mahábalipuram. It

was earlier believed that as he was a jain he might have been the patron of

the rock-cut temple of Adinath at Śittanaváśal and its paintings.

The honor of being the patron of the best temple and the best Pallava

paintings goes to Mahéndra Varman’s great grandson. Narasimha Varman II

(AD 700 – 720), who was also known as Rjasimha. Besides being a

possessor of the marital qualities so essential for survival in those times, he

was a great devotee of Śiva, and among his favorite titles was that of

“Shankarabhakra” or devotee of Śiva.

The Talagiriśhvara Temple at Panamalai, built by Narasimha Varma

though not as splendidly built and adorned as the Kailashanath Temple has

some beautiful paintings in a similar style. A painting of a female form

standing in the same pose as Mahámaya, the mother of Buddha, after giving

birth to him in Cave II of Ajanta, is supposed to represent Parvati watching

the dance of Śiva125

. The delicate hands and leg with bended knee have

achieved the same excellence as at Ajanta, though the expression on the face

of the lady is far superior to the one at Ajanta. Another panel shows the

figure of Śiva seated on a rock with a muscular arm and delicate hand

mudras, revealing the typical excellence of the drawing and coloring seen at

Kailashnath.

5.1.7. Panamalai Kanchipuram Temple Paintings

The Pallavas were great patrons of all art forms. A note worthy

example of Pallava painting is the graceful figure in the Talagirisvara

temple at panamalai of a goddess in a Ajanta like post. Vestiges of a group

of Śiva, parvati and the infant skanda as well as other paintings remain in

the kailsanata critical appraisal of the technique and style of other pallava

paintings can scarcely be made.

The Cholas as a people are mentioned in Ashoka’s rock-cut edicts,

but as the rulers of Tondaimandalam they are first mentioned only in the

first century BC. Vijayala Chola revived the family fortunes in the ninth

century, and after the fratricidal conflict of the Pallavas in 869, the Pallava

rule weakened, to be replaced by the Cholas who ruled until 1279.

This dynasty is responsible for taking temple architecture to its most

glorious height and for the building of over a thousand temples. It is still

more famous for the extra ordinary sculptures on the temple s and the

bronze sculptures installed within the temple interiors. The art ofpainting

also seems to have flourished, though extant remains are visible in only two

temples. Their quality attests to the sophistication and beauty of this art.

5.1.8. Chola Paintings

The first Chola temple with paintings is Vijayálaya Chóliśhwaram. It

is a ninth century royal construction with the most beautiful setting of any

Chola temple on a large undulating rocky hill with an ethereal view of lakes,

small hills, dry lands and wet rice lands surrounding the rocky formation. A

prince painted on the massive Chola scale can also be seen in outline. We

can see the use of terracotta, yellow and orange, but the other colors have

evaporated.

The Chola empire reached its zenith of expansion, power and

affluence during the time of Rájarája I (AD 986 – 1014)126

and Rajendra

(1014 – 1044) Rájarája was an extraordinary man and ruler by any standard.

At the time of he accession, the Chola kingdom was confined to the

Tanjavur district. He extended the kingdom beyond the Pandyan territories

to Venadu after defeating the Pandyan king Amarabhujanga to Kerala after

defeating Ravi Varma and into Karnataka, occupying Coorg or Kodagu

(originally called Kodaimalenadu), parts of lower and eastern Karnataka

including Gangavadi, Banavadi Tadikaivali, Nolambavadi and parts of the

kingdom of the western Chalukyas making the River Tunghabhadra the

northern boundary of the Chola State.

It is certain that Rájarája annexed the northern part of Sri Lanka the

Maldives and Lakshadweep. He was assisted in his career of conquest by a

vast army and navy, which sailed across the Bay of Bengal and from the

coast of Kerala. He also devised an excellent administrative system and

promoted commerce, agriculture and industry. He was a warm and

affectionate son, brother, husband and father and a great devotee of Śiva. He

built fifty-two temples, the most splendid being Brihadiśhvara Temple in

Tanjavur, which contains the largest body of Chola paintings.

The temple complex is spread over 790 feet in the east-west direction

and 400 feet in the north-south direction. Near it are four subsidiary shrines

and a Nataraja mandapa hall in front of the sanctum. The temple has

sculpted figures representing Śiva in his various forms. Inside the

garbhagriha Śiva is installed as a monolithic lingam.

The s of the ambulatory chambers behind the garbhagriha are covered

with paintings originally done in Rájarája’s time with later superimpositions

made during the Náyáka period during the reign of Sarfoji in the 18th

century. Some chola panels of great beauty have been restored by the ASI

and depict murals in the epic style it is the biggest center after Ajanta.

Śiva is painted in all his glory in the passage around the

ardhamandapa. As Dakshinamúrti he is illustrated in a forest, and as

Nataraja he is shown receiving the salutations of Rájarája I, his queens and

Rájarája’s guru karuvarar.

The next large painting is an illustration of the encounter of the Tamil

saint sundarar with Śiva, disguised as an old man. Sundarar was Śiva’s

devotee in Kailash, his abode but he annoyed Śiva by falling in love with

two of Parvati’s maids, and was sent to earth to do penance. He was raised

by two sets of foster parents and his marriage was arranged in a temple

resembling the Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram. Before the wedding rites

could be performed Śiva appeared as an old Brahmin, objecting to the

marriage on the grounds that Sundarar was his slave. Sundarar went the

second millennium has a great deal of stylistic similarity whether it was

patronized by the Pallavas, the Pándyas or the Cholas.

This stylistic similarity cuts across religious boundaries between

shrines. Differences in iconographic motifs may occur and be not able but

the styles are similar-the lyrical quality of the line and the coloring have a

similarity of emphasis. There are however, variations in expression. The

Pallava figures still visible in the Kailashnath Temple at Kanchi have more

muscular bnodies, and a great deal of emphasis is placed on the hand

mudras-as is evident in a painting where only Śiva’s arm is distinct. The

size of the figures in Brihadiśhvara and Vijayala Chóliśhwaram temples can

often be massive but the emphasis on musculature is not as pronounced, as

seen in the Brihadiśhvara panel of Rájarája I and his queen paying homage

to Nataraja. Chola compositions are more complex, with greater attention to

detail than the remains of Pallava paintings. It is posible that this was due to

the limitedspace available in the Brihadiśhvara Temple.

The lyrical quality of Kailahnath, Śittanaváśal and Brihadiśhvara is

outstandingly depicted in the figures of dancing women. It is possible that

the portrayel of dancing girl gave greater license to artists than the more

rigid iconographic formulae govering the depiction of gods.

5.1.9. Vijayanagara Paintings in Tamil Nadu

Vijayanagara paintings also exist in the Varadaraja Temple at

Kanchipuram. Its temple s were originally covered with paintings, but most

of them have now become indecipherable. Śivaramamúrti127

was able to

make out the existence of some pictures relating to Krishna leela – the

miracles and life of Krishna-with the gopis, and kaliya madha mardana, the

humbling of the pride of the snake Kaliya. Kaliya used to sow the children

of Vrindavana, and Krishna entered his stomach to kill him, but on the

snake’s pleas for mercy, he came out and danced on his head to humble

him. There are also two conventrional paintings of Vidyaranya, the head of

the Sringeri matha being carried in a palanquin, and of Manmatha, the god

of love, with his wife Rati. In the corridorof the Vardaraja shrine is a

depiction of Garuda, the vahana of Vishnu. One scholar has been able to

decipher the pictures of Alvars and Nammalvar and thinks the descriptions

Leepakshi style. Most of the colors of these paintings have evaporated.

In Tiruvannamalai, in Tanjavur district, a Śiva temple built in the

hoary past but renovated during Chola times contains Vijayanagara period

paintings that have been assigned to the 18th

century. They include

remarkable illustrations on the Krishna theme in bright red and pale blue,

with a shower of flowers indicating jain influence.

The single painting in the Chidambaram Temple still extant appears

to belong to the Náyáka style of the 17th

century, and depicts Śiva in his

Bhikshatana or beggar form. Śiva’s elegant form enchants the women of the

village, and several scantily dressed women attended by their maids look at

Śiva very coyly and shyly. This angers the sages whose wives have fallen

like ninepins to the charms of Śiva, and they are illustrated performing a

yagneya, sacrifice, to destroy Śiva. Along with Śiva is the beautiful form of

Vishnu’s Mohini roop, female form. Both of them set out to distract the

sages’ and their wives’ concentration on bhakti, devotion, by seducing them

with beautiful male and female figures and destroying their bhakti through

lust, so that they do not complete their yagneya against Śiva.

The panel’s elegance lies in the attention to the details of the

women’s hairstyles and ornamentation. There is great movement in the

entire painting, indicated through the almost dancing figures of the ladies,

while even Śiva’s posture is that of a male dancer. There are similarities

with the late Tirupparutikanram paintings in the borders of the paintings, the

use of draperies, the hairstyles, the shapes of the trees and the way

compartments are indicated, but the richness of color in the Chidambaram

panel is missing at Tirupparutikunram.

5.2. Pudukkóttai District Temples Paintings

5.2.1. Śittanaváśal Cave Temple Paintings

The ceiling of the sanctum and the ardhamandapa contains paintings.

The paintings present the following division: A canopy of carpet pattern is

over the Parśvanatha niche with full-blown lotus flowers and buds against a

background of lotus leaves. The ceiling on the north over the niche of

Tiruvaśiriyan, contains a similar canopy of carpet-pattern with a background

of circular floral designs. The ceiling of the sanctum has a carpet-pattern

canopy over the sculpters on the backwith ornamental borders and a pattern

of squares and circles within. The circles present crosses with two.

Human figures above and two lions below the horizontal arm of the

cross while the interiors of the squares contain circular floral designs. In

addition to these three canopies and the area containing the dharmachakra

carving, we notice on the ceiling of the shrine and the verandah, a

continuous and by far the most important theme painted here, viz., a tank

featuring lotuses, lilies, fishes, a makara, birds, elephants, buffaloes, and

three men (bhavyas) wading in it, and gathering flowers. The bottom side of

the beam, which can be divided into three spaces between corbels, shows on

one face, a canopy designs of conventional floral patterns. There are

paintings on the rolls of the corbels as well and the median banks of the two

central corbels show foliage and lotus buds while the two different pairs are

marked by sprigs of foliage.

The facade beam presents on its exposed side, floral designs, painted

bands and parallelograms. Coming to the cornice above the façade, we

notice that the under-surface is divided into fice parts by four bands, the

central area painted with a canopy of lotuses and lilies, the bands on either

side of this showing figures of hamsas, and the bands at the two ends filled

with canopies of conventional floral patterns. We now come to the pillars of

the façade and to their upper octagonal parts, wherein are painted two

dancing apsará girls.

The painting on the top of the southern pillar reveals on its northern

face, a king with his queen standing behind him, while a man is in front.

This king has been identified as Mahéndravarman I by some scholars and as

God Mahádeva or Ardhanáriśvara by others. Much of the painting on the

face of the pillars and pilasters and on the s and the painted stucco on the

roughly finished sculptures is lost.

Originally the entire cave temple, including the sculptures, was

covered with plaster and painted. The paintings now extant are found on the

ceilings, beams and the tops of the pillars.

On the ceiling of the sanctum is carved a conspicuous wheel which,

though resembling Buddha’s dharmachakra, actually represents the

vijayachakra of Jaina, with which we are made familiar by Kharavela’s

inscription in Khandagiri-Udayagiri. The colour scheme on the ceiling

consists of two patterns, one geometric and the other floral. The geometrical

pattern, which occupies less space than the floral, spreads over a part of the

three figures carved on the back . The subject-matter of the geometric

pattern is the dharmachakra in which pairs of Gautama-Ganadháras are

grouped in places formed by meandering bands and superimposed by a pair

of lions. The meandering bands lead to circular and square geometric insets.

Evidently the subject matter is dharmopadesa of the Tirthankara and the

interpretation of the divyadhvani that emanated from the Tirthankara by the

two Gautama-Ganadharas, during the samavasarana of the Jaina.

The geometrical pattern is highly conventionalized as one can notice

in Indrasabha at Ellora, which is a Jaina cave of the 9th

century A.D. This

design repeats in various insets formed by intertwining bands and is

contemporaneous with the adjoining floral design. In 1942, while cleaning

the paintings in this cave temple, Paramasivan noticed a patch of old

painting representing conventional carpet designs over which the new layer

of painting appears to have been superimposed.

5.2.2. Śittanaváśal Ardhamandapam Paintings

In the rest of the area both within the sanctum sanctorum and on the

ceiling of the verandah, corbels and pillars, which have clearly been

renovated, the removator painted sense such as a delightful lotus pond with

lotus flowers, lilies, fishes, geese, buffaloes and elephants. The carpet

canopy over the carving of Tiruvasiriyan shows conventional floral designs

of a different pattern. The rest of the ceiling of the sanctum and of the

verandah is filled up with a design, the principal theme of which is a tank

full of realistic lotuses of two kinds. Amidst the lotuses are portrayed

various kinds of fish, a makara, buffaloes, elephants and numerous birds

such as geese. In the northwest corner of the tank two devotees (bhavyas) in

loin cloths are wading through the water.

One carries a basket in one hand and is plucking flowers with the

other. The other carries a lotus over his left shoulder and extends his right

hand with the fingers forming the mudra of overture, as though he is

beckoning the bhavya ahead of him. A third bhavya in the southern corner

of the tank carries a lily in the right hand and a bundle of lotus flowers in his

left hand. Everything is treated in a most natural, elegant and simple

manner. The fishes and the geese play about in the tank here and there,

recalling a pleasant paradise.

The elephants wading in the tank are engaged in bathing and

splashing water on each other, plucking lotuses by their stalks and so on.

The attitude of the third elephant, which is wading in the water of the tank

behind the elephant that is pulling the lotus by its stalk, is suggestive of

supreme content such as an elephant would feel in water. It stands still. The

lotus leaves are made to stand as background of every lotus flower in bloom

to set off the latter and bring out its beauty. Of the three bhavyas, whose

pose and sweetness of countenance are indeed charming, two stand close to

each other while the third stands alone at the right hand end of the fresco128

.

The complexion of two is dark red while that of the third is brown. The

splashing elephants are causing in the water consternation to the fishes

round about them, who have started leaping and frolicking.

The function of splashing water is justifiably assigned to the tusker

who is evidently and chief of the elephant herd. The painter has not

forgotten, however, to depict the leaping fish with its enviable eye the eye

that makes the poet run home to versify it by comparing it with the eye of a

lovely lass (minalochani, minakshi). Of similar interest is the attitude of the

two buffaloes in two different parts of the lotus tank. While one maintains

the stone-still pose in water that a buffalo give the dignity due to that

animal. By the side of such frolicking fishes, splashing elephants, bathing

buffaloes and wading devotees, the painter juxtaposes birds such as

chakravakas, sarasas, and the ducks generally in pairs and occasionally as

single.

A single duck is unperturbed when an agitated fish (the model of

minakshi) leaps up by its side for safety. The duck knows that in its wings,

which are already half-spread, lies its security. Elsewhere, a geese pair is

engaged in communion looking at each other, though a leaping fish nearby

perturbs one in the pair making it open its beak as though a leaping fish

nearby perturbs one in the pair making it open its beak as though to caution

the other. Throughout in the lotus tank, motion is visible. Nothing is mute,

whether it is elephants or buffaloes or fishes or birds. While the animals and

birds are all active, even the flowers, viz. lotuses and lilies are in various

stages of progress bud, half-bloom and full-bloom. The same is the case

with the leaves of the lotus category. Everything about me tank expresses

progress of flora and fauna as time (kala) moves or watches. Of sufficient

fascination is the grouping of a mother duck and its offspring. While the

duckling is animated and flutters its wings in proof thereof, the mother

arranges itself in front of its offspring and watches calmly but surely for the

disturber or the agitator. The mother affords protection to the duckling by

making the latter go under it, though its offspring has not yet got over its

agitation. The disturbers are the splashing elephants. In another part, the

disturbers are the wading bhavyas and the mother duck gives protection to

the offspring by making the latter go behind it.

The position of the three young men, clad in loin-cloths, wading

through water surface, collecting lotuses as they go, is clearly suggestive

that the purpose is to carry flowers as for pújá after a purifying bath. That

they are only with loin-cloth (kaupina) reflects on the Indian way of bathing.

Even the modern Indian has not changed a bit from the kaupina-pose during

bathing. The ears of these bhavyas are not only elongated but have also

distended lobes as in the case of Jina’s and Buddna’s images. Distended

lobes obviously suggest that they wore earrings but have removed them as

during a bath for fear they might slip away.

The case is not so with the wristlets in the hands, which do not slip

away while bathing. Thus the kaupina and the distended lobes of the ears

bring out forcibly the idea of bathing, while the lotus bunches held in the

hands suggest pújá after the ablution of bath. All these details are painted on

a ground of plaster directly over the bare rock surface. In the lotus tank, the

leaves are green with black outlines. There are red lotus flowers and yellow

stems with dark red outline. The buffaloes and other animals are dark grey

with black outline. Human figures are in red and yellow. The background is

red in many places.

The lotus tank scene has baffled identification. Dubreuil, who with

the late Gopinatha Rao discovered the paintings, declared that the temple is

identical in design with that at Mamandur, that it was at one time fully

painted but only the paintings in the upper part of the edifices are intact, that

the upper subject that is preserved in the fresco adorning the whole ceiling

of the verandah represents a tank covered with lotuses, which in turn was

probably a scene from the religious history of the Jainas, which he admitted

he did not know. Balasubrahmanyam gave an identification which takes us a

step further from Dubreuil’s that the subject-matter is from Jaina

mythology. A word of caution is worth uttering here, as Jaina art bears a

close and superficial resemblance to that of Buddhism. The subject of lotus

tank with lotuses and birds in water also occurs in a sculpture on the railing

of the Amaravati stupa. Balasubrahmanyam’s views are quoted below.

‘There is a lotus-pool containing much water and mud, very full and

complete, full of white lotuses, delightful, conspicuous, magnificent and

splendid. And everywhere all over the lotus-pool there grew many white

lotuses, the best of Nymphaeas, in beautiful array, tall, brilliant, of fine

colour, smell, taste, touch, - splendid. And in the very middle of this lotus-

pool, there grew one big white lotus, the best of Nymphaeas.’

“Now there came a man from the eastern quarter to the lotus-pool,

and standing on the bank of it, he saw that one big white lotus. Now this

man spoke thus, ‘I am a knowing, clever, well-informed, discerning, wise,

not foolish man, who keeps the way, knows the way, and is acquainted with

the direction and bent of the way. I shall fetch that white lotus, the best of

all Nymphaeas.’ Having said thus the man entered the lotus-pool. And the

more he proceeded, the more the water and the mud (seemed to) extend. He

had left the shore, and he did not come up to the white lotus, nor to the

opposite one but in the middle of the lotus-pond he stuck in the mud.

“Then there came another man from the southern quarter to the lotus-

pool. The second man thought that the first man was not a knowing man but

that he alone was knowing. But when he entered the pool, he also stuck in

the mud. The same thing happened to a third and a fourth man who came

from the western and northern quarters respectively.

“There was a monk living on a low food and desiring to get to the

shore of samsara. Standing on the bank of the lotus-pool, he waw the one

big white lotus. He did not enter the lotus-pool, but standing on the bank of

it, he raised his voice, ‘Come on, white lotus, best of Nymphaeas!’ and lo,

the white lotus flew up!

Balasubrahmanyam’s first identification that it probably represents

one of the fourteen auspicious portents (śakunas) that Trisala saw cannot be

accepted, as in such a description there is no place for the three bhavyas, the

buffaloes and the fishes. There is room in it only for a lake of lotuses

resorted to by swans, cranes and ducks129

. The second identification relating

to the story that Mahávira narrated does not fit in with the details. The bone

of contention and centre of attraction is only a white lotus, all the other

lotuses being also white. There is not only no white lotus in the whole scene

painted, but it is not also in the centre.

The four heretical teachers, one from each cardinal point, are not

here, but only three people who are all moving in one direction only, who

have succeeded in collecting lotuses and who do not at all present in their

countenances any feeling of despair or misery such as would be the case if

they were stuck up in mud. The four men in Mahávira’s parable were never

able to catch any lotus nor did they move in one direction and from one

cardinal point. There is no lotus flying up, not to speak of its being white.

There is no suggestion in the painting of mud, which according to Mahávira,

was an essential element standing for pleasure and amusement and the

consequent sticking up. There is no monk in the scene who could stand for

the law. There is no bank for the lotus tank to suggest the church.

5.2.3. Śittanaváśal Painting on the Architrave

The architrave over the pillars of the façade is painted on all sides.

The bottom face of the architrave which is supported by the corbels of the

verandah pillars is exposed to view as in an aisle in three places between the

corbels. The central part reveals a canopy design with lotus and foliage

issuing from designs of conventional floral patterns.

The corbels which we already noticed as fitted with roll-

ornamentations are painted red, green and yellow on the rolls. The median

band of the two central corbels are embellished by naturalistic lotus buds

and foliage while those of the two outer pairs are similarly embellished with

sprigs of foliage. The outer face of the beam, or to speak correctly, the

western face of the corbels and above, is decorated with foliage and flowers,

conventional flowery designs and painted bands in circles and squares and

in parallelograms. The painter has not forgotten the cornice, for its

undersurface which is divided into five areas shows in the centre a canopy

design with lotuses and lilies and in bands on either side of this, hamsas

with conventional plumage and on the bands at the ends, canopies of

conventional floral patterns.

5.2.4. Śittanaváśal Paintings on the Pillars

We now come to the paintings on the cubical parts of the pillars of the

facade which contain the famous paintings of two dancing apsaráses. On the

front face of the upper cubical part of the northern pillar is a graceful figure

of a dancing apsará -maiden, her left arm stretched in latá-hasta, her right

arm bent in front of her bosom with its palm presenting patáka. As the

painting is very much obliterated all that we can make out is only the upper

torso of the danseuse with ther head tilted to the left and with her ears

decorated with patra-kundalas. The usual angadas and wristlets are in

evidence in both the arms. A close-fitting necklet (kanthi) around her neck

and three háras hanging elegantly over the breasts but not descending below

them and an yajnopavita of single chord are other decorative features

noticeable on the torso. Outlines are dark red, the body yellow and the

background red.

The painter has not forgotten to put a ring on the ánamiká finger of

the right arm. The hair is secured in a dhammilla knot behind with flower

garlands tucked into it while a frontal tiara goes against the hair in front

above the forehead. This decoration falls short of a coronet and is much

more than the modern talasáman (headwear) toilet of the danseuse. As we

cannot make out anything below the waist of this danseuse, it is very

difficult to determine the particular karaha of Bharata’s Nátyaśástra that she

is engaged in performing. Bharata defines “the feet are making alatáchari,

taking down the right hand from the level of the shoulder, then making

urdhvajánuchári.

The pose in the painting is similar to the natya pose sculptured on the

s of the Brihadiśvara temple at Tanjore of the 11th century A.D. The only

difference is that in the painting under discussion, the position is reversed. It

is the left hand that is in latá pose while in Tanjore it is the right hand that is

in latá and the left hand shows patáka otherwise the two are alike. The next

karana that can be thought of is úrdhvajánu which though it has a reference

to the legs, should have presented the hand pose as in the painting under

description.

While in the painting there is no difficulty or difference about the

hands fitting into the karana, nothing remains below the waistline to give us

a glimpse of the legs or the urdhvajanu (knee). Also the head of the

danseuse is tilted to the left instead of being straight as in the Chidambaram

Nataraja temple sculpture of the 13th

century A.D. or in the Brihadiśvara

temple sculpture of the 11th century A.D. Latávrischika of Bharata’s

Nátyaśástra, is yet another possible identification.

The karana runs as follows: “A foot to be anchita and turned

backwards, left hand to be in latá gesture, its palm and fingers bent and

turned upwards.” Latá is one of the 27 nrittahastas in which the hand is

obliquely stretched sideways. The hand poses of the danseuse resemble

those of the Chidambaram and Tanjore sculptures, but the anchita foot

turned upwards cannot be made out in the painting.

As the painting is very much obliterated and as one cannot obviously

behold things behind the danseuse, and yet one can make out some yellow

patches behind her right shoulder, we may not be far from the truth in

guessing the karana was meant to be Latávriśchika. Everything else is in

keeping with the text and the models at Chidambaram and Tanjore,

including the tilt of the head. In the Tanjore model of this karana, the

ancihta foot which is turned backwards in vriśchika (like the scorpion’s tail)

does not show the top of the foot above the line of the buttocks. As nothing

of the painting here shows the lower part of the danseuse below her breasts,

we will have to believe that the vrischika foot was in evidence, giving the

painting the benefit of the doubt. Considering the three karanas and

comparing them with the models in the Tanjore and Chidambaram

sculptures, karana Latávriśchika, seems to be the most plausible.

On the corresponding face of the south pillar is another apsará -

maiden with her right arm showing patáka and her left arm stretched out in

latá-hasta pose. Bharata’s karana Vivartitaka was probably the subject that

the painter had in view.

“Hands and feet to be thrown out, trika’ to be turned round and hands

in rechita.” The position of the hands in the painting are similar to the hand

positions in the Chidambaram temple sculpture of the 13th

century A.D., but

differs from that of the Tanjore temple. Another karana from Bhara’s

Natyasatra which may fit in here is karana Bhujanganchitaka.

“The foot is in Bhujangatrásita chari, the right hand in rechita, the left

hand with latá gesture”. As the painting resembles the sculpture model in

the Tanjore temple of the 11th century A.D. representing this karana, we

may not be wrong in identifying the karana. The left hand should be taken

as representing latá-hasta, i.e. extended like a creeper. The right hand which

is rechita, is here held in tripatáka position. As the painting is obliterated

below the waist-line, it is not possible to make out if the foot described is

Bhujangatrasita chári. It is this painting that has been figured in almost all

the writings of the earlier writers on Śittannaváśal. The dancing apsará s is

profusely decorated. The ears have patra-kundalas inserted in the distended

ear-lobes. The hair collected in a heavy dhammilla behind has flowers

tucked into it here and there. The hands have angadas and wristles while the

neck presents the close-fitting kanthi and necklaces of beads, one of them

extending below the breasts. Jasmine garlands and fluttering scarf can be

made out on her right. The outlines are in red while the body colour is

yellow. Both the dancing apsará ses are treated with singular grace, their

supple movements being rendered with ease, charm and sureness that could

result only from the closest observation and aesthetic insight was so much

attracted by these danseuses that he burst out as follows: “It was left to the

artists of Southern India to crystallize into immortal form, the rhythm of

dance and the energy of dynamic movement, as seen respectively in the

glorious figures of swaying apsarás, ‘loaded with jeweled ornaments, broad-

hipped, narrow-waisted, powerful and graceful as panthers,’ and in the

nobel conception of Śiva as Nataraja – the Divine Dancer.”

On the northern face of the same southern pillar are the portraits of a

king with his queen behind him in dark red outline and a man coloured red

in front. There is in the green background what appears to be part of a

pavilion or chariot. Indian Painting, identifies it as Ardhanáriśvara or

Mahádeva. While it is easy to agree with Mehta’s description of the figure

as “an impressive study. Showing the strength of delineation and directness

of treatement which belonged to the palmy days of Ajanta and Bagh” we are

unable to accept his identification of the figure as Ardhanáriśvara or

Mahádeva.

The figure is surely that of a king accompanied by his wife whom he

probably leads. Such is the purpose in relegating this painting on the inner

side of the pillar as if the persons are heading towards the interior of the

shrine. Such dignity, if any, can go to the king of the land also, who in this

case may be the royal artist Mahéndravarman I. That the figure behind him

is that of his wife and that he is in the act of going with her to the shrine can

be easily inferred if we bear in mind that the Varaha cave at Mahábalipuram

contains a portrait of Mahéndravarman I heading towards the shrine,

accompanied by two of his queens, the nearer of whom he is leading by her

right hand, while his half-raised right hand points towards the shrine. He

was probably similarly engaged here, though only the head of the king

remains with the outline of a feminine face, which we have assumed to be

that of his queen.

The identification as Mahéndravarman I and his queen is warranted

by the strength of the architectural details of the temple which present

Mahéndra’s style. This receives strength from inscriptions in the

Tiruchirapalli cave temple referring to the conversion of the Pallava king

Mahéndravarman from Jainism to Śaivism, which in turn is corroborated by

literary evidence from the Periyapuránam.

The rest of the ceiling of the shrine and verandah contains the

principle theme, namely the lotus tank with flowers, fishes, birds, elephants,

buffaloes and three men, which is a later painting of the 9th

century A.D., it

makes it difficult for Mahéndravarman I of the 7th century A.D. to be the

person meant, though the excavation of this cave temple is primarily of the

7th

century A.D., as its architectural details show. Śittannaváśal was a

Pandyan place in the 9th

century A.D. when Avanipasekhara Sri Vallabha

ruled. It was observed that there is an inner layer of paintings exposed here

and there by peeling off the outer layer on the ceiling of the sanctum. This

inner layer was there when the cave temple was originally excavated in the

7th

century A.D.

The painter of the paintings that we see and admire today began and

ended with outlines, and the forms displayed in them are marvelous, every

form being brought out firmly by its outside outlines, and the forms

displayed in them are marvelous, every form being brought out firmly by its

outside outline. Earlier writers had supposed that the first outline must have

been done with red ochre as at Ajanta130

, a natural inference as in the case of

such paintings, time, exposure to weather and natural decay, would tend to

obliterate everything else save the red outline. The alkaline nature of the

fresh ground converted the yellow of the stem into a rich red colour which

was then fixed by outlines of different appropriate colours, thus parceling

out the ground for subsequent coats of colour. The outlines then were

emphasized with suitable tints here and there. When the surface moisture is

gone, but when the ground is still damp, light shading by hatching and

stippling is indulged in, and afterwards, before the ground completely dries

up, the whole is given a polish with small prepared pebbles.”

5.2.5. Śittanaváśal Technique of paintings

This at once raises interesting points about the technique of the

paintings here and of South Indian paintings in general. Śittannaváśal

paintings have declared that the lines and features of the Śittannaváśal

paintings exhibit a close resemblance to the styles of the classical paintings

at Ajanta, Ellora, Sigiriya, and Bagh and compare favourably with them.

Yet the technique adopted is different. Paramaśivan has made a thorough

analysis of the technique of all paintings in South India and Geylon and

particularly of Śittannaváśal.

“These paintings are of the classical or Ajanta style. Though there is a

close resemblance between the artistic workmanship at Ajanta and that at

Śittannaváśal, there are wide variations in the handling of the materials by

the artist. While the Ajanta paintings are done on weak consolidated mud

plaster, the Śittannaváśal paintings are done on well consolidated and firm

lime plaster. While the Ajanta plaster is thick and somewhat crude, the latter

is delicate and thin. Ajanta paintings have not got the sheen or gloss of the

Śittannaváśal paintings. This gloss has been imparted probably through

elaborate polishing. While the Ajanta pigment is held in position through

the admixture of gum or glue, the Śittannaváśal artist has made use of lime

water for binding. This has made the pigment stick fast. Thus, in the

handling of the artist’s materials, the Pallava artist of Śittannaváśal was far

superior to the Ajanta artist. He shares this unique distinction with the Chola

artist of Tanjore, who is even better.

“The painted stucco at Śittannaváśal consists of three layers, laid one

over the other, namely, the rough lime plaster, fine lime plaster (over the

rough plaster) and paint layer (over the fine plaster). In contrast to the one at

Ajanta, which varies in thickness upto 15 mm., the Śittannaváśal stucco is

very thin. The thicknesses of the rough plaster, the fine plaster and the paint

film are 2.5mm., 0.5 mm. and 0.4 mm. “The plaster was chemically

analysed. It contains only 0.35 per cent of Magnesia, 1.39 per cent of

alkalies and other soluble salts. It is, therefore, evident that a pure, rich lime

having no hydraulic properties was used. Gypsum, which prevents the

setting of the mortar and gives rise to efflorescence, is present only in

negligible quantities. Impurities such as alkalies and other soluble salts are

present in very small proportions. The lime wash has a fine gloss and there

is the firm adherence to the plaster. All these indicate that special

precautions were taken in the preparation of lime. Probably, some ‘pit lime’

was prepared. In this process, the impurities were allowed to settle down

and pure rich lime formed. “In order to determine the nature of the binding

medium, small samples of rough plaster, fine plaster and paint film were

soaked in water for about 15 minutes and then heated to boiling. They were

not affected. On being treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, it disintegrated

with evolution of carbon dixode and separation of silica. The solution gave

tests for calcium showing that lime alone was the binding medium. Since

the binding between the rough and fine plaster is very strong, the lime wash

was probably applied while the rough plaster was still wet, or nearly so.

“The following pigments have been employed. There is lime for

white, lamp black for black, ochres for yellow and red, terre verte for green,

etc. Thus mineral colours, which are of a permanent nature, have been

employed. The colour scale is very restricted.

“The pigment adheres firmly to the ground. It stands brushing over.

There is no damage or injury on soaking the paint film in water for about 15

minutes and heating to boiling. On treating a fragment of the painted layer

with either chloroform or carbon disulphide separately and successively, no

vehicle could be extracted. Dilute hydrochloric acid gave effervescence with

evolution of carbon dioxide and the paint film disintegrated. The solution

was tested for calcium. All these experiments lead to the conclusion that

lime was the principal binding medium. There is no infiltration of the

pigment into the ground as in the Chola paintings in the Brihadiśvara temple

at Tanjore. Thus, it is a case of painting in lime medium.

“On the right pillar, and facing west, is a dancing figure, with dark

red outline, yellow body colours and red background. The pillar on the left

has also a dancing figure with dark red outline, yellow body colours and red

background. The same pillar has the figures of a king and a queen, which

face north. They have dark red outline, yellow and red body colours and

green background. In the lotus tank, there are green leaves with black

outline. There are red flowers and yellow stems with dark red outline. The

human figures are in red and yellow. The bull and other creatures are dark

grey with black outline. The background is red in many places.

“In the inner shrine, there are carpet designs painted on the ceiling

with black outline and red or yellow body colours. Thus warm colours like

yellow and red have been extensively employed. Gold colours, like the

green, have been occasionally used, as for the lotus tank. Wherever the

green has been used, it sets off effectively the neighboring yellows and red.

“One speaks of the great and noble art of Ajanta paintings but one

misses the Ajanta craftsmanship. It must, however, be admitted that the art

of painting and the excellence of the artist is closely linked up with

craftsmanship. While the art of Ajanta is truly great, its craftsmanship is

very poor indeed. This great art with its craftsmanship influenced the art of

Bagh in the north. It followed the ancient trade routes into Central Asia and

influenced the art of painting in Khotan and in innumerable sites round

about the Great Taklamakan.

“While the Ajanta craftsmanship influenced the paintings in the north,

it had no relation to paintings in the south, of which the one at Śittannaváśal

forms the earliest. Hence Ajanta craftsmanship may be designated northern

craftsmanship for purposes of convenience and for reference.

“The art of painting in the cave temple at Śittannaváśal, in the

Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram and in the Brihadiśvara temple at

Tanjore, is almost as great as at Ajanta. But the craftsmanship is very much

superior to the northern craftsmanship. It represents a long period of artistic

training and apprenticeship, reaching the highest water mark in the Chola

paintings at Tanjore. One might speak of this craftsmanship as southern in

contrast to the northern or the Ajanta craftsmanship. All the painting sites in

the South invariably follow the general principles of this craftsmanship.

Contrast to the Ajanta plaster, that at Śittannaváśal is very well

consolidated and firm. It is not softened even by prolonged action by water.

The colurs are bright and transparent. These factors go to show the

superiority of the Śittannaváśal craftsmanship over the one at Ajanta. While

the Ajanta graftsmanship follows broadly such Sanskrit texts as

Vishnudharmottara, Śivatatvaratnakara and Silparatna, the southern

craftsmanship has nething in common with these texts.”

The ground plaster in Ajanta, Ellora, Sigiriya and Bagh, which is

covered by a thin lime wash and is Painted, is of mud, mostly clay or

alluvium and silica or sand mixed with small quantities of lime and other

organic materials such as cow-dung, husks or vegetable fibres acting as

binding medium. This technique is “Tempera”. The paint is of mineral

colours with glue mixture which serves as a fixative. The examples cited

which fall between the 1st and the 7

th century A.D., technique in which the

ground plaster is a lime plaster, a mixture of lime and sand with a thin layer

of fine lime plaster over it, on which the paintings are executed in mineral

colours without gum or glue adhesives being mixed.

This technique is called by Paramasivan as “Fresco Secco”, examples

of which are, Śittannaváśal, Mamandur and Kailasanatha temple in

Kanchipuram, Tanjore Brihadiśvara Temple Vijayálaya Chóliśvaram

(Nárttámalai), Tirumayam Satyagiriśvara temple, Malayadippatti Vishnu

cave temple and Tirugókarnam Mandapa in Pudukkóttai, Cochin,

Travancore, Lepakshi in Anantapur District,Tirumalai in North Arcot

District, and Somapalle in Chittoor District. There are references to this

Fresco technique in early Tamil Sangam works of about 200 B.C. to A.D.

500.The painting executed by the expert on the clean white plaster over lime

mortar.” If samples of these very early paintings are not now found, it is

probably because they were executed on temple s and Prasad as and halls

built of perishable materials like brick and mortar.

To the Pallava king Mahéndra goes the credit of first excavating the

rock-cut temples in the south, which he learnt from the north during his

viceroyalty in the north. If this is agreed to, it is equally easy to admit that

this royal artist called Vichitra-chitta, understood the value of the ‘lime

medium’ technique from the south and adopted it in his cave-temples as

Śittannaváśal, Mamandur, Tirumayam and elsewhere, in preference to the

mud-plaster and ‘tempera’ technique of the north. Thus Sangam literature

(2nd

century B.C. to 5th

century A.D.) ‘referring to paintings on lime on s of

brick and mortar, and the evidence of 7th and 9

th centuries, A.D. afforded by

architecture and the two paint layers and inscriptions of Śittannaváśal help

us to trace the continuity of a ‘southern’ school of painting which adopted

the lime medium process on a lime-mortar stucco.

The history of this “southern school” is of continued interest and

takes us through Śittannaváśal (inner layer of paintings), Mamandur,

Tirumayam (Satyagiriśvaram) and Kanchipuram (Kailasanatha and

Vaikunthaperumal temples) of 7th

– 8th centuries A.D. and Śittannaváśal

outer later of 9th century A.D., through Tanjore (Brihadiśvara temple inner

layer of Chola paintings of 11th

century A.D.) Nárttámalai (Vijayálaya

Chóliśvaram of the 13th

century A.D.), through Somapalle, Lepakshi,

Tirumalai, Tanjore (Brihadiśvara temple, Náyák layer of 15th to 17

th

centuries A.D.), and through Travancore, Cochin, and Malayadippatti

Vishnu Cave and Tirugókarnam front mandapa (Pudukkóttai) of the 17th

century A.D. and onwards.

Technique of lime medium in some places in Ajanta, though

“tempera” is the norm for Ajanta. which the ground is made of mud plaster

directly applying to the with two or three layers of lime plaster over it

without adequate binding between them. “northern” and the “southern”

techniques and that the composition of the ground plaster at Ellora, was an

innovation introduced in the Deccan by the Rashtrakuta kings in the 8th

century A.D. In such an innovation, we can discover the mind of the Ellora

artists, who, while sticking to the mud plaster tradition of the neighbouring

Ajanta caves which are not far off, yet came under the influence of the lime

plaster “Fresco” process of the Pallava paintings of the south.

The history of the ‘southern technique’ shows that it started as

‘Fresco-Secco’ or lime medium in the first layer of painting at

Śittannaváśal, Mamandur and Tirumayam, the Kailasanatha and

Vaikunthaperumal temples at Kanchipuram and in the second extant layer at

Śittannaváśal in the 7th

– 9th

centuries A.D., and developed into the perfect

‘fresco’ technique of the Cholas at Tanjore of the 11th

century A.D., and

continued up to recent times through the paintings of later Pándya (13th

century A.Dk.), Vijayanagar, Náyák 15th

– 17th

centuries A.D. and other

modern or post – Vijayanagar periods. 17th century and later.

5.2.6. Kudumiyánmalai Temple Paintings

There are some paintings on some parts of the temple, not very clear.

These paintings may belong to the seventeenth or eighteenth centuries.

5.2.7. Thirumayam Śiva Cave Temple Paintings

The walls and the ceiling were once covered with stucco on which

were paintings. All that is now left of them is a small patch on the ceiling

with conventional carpet designs.

5.2.8. Tirumayam Vishnu Cave Temple Paintings

There are crude paintings, now considerably defaced, on the ceiling

of the Vishnu cave-temple just above the reclining Vishnu image. In the

beginning it was thought that the original painting work of the Pallavas, but

the later tests proved that those paintings not earlier than that 16th

century

and are perhaps much later.

5.2.9. Malyadipatti Cave Temple Jainmunis Paintings

There are crude paintings, now considerably defaced, on the ceiling

of the Vishnu cave-temple just above the ceiling Vishnu image. In the

beginning it was thought that the original painting work of the Pallavas, but

the later tests proved that those paintings not earlier than that 16th

century

and are perhaps much later.

Besides this, two royal figures, crowned and ornamented and drawn

in the most lyrical style and a meditating jain muni, sage can also been seen.

The drawing and coloring appear to be delicate, sensitive and lyrical. The

bodies are muscular like those of the Kailashnath Temple in Kanchi. These

Paintings are supposed to have been done in the eighth century.

Malayadipatti, a Vishnu temple in the Pudukkóttai.

It was earlier believed that this temple was carved out and painted

during the reign of Mahéndravarma Pallava131

, a devout jain, at the start of

his career. It is also believed that the temple was built by the Pallavas who

first commissioned paintings there.

5.2.10. Nárttámalai Vijayálaya Chóliśvaram Temple Paintings

There are traces of painting on the walls of the ardhamandapa. As the

edifice was left in a completely neglected condition and the whole of its

ceiling was leaky for a long time, and due to the rain water inest of the

paintings have disappeared now, and only in few places they are visible in a

faint and indistinct condition.

The painting on a portion of the northern sideof the ardhamandapa

though not clearly visible can however be traced. It covers an area of 8 feet

by 5 feet and represents Śiva Bhairava132

. The figure is drawn in a standing

posture with a wide mouthed dog standing behind it. It is enclosed within

two arms of an arc with their ends converging at the top and the bottom and

their sides decorated with a series of flames throughout their length. It has

eight hands and holds a damaru, a hooded serpent, a long-pointed lance like

arrow and some weapon not clearly visible, probably khatvanga in its four

right hands dagger, a shield, a long bow and a spouted vessel in its four left

hands. It has three rounded eyes and puts on a fierce aspect. It wears mailed

corsetlike covering for the chest.

A sacred thread (yajnopavita) passes over its left shoulder right across

the chest and falls on its right hip. It wears a number of necklaces and

garlands of which a long string of human skulls is prominent. It has a waist

band from which four bells are suspended and two serpents are also

entwined round the loins with their heads spreading cut. It has a jatamakuta

on its head adorned with a number of ornaments. A number of armlets and

bracelets are placed on all its wrists and upper arms. In its ears it wears ear-

rings (kundalas) and other ornaments usually found in similar figures

painted from the 17th

century. It is painted in dark bluish green. Two figures

probably gandharvas are painted one in each of the two corners on the top.

The whole background and all the outlines in it are drawn in rich brick red

colour. The fine bursh work especially found in line drawing of the artists of

the 9th

and 10th

centuries is completely absent. The graceful poses given to

the limbs of human figures showing a feeling for movement in the paintings

of the 9th

and 10th

century in Southern India are also absent in it.

5.2.11. Avudaiyarkóvil Temple Paintings

There are also stretches of murals. A popular subject is the

Tiruvilaiyadal Puranam describing the miracles of Lord Śiva. On the ceiling

of the Swastik mandapa there are paintings which depict sailing ships.

Among the other themes here are Dakshinamúrthi, the destruction of

Manmatha, and Ravana in Kailasa.

5.2.12. Thirugókarnam Muhamandapam Paintings

Thirugókarnam Gógarnéśvara Temple on ceiling of there are some

paintings depiciting Ramayana scenes with painting dated to the 17th

century.

CONCLUSION

The most relevant period to begin the study of the art and

architectural of Pudukkóttai relate to the Megalithic Age which commenced

in the second century B.C. and the cult extended into the early historic

period till about fifth century A.D. The Megalithic burial monuments made

of large crudely worked out stones and stone slabs as cists, are unique

constructions such as those found in Śittanaváśal and Thayinippatti. The

achievement of iron smelting and the knowledge of its metallurgy vastly

facilitated the making of tools for breaking stones and quarry slabs.

Barring the many such Megalithic monuments of different varieties

which constitute the earliest extant type denoting the achievement of man in

crafts like ceramics or pottery, blacksmithy and stone work, the other most

ancient work will be the polished rectangular stone-beds with pillow lofts on

the Eladippattam natural cavern at Śittanaváśal with the contemporary

Tamil Brahmi inscription (2nd

cent B.C. and 2nd

cent A.D.) The use of the

cavern by the Jaina monks till 7-8th

centuries is attested by more such beds

with very old Tamil inscriptions along side of them. Such natural cavems

with Jaina association and early Tamil inscriptions are found in other places

too, such as in Thenimalai, Kudumiyánmalai and ammachatram.

The cave temple found in Pudukkóttai are the typical Pándya version

of Pallava Mahendravarman style. They resemble each other in plan and

design but show certain characteristic features of their own, incorporating in

the process a few features particularly in respect of sculptural makeup and

iconography. The provision for panel carving, is not seen in pre-Mamalla

excavations. On the other hand Chalukya and most of the Pándya caves

show such panels. These caves like Mahendra’s. consist of a mandapam,

with one or more shrine cells cut at the rear and lateral walls of the

mandapam. They have massive pillars on the facade usually square at the

base and top and with an octogonal middle section and corbels with curved

profiles. Among the cave temples that have shrine cells on one of the latral

walls of the madapam may be mentioned the Śiva-Satyagrisvara cave

temple at Thirumayam and the southern cave temple at Malayakkóvil. In

Malayadippatti the shrine part occupies a corner of the ablong mandapam

not found in the Pallava example. In the Kudumiyánmalai Malayadippatti

vishnu cave the pillar bases are shaped into a squatting. Most interesting in

these cave temples are their varied sculptural contents and iconographic

forms some of which are first to appear in the cave temples of the southern

Tamil Country. They are Ganesa, Sapthamathrikas. Ganesa and

Sapthamathirka cult would thus appear to have come into the far south from

the Chalukyan area. These are not to be seen in any Pallava Cave temple. In

all these Śiva cave temples there are rock cut lingams with a pitha, a

features unknown in Pallava caves. Here the lingapitha is generally square

but octogonal in Malayakkóvil. There are portrait sulptures as dvarapalakas

in Thirumayam and kunnandarkóvil.

The cave temples at Kudumiyánmalai, Satyagriśvara in Thirumayam,

eastern cave in Malayakkóvil are all associated with inscriptions on musical

notation and stringed instrument parivadinie.

The Thriumayam Vishnu cave temple is an example of a pre existing

natural cavern being converted in to a mandapam for the recumbent

Anantasayi Vishnu with stone pillars inserted on the front line to simulate a

debliberately excaved cave temple. Incidentally we get a specific Tamil

name far such a temple, tali, for the first time in a contemporary inscription

in the Malayadippatti Śiva Cave temple, a term not found in such a sense in

the early sangam epoch. The total number of such cave temples for a

relatively smaller area like Pudukkóttai reveal the intensity of temple

building activity in the course of a couple of centuries.

Following the monolithic examples and closely following them in

point of time, are the small and elegantly built karralis or all stone temples

the precursor of the still larger and more elaborate stone structural temples

of the succeeding centuries right up to recent or modern times.

The contemporary Pándyas of the South following their rock cut

temples, built a series of karralis, struck in granite medium. There is a group

of such medium sized structural temples at Kaliapatti, Panangudi, Thirupur,

Visalur, Enadi and Kannanur, the last one dedicated to Subramanya and

others to Śiva. It is a scholarly misconception that these small dainty

temples were built by the early cholas of the second empire. But it should be

noted, the Cholas never really possessed this part of the territory until the

end of ninth century, as its earliest. It would then be unrealistic to consider

these small temples, as early Chola, as has been the practice until recently.

They have a right to claim Pándya authorship. Besides, the iconographic

features, the layout of these early temples were already anticipated in some

of the early caves of the Pándyas. In fact Chola and their effective political

suzerainty were noticed in the Pudukkóttai area only from the time of

Parantaka.

Pudukkóttai temple sculpture Pándyas introduced ashtaparivara

shrines (for surya, sapthamathrikas, Ganesa, subramanya, Jyesthadevi,

Chandra, Chandikesvara, Bhairava) as seen in Kaliapatti and shrines to

subsidiary gods like subramanya as in kannanur. The ashtaparivara plan

continued in the region in later temples also as in Thriukkattalai and

vijayalayacholisvaram. In kodumbálúr it extended to sixteen and this is a

landmark in art history. Further the Pándya karralis do not show

koshtadevatas on the walls of the ground floor but koshtas only in the

superstructure with indra in the east, Vishnu in the west, Dakshinamúrti in

the south and Brahma in the north. Pándya iconography invariably include

Jyeshta, Durga sapthamathikas, Ganesa and Karhikeya from the earliest

cave art continuing on to the structural stage. The Pándya temples are

invariably invaribly in Dravidian shikara and show no preference for Vesara

shikara.

The cholas beginning in the 10th

century erected temples in the

District though not to the same extent as elsewhere in their vast kingdom.

They also added to some of the existing fanes. The ashtaparivara layout was

still retained. Artistically the best known monument in the District is the

Muvarkóvil in Kodumbálúr. In elegance proportion and ornamentation it is

lovely creation. Historically perhaps the most notable is

vijayalayacholisvaram in Narttamalai. It combines Pallava serenity with

chola form. The lrukkuvel and Mutharaiyar chiefs had achieved the art and

technique of construction of whole temples in hard stone, in the early chola

period.

The later chola temples that followed subsequently came to have the

ground floor of the first tala of the vimana built of stone, while the

superstructure over the ground floor, came to be built of brick and mortar

with stucco decorations. The gopurams or storeyed entrances also came into

being. The existing temple complexes got more elaborated by

Contemporary or later additions of more madapams axially and

peripherally. The ashtaparivara scheme disappears as also the shrines for

jyeshta and sapthamathrika found in the early chola and pre-chola temples

complexes.

There are thus a number of temples in Pudukkóttai. They can be

arranged in a continuous chronological series enabling one to study the

development of temple architecural norms and forms right up to the

commencement of the present century.

The enchanging sculptures found in the temples, in their variety and

form, offer, likewise ample scope for a study both from aesthetic and

iconographic points of view. They abound in bas-reliefs in the rock cut cave

temples, in the niches of the various talas of the vimanas and the walls of

the mandapams, in the subshrines and no pillars of later periods.

The finest examples of the early chola style of sculpture are at

Kodumbálúr and the sculpture of later period at Kudumiyánmalai and

Avudayarkóvil. In addition to these stone sculpture and iconography, we

may also notice a few bronze icons-metal images in copper and bronze that

mark one of the greatest achievements of the Cholas. Many of the temples

in Pudukkóttai whether earlier or later have metal icons as utasavamúrthis or

processional idols. This has been continued in Vijayanagar times and later.

But the Chola metal images are acclaimed to be the best from the aesthetic

and technical points of view. Particulary Śiva as Nataraja in the

Anandahtandava pose, has been hailed as a rare concept of iconography full

of aesthetic and esoteric symbolism and significane. The Nataraja bronze

from the Thiruvarankulam temple is the best found in Pudukkóttai district.

one Nataraja from Thiruvarankulam is exhibited in the Governement

Museum, Pudukkóttai and another at the National Museum New Delhi.

Jaina stone sculptures mostly those Thirthankaras found in jain temples like

Śittanaváśal , chettipatti, Vellanur and etc., find place in the collection of

sculptures in the Pudukkóttai Museum. A new jaina bronze of merit are

those from the site of the present Raja’s college Pudukkóttai Museum.

Next only in point of time to the remains of Pallava mural paintings

in Panamalai and Kanchipuram Kailasanatha temple (8th

cent A.D) the

better presevered and coherent are the world famous Śittanaváśal jaina

paintings. They are of the Pándya period (9th century). Fragemnts of mural

paintings somewhat earlier in the date than the famous chola frescos the

Brihadisvara temple. Thanjavur (11 th cent) are to be found in the inner wall

face of the mughamandapam of Vijayalachólisvaram, at Narttamalai. The

rock cut cave temple at Malayadipatti also retain some murals of vijanagar

times. The temple at Avudaiyarkóvil and contains fine paintings of 17 –

18th centuries most of them depicting purainc senses. The extensive

notations relating to musical composition, near in cave temple in

Kudumiyánmalai with the label reading Parivadinie is unique being the only

known and fully preserved example of the music system that was intended

to be played on the seven or eight stringed harp (yazh) parivadinie. Similar

information relating to musical notations and instruments of the same period

are to be found on the sides of the cave temples Thirumayam and

Malayakkóvil.

The art of dance that goes with music too has found its due

representation and depiction in the Pudukkóttai assemblage of monuments.

we have the classic example of exiquisite and graceful danseuses

demonstrating a flash picture as it were of two karnas or dance movements

painted in the upper facade pillar in the Śittanaváśal cave temple (now very

hazily visible) More such representations can be found in the madapams,

pillars and vimanams of some more temples.

This brief account should suffice to show that the monuments and art

forms in this District deserve to be studied by scholars and visited by

laymen.

Findings of the present Research work:-

1. The present form and statues of Pudukkóttai is a culmination of to a

long and consistant development from Neo-lithic period through

various dynasties.

The kalabhras, Pallavas, Pandiyas, Cholas, Muttarayiorns,

Irukkuvels, Vijayanagara, Nayaks and British rules Thondaiman.

2. Pudukkóttai is a treasure house of Archeological and cultural

monuments.

3. The Tourism Resources in Pudukkóttai can be grouped under,

Tourism Resources in Tamil Nadu particularly in Pudukkóttai, can be

grouped under Natural Resources and man made Resources. Beach,

Rocks and mountains are included in natural resources were as, Art,

Architecture and Museums and cave are studied under manmade

resources.

4. The Architecture of Pudukkóttai can be studied under two pranches

namely Rock-cut cave temples and structural temples. Rock-cut cave

temples are illustrated by Śittanaváśal , Gokarnesar Temple,

Kudumiyánmalai, Narttamalai, Malayadipatti and etc. Structural

temples can be studied through Avudaiyarkóvil, Muvarkóvil,

Muchukundesvara temple, Agastisvara Temple in panagudi.

5. Every parts of the temples are compared side by side:-

a. Śittanaváśal and Narttamalai paliyiliiswaram Śiva Cave Temple

measurement compated, the Śittanaváśal rock-cut Jain cave temple

consists of a garbhagriha 10’ square and 7’6” in height. The another

Śiva cave temple compared in Śittanaváśal . It has a paliyiliiswaram

Śiva temple garbhagriha measures 8’ x 7’.6” and 6’-8” in height.

Paliyiliiswaram cave temple and kunnandarkóvil cave temple

compared garbhagriha measurment 12’-6” x 10’-6” x 10’-6”. In the

plan its consists of the inner shrine similar to the compared on

Gokaneswar temple at Tirugókaram.

b. Arthamandapam compared measurement in Śittanaváśal and

Narttamalai. Śittanaváśal Arthamandapa in front 22’-6” Feet in

height, 7’-6” Feet in with and Arthamandapam suported Four pillars

pallava Role ornamentation. Śittanaváśal cave temple compared to

paliyiliiswaram Śiva cave temple open moulded basement with a

beading above showing a frieze of dancing bhutaganas.

palayiliswaram Śiva cave temple compared to kunnadarkóvil Śiva

cave Temple Arthamandapa mesurment 21”-8” x 15’-2”, 8’-9”,

Arthamandapa contains four pillars pallava Roll ornamentation.

c. Śittanaváśal and Narttamalai Palayiliswaram Garbagriham doorway

mesurment compared Śittanaváśal 5’-6” height, with 2’-6” Feet and

Narttamalai paliyiliiswaram Śiva cave temple compared 4’-11” feet

height 2’-6” Feet with and anthour cave temple kunnandarkóvil cave

temple compared 5’-9” height, 2’-8” with in garbhagriha Doorway

mesurment.

6. Comparative value of part of structural Temples:-

a. There are many temples which are both rock-cut and of the same

time structural temple as we find in muvarkóvil kodumpalur. Each

shrine was composed of a garbhagriha and closed Arthamandapa

attached to its front. There are three shrines stood side by side in a

line with a distance of 13 feet apart from one to another. Each shrine

is 21 feet square at the base with 32 feet height and the

Arthamandapa mesuring 18 feet square. All of them face west there

was a nandi, mandapa is the base of which has now been exposed to

view, movarkóvil surrounding the parakara fifteen damaged sub

shrines.

b. Kodumbálúr muvarkóvil and compared to kaliyappatti Śiva temple

faces on the east side. It is a compact structure containing intact the

garbhagriha, and the griha and sikara. The stupi and the

ardhamandapa have disappeard. The entire structure is built of well

deressed granit blocks from basement to final.

c. Kaliyapatti Śiva temple compared to Śiva temple Avudaiyarkóvil

Atamanathaswami temple. There are No Images in the garbhagriha

the images, conic (or) aniconic in the sanctum. In the shrine of the

lord only a pitha, is under worship. The represents worship of the

formless God. In the temple utsavamúrti of the temple

monikavasakar himself, not of the lord.

7. Comparision of structural Temples:-

a. Śittanaváśal cave temple sculpture. The niches on the southern wall

of the outer hall contains a figure in bas-relies, hued and seated

cross, legged in the meditative pose. The hood of the five headed

serpent above its head denotes that it is the images of parsavanatha,

the twenty third tirthankara. The ceiling of the sactum a wheel with

a hum and acle which no doubt represents the dharma catra or wheel

of law.

b. Kudumiyánmalai cave temple valampuri Ganesha bas-relief

sculpture, kudmiyánmalai pillered sculptures Ganapathi virabadra,

kali, Subramanya, Ravana, Ugramanarshimha, Mohini, Nataraja,

Vishu, Rathimanmatha. There are also portrait possibly of the

Nayak and Pallavarayar Chiefs.

c. Malayadippatti Śiva cave temple Artha mandapa Pannels sculpture

with figures in bas-relief including sapthamarthikas, Ganesa,

virapathra, visnu and mahisshasuramardani panel.

d. Kodumpallur movarkóvil vimanas contain sculpture grate beauty

vinadharaDakshinamúrthi, Gajasamharamúrthi, Kalarimúrthi,

Alinganamúrthi, Gangadharamúrthi and Rishabhanugarahamúrthi.

The sculputures Kalarimúrthi is suprerb.

e. The idols of viralimalai subrahmaniya sculpture has six faces and

twelve hands. The God seated Peacock with the two Ammans Valli

and devasena standing either side.

8. Comparison on Paintings

a. Śittanaváśal Paintings was the world famous Fresco paintings. The

Most important theme painting Tank featuring lotuses, lilies, fishes,

makara, birds, elephants, buffaloes and three men (bhavyas) wading

in it and gathering flowers.

Śittanaváśal corresponding face of the south piller is another apsara

maiden with her right arm stretched out in lata-hasta are Bharata’s

Karna was probably the subject that painter had in view.

Śittanaváśal painting compared the Iyrical quality of Kailasanatha

temple kanchi Śittanaváśal and Brihadishvara temple in Thanjavur

is outstandingly dipicted in the figures of dancing women. It is

possible that the portrayel of dancing girl greater licence to artistis

then the more rigid Ichnographic for mulate govering the depiction

of gods.

Śittanaváśal cave temple painting compared to Asontha cave temple

painting. Contrast to the Ajanta plaster, that at Śittanaváśal is very

well consolidated an firm, the factors go to show the superiority of

the Śittanaváśal crafts manship over the one at Ajanta.

b. Malyadipatti Vishnu cave temple paintings Jainmunis like those

compared on the Kalilashnatha Temple in Kanchi. These paintings

are supposed to have been done in the eighth century.

c. Narttamalai Vijayalayachólisvaran structural Temple the paintings

on a portion of the northern side of the Ardhamandapam through no

clearly visible can however be traced. It covers an area of 8 feet by

5 feet and represents Śiva Bhairava Paintings.

d. The technique of “Fresco” paintings examples of which are

Śittannaváśal inner layer of paintings, Mamandur, Tirumayam

Satyagiriśvaram and Kanchipuram, Kailasanatha and

Vaikunthaperumal temples of 7th – 8

th centuries A.D. and

Śittannaváśal outer later of 9th

century A.D., through Tanjore

Brihadiśvara temple inner layer of Chola paintings of 11th

century

A.D. Nárttámalai Vijayálayachóliśvaram of the 13th century A.D.,

through Lepakshi, Tirumalai, Tanjore Brihadiśvara temple, Náyák

layer of 15th

to 17th

centuries A.D., and through Travancore, Cochin,

and Malayadippatti Vishnu Cave and Tirugókarnam front mandapa

Pudukkóttai of the 17th

century A.D. and onwards.