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CHAPTER – I

INTRODUCTION

Good leaders are made, not born. Good leaders develop through a never-

ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience (Jago, 1982).

Women have always been looked as a caregiver and home keeper.

Women being a symbol of family, they have always been home and have

not been out in the other arenas of life. Women have played different roles in

the family depending on their age and place in the household. Women have

always stood up to assist, when there was a sudden change in society, and

these moments have been recorded in history.

There were important developments in education, after Second World

War, in raising the years of the minimum school education and the entry of

increasing number of girls and women into secondary and higher education.

They wanted to wait on getting married and having children, when women

started to be independent and they then had a rallying point that they have to

face the issues of gender disparities, when women entered the work force.

World women play an important role in today’s business. They are able to

lead multinational companies and implement the best turn-around strategies and

proving that they are not inferior to their counterparts, but women are, still under-

represented in leadership positions and tend to clustered in the lower ranks and

they encounter lot of gender disparities. Study shows that, while many women were

elected as representatives to various bodies but they were under-represented in

leadership roles. Therefore, we hypotheses that women would not be equally

represented as there are under-representation in leadership positions.

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The book, Highly Successful Women Administrators: the inside

Stories of How They Got There published in 1996, discussed more of

successful women administrators in business and less of women in

academic profession. This gave a thought to discuss why women are still

under-represented in leadership positions in institutions of higher education.

1.1.1 Leadership

Leadership studies are multidisciplinary academic field of study that

focuses on leadership in organizational contexts and in human life. Leadership

studies have origins in the social sciences (e.g., sociology, anthropology,

psychology), in humanities (e.g., history and philosophy), as well as in

professional and applied fields of study (e.g., management and education). The

field of leadership studies is linked closely to the field of organizational studies.

The studies of leadership have been of interest to scholars from a

wide variety of disciplinary backgrounds, as an academic area of inquiry.

There are numerous academic programs today, spanning several academic

colleges and departments, related to the study of leadership. Leadership

degree programs generally relate to aspects of leadership, leadership

studies, and organizational leadership.

Concept of leadership varies according to societal and organizational

assumptions, however, it is traditionally conceived notion that leaders are

individuals who provide vision and meaning for an institution with which the

organization strives. All the institutional structures inform us that leadership

within these structures are most successful (Daniel Pinnow, 2011).

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Boss or Leader

The position as a manager, supervisor, lead, etc. gives the authority to

accomplish certain tasks and objectives in the organization (called Assigned

Leadership), this power does not make a leader, it simply makes the boss.

Leadership differs in that and it makes the followers want to achieve high goals

(called Emergent Leadership), rather than simply bossing people around. Thus,

people get Assigned Leadership by their position and display Emergent

Leadership by influencing people to do great things (Rowe, 2007).

Leadership as a field of study

The study of leadership can be dated back to Plato, Sun Tzu and

Machiavelli; however, leadership has only become the focus of contemporary

academic studies in the last 60 years, and particularly more so in the last two

decades. Some of the earliest studies on leadership include: The Ohio State

Leadership Studies , The Michigan Leadership Studies, McGregors Theory X &

Theory Y, Blake & McCanse Leadership Grid, Trait & Behavioral theories of

Leadership, Situational & Contingency theories of Leadership, Functional

Leadership theory, Information-Processing Leadership theory, Self Leadership

theory, The transactional leadership, The transformational leadership.

Defining leadership: Leadership is a process by which a person influences

others to accomplish an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes

it more cohesive and coherent. This definition is similar to Northouse's (2007)

definition: Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of

individuals to achieve a common goal. Leaders carry out this process by applying

their leadership knowledge and skills, which is called Process Leadership and traits

that can influence actions, is called Trait Leadership (Jago, 1982).

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The process of leadership has Four factors: Leader, Followers,

Communication, and Situation. A great leadership needs (Kouzes & Posner,

1987) challenging the system, inspire a shared vision, enable others to act,

model the way and encourage the heart.

Leadership styles: Authoritarian: Managers have a position of authority

vested in them by the company, and their subordinates work for them and largely do as

they are told. Transactional style - Management style is transactional, in that the

manager tells the subordinate what to do, and the subordinate does this not because

they are a blind robot, but because they have been promised a reward. Charismatic

- Telling people what to do, does not inspire them to follow. One has to appeal to them;

Leaders with a stronger charisma find it easier to attract people to their cause. Transformational style - As a part of their persuasion they typically promise

transformational benefits, such that their followers will not just receive

extrinsic rewards but will somehow become better people.

Leadership and Management: What is leadership, and what is the

difference between leadership and management?

Leadership is setting a new direction or vision for a group that

they follow, ie: a leader is the spearhead for that new direction.

Management controls or directs people/resources in a group

according to principles or values that have already been established.

1.1.2 Gender and Leadership

Gender and leadership is a subject that is concerned with two main questions: (1) How is leadership a gendered concept? (2) What are the

determinants of male/female differences in who assumes leadership

positions and in leadership behavior? 4




Social scientists distinguish between "gender" and "sex." Sex refers to the

basic, biologically given physiological differences between males and females.

Gender refers to a culture's social construction of differences between the sexes

(Bass, Bemard, 1990). These include the different traits, roles, behaviors, attitudes,

and aptitudes in which males and females are expected to display. Gender displays

reinforce claims of membership in a sex. Expressions such as "gendered practices

and gendered jobs" are used make gender a more central explanation of

organizational behavior phenomena such as leadership (Fagenson, Ellen, 1990).

The term "leaders" refers to persons holding formal positions of leadership

in complex organizations in industry, government, education, politics, the arts,

sciences, and professions (Grant, Jan, 1977). Historically, gender precluded most

females from becoming leaders in such organizations; as a result, the assumption

that males were better suited than females for leadership roles was, until recently,

rarely questioned. Since early 1970s, the foundation of this assumption, has been

shaken by the large number of women who, have been elected prime minister (in

Britain, Canada, India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Norway, Sri Lanka, etc.) and to

other high government offices and also been elevated to managerial positions in

business organizations (Bass, Bemard, 1990).

Leadership is gendered

The main question of concern to writers in the area of gender and leadership is

whether "leadership position" is implicitly a gendered concept. This question could be

answered by evaluating - how organizations, including their leadership positions, are

one place, where gender is produced (Calas, Marta, 1993).

Acker, (1992) argues, in her articles that gender is part of the logic used in

organizations to determine what practices will be adopted. Organizations profess

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themselves gender-neutral, for example, with their practice of filling an abstract job with

a person who possesses the requisite qualifications. However, when the "job

description" for a leadership position includes 12-hour days, business meetings and

social events on weekends, and little time for non-job-related obligations, many women

cannot qualify because of their family responsibilities. The ostensibly gender-neutral job

and the organization in which it exists are part of the gendered substructure of society.

They assume and thereby replicate conventional gender roles where man working full-

time for a lifetime in a job outside the home and woman working in the home to take

care of him, the family, and any spillover from his job.

All social practices are structured in relation to gender. This includes the

social practices in businesses, schools, governments and including leadership

positions in the design of these organizations (Fenn, Margaret, 1978). They are

said to be "gendered" because social practices replicate the reproductive division of

people into male and female, thus, gender becomes a property of institutions and

the human and historical processes that create them (Goodale & Douglas, 1976). It

becomes a characteristic of not individual people but collectivities. To think of

gender and leadership in this way, is a considerable advance and doing so provides

an explanation for the difficulties women traditionally have experienced ascending

to leadership positions and performing leader roles with comfort and ease.

Behavior difference in male and female leaders

Studies have examined male/female differences in three main types of

managerial behavior. The first is task accomplishment style, which is how much the

leader initiates, organizes, and defines work activities and processes. The second

is interpersonal style, which is how much the leader builds morale, relationships,

satisfaction, and commitment in the organization. The third is decision-making style,

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which is how much the leader encourages a participative, democratic approach

as opposed to an autocratic approach (Radtke, Lorrain & Henderikus, 1994).

There are some studies find differences between male’s and female’s task

accomplishment styles and interpersonal styles. Males tended to be more task-

oriented and females tended to be more relationship-oriented (Sagan, Dorion,

1998). These differences, however have been observed only in men and women

subjects of laboratory experiments, that is, people asked to speculate how they

would behave if they were leaders. These differences disappear in studies where

actual managers are compared and most conclude that women do not behave

differently from men in the same or similar kind of leadership position. Moreover,

experienced women managers show no differences in leadership abilities from

experienced male managers. These women, in fact, are likely to more closely

resemble their male counterparts in drive, skills, temperament, and

competitiveness, than the average woman in the population.

Leadership traditionally has been studied using male attributes as the

standard for behaviors. In today’s business world, women play an important

role (Van Nostrand & Catharine Herr,1993). They are able to lead

multinational companies and implement the best turn-around strategies and

proving that they are not inferior to their counterparts.

There are no different leadership theories for men and women

separately, yet they tend to differ in their styles. It also seems that men and

women tend to agree on the exact behaviors that are different for women

leaders and men leaders. The recent survey by the Innis company shows both

men and women leaders to determine how the sexes match up only on very few

specific areas of leadership and differs vastly in many areas of leadership.

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Various recent studies speculates how these gender differences impact on the

values held by leaders, and how these values influence institutional structures and

infrastructures (Rosener Judy, 1990). If styles and approaches are distinguishable

between women and men, then their leadership style also distinguishable.

Sally, Helgese (1993) examines how women officers make decisions,

gather and dispense information, delegate tasks, structure their organizations,

and motivate their employees. She concludes that women leaders place more

emphasis on relationships, sharing, and process, while male officers focus on

completing tasks, achieving goals, hoarding of information, and winning.

Therefore, as described by several authors, while men are more concerned with

systems and rules, women are more concerned with relations and atmosphere.

1.1.3 Changing Role of Women

Women were treated, till recently, on a different pedestal depriving them of

their rights but reminding them of their duties. However, with the changing times,

the role of women has changed from child bearing and rearing to bread earner.

The position of women in any society is a true index of its cultural and

spiritual level. Men, who are responsible for many of the views about women,

have woven fantastic stories about the latter's glamour and instability, and their

inferiority to men as well as their mystery and sanctity (Chakrapani, 1994).

Women had been oppressed to a point in the past, where they were treated

as a completely different species (Pogrebin, 1986). Women were in a country that

seemed to be a dark tunnel with no hope, dreams, or sense of fulfilment.

Nevertheless, women had been given, now their natural birthrights, and they are

now able to do everything males can do. Women in India are beginning to follow the

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direction that the women of the Western world took more than eighty years ago;

demanding treatment of human as equals. It, however has become more and more

evident as the revolution ages that Indian women may have to adapt the Western

feminist method to their very traditional and religious culture (Hamamsy, 2009).

India has different complications that put the development of women

in a completely altered context than their Western counterparts. Although the

key targets remain similar in improvement of health care, education and job

opportunities in order to gain equality between men and women in various

settings of public society, workplace, school yard and - possibly the most

fundamental setting of all - the home. Women are striving to be independent

on the equal level of men. The additional complexities that the women of

India must also challenge are the caste system, the heavy religious customs,

older and more traditional roles of the sexes, as well as the even stronger

power that men hold in India (Laila Shukry Hamamsy, 2009).

The status of women was at one time accepted, but with the Western

women's revolution and perception, the role is slowly succeeding in its

development through both independent groups of women in national and

worldwide organizations based on the goal of gaining equality. They all

accomplished much, but a lot more has to be done which requires the complete

support from the other sex. No longer do women write books depicting their

insecurities and injustices. Now women are writers of Pulitzer Prize winning

works and teach aspiring male authors how to be the best they can be.

The Indian society is now proud of outstanding women. In a society where it

was once unheard for women to even be educated, women take up the majority of

grade school teachers, and many more have blossomed into college professors with Ph

D and MD's (Partha Chatterjee, 2009). People have taken notice, as women kept 9




making these advancements to individualism, and now women are considered better

contenders for many jobs, men no longer have the full control they once fabricated

(Srinivas, 1977). Women now have so many opportunities that were once a dream with

the achievement of all this. The tunnel they once envisioned so dark and impossible

seems like a stairway to light, to the open society of acceptance and opportunity. The

future of women in India looks bright and secure and their role even more become

important than just being a wife, mother, or daughter.

1.1.4 Women Leadership

After years of analyzing what makes leaders most effective and

figuring out who’s got the Right Stuff, management gurus now know how to

boost the odds of getting a great executive: Hire a female (Sharpe, 2000).

The idea that women are effective leaders have jumped from the writers

of feminist trade books on management (Helgesen, 1990 & Rosener, 1995) to

the mainstream press and is steadily making its way into the popular culture.

Articles in newspapers and business magazines reveal a cultural realignment in

the United States that proclaims a new era for female leaders. When Business

Week announced in 2000, that women have the ‘‘Right Stuff’’ (Sharpe, 2000),

the many academic leadership researchers have argued that gender has little

relation to leadership style and effectiveness.

Situational theories of leadership contend (Chemers, 1997) that the

effectiveness of leader behaviors depends on contextual variables, such as the nature

of the task and the characteristics of the followers. Yet, historically, leadership has been

construed as primarily a masculine enterprise and many theories of leadership have

focused on the desirability of stereotype masculine qualities in leaders (Miner, 1993). It

is probable that stereotype feminine qualities of cooperation, mentoring,

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and collaboration are important to leadership as well, certainly in some

contexts and perhaps increasingly in contemporary organizations.

Vecchio (2002), who recently provided a review of some of the research

relevant to the debate about female advantage. The basic questions that he

addressed in his article and that demand attention in relation to these

arguments were; (a) whether men and women behave differently in leadership

roles, (b) whether women receive prejudiced evaluations as leaders and

potential leaders, and (c) whether leadership by women might be more effective

or better meet the needs of organizations than leadership by men.

The increase in female leaders have been accompanied by changes in

theories and practices of leadership. Whereas in the past, leaders based their

authority mainly on their access to political, economic, or military power, in

postindustrial societies leaders share power far more and establish many

collaborative relationships (Lipman-Blumen, 1996). Contemporary views of good

leadership, therefore encourage teamwork and collaboration and emphasize the

ability to empower, support, and engage workers (Hammer & Champy, 1994).

To shed light on these issues as well as to participate in wider scholarly

debates about the magnitude and implications of sex differences in behavior (Eagly

& Carlie , 2003), many investigators have compared the leadership styles of women

and men. Debates about the leadership styles of women gained momentum in the

1990s because of new research attempting to identify the styles that are especially

attuned to contemporary conditions. The new emphasis was on leadership that is

transformational in the sense that it is future oriented rather than present oriented

and that strengthens organizations by inspiring followers’ commitment and

creativity. Transformational leadership entails establishing oneself as a role model

by gaining followers’ trust and confidence, as described by Burns (1978) and 11




elaborated by Bass (1990). Transformational leaders state future goals, develop plans

to achieve those goals, and innovate, even when their organization is generally

successful. These leaders help followers to develop their potential by mentoring and

empowering followers, thus to contribute more effectively to their organization.

Leadership researchers (Avolio, 1999) contrasted women transformational

leaders to transactional leaders, who appeal to subordinates’ self-interest by

establishing exchange relationships with them. Transactional leadership involves

managing in the conventional sense of clarifying subordinates’ responsibilities,

rewarding them for meeting objectives, and correcting them for failing to meet

objectives. In addition, researchers distinguished a laissez-faire style that is marked

by an overall failure to take responsibility for managing.

1.1.5 Higher Education Scenario in India

The total scenario of education has been fully decorated by higher

education system. Higher education plays the most significant role in the society

as well as in the life of the individual. High class cultured people come out from

the system of higher education. The trend of higher education was established

in our ancient Indian society (Birendra Deka, 2012). Takshasila, Nalanda and

Vikramsila were the main centres of higher education.

Modern higher education started in our country after the

establishment of Calcutta, Madras and Bombay Universities in the year

1857. From then, huge number of colleges and universities are established

in India and with the development of colleges and universities, problems of

higher education also increased.

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In its size and diversity, India has the third largest higher education system

in the world, next only to China and the United States. According to annual report of

MHRD 2006-07, before Independence, access to higher education was very limited

and elitist, with enrolment of less than a million students in 500 colleges and 20

universities. Since independence, the growth has been very impressive; the number

of universities has increased by 18-times, the number of colleges by 35 times and

enrolment more than 10 times. The system is now more mass-based and

democratized with one third to 40% of enrolments coming from lower socio-

economic strata, and women comprising of some 35%of the total enrolments (Tilak

2004). It is little more than half a century ever since the government initiated a

planned development of higher education in the country particularly with the

establishment of University Grants Commission in 1953.

India possesses a highly developed higher education system which

offers facility of education and training in almost all aspects of human creative

and intellectual endeavors: arts and humanities; natural, mathematical and

social sciences, engineering; medicine; dentistry; agriculture; education; law;

commerce and management; music and performing arts; national and foreign

languages; culture; communications etc.

The central and the state governments have joint responsibility for

education, with freedom for the state governments to organise education within the

national framework of education. Educational policy planning is under the overall

charge of the central Ministry of Human Resource Development, which includes the

Department of Elementary Education and Literacy and the Department of

Secondary and Higher Education. The Ministry is guided by the Central Advisory

Board of Education (CABE), which is the national level advisory body. The

education ministers of all the different states are members of the board.

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The institutional framework consists of 1. Universities established by an Act

of Parliament (Central Universities) or by a State Legislature (State Universities), 2.

Deemed Universities (institutions which have been accorded the status of a

university with authority to award their own degrees through central government

notification), 3. Institutes of National Importance (prestigious institutions awarded

the said status by Parliament), 4. Institutions established by State Legislative Act

and colleges affiliated to the University (both government-aided and –unaided).

There were 367 University level institutions including 20 Central Universities,

217 State Universities, 104 Deemed Universities and 5 institutions established under

State Legislation, 13 Institutes of National Importance established under Central

legislation and 6 Private Universities as on 2006. There were 18,064 degree and post-

graduate colleges (including around 1902 women’s colleges), of which 14,400 came

under the purview of the University Grant Commission and the rest were professional

colleges under the purview of the Central Government or other statutory bodies like the

AICTE, ICAR, MCI etc., as on 2006.

As noted in annual report of Ministry of Human Resource Development

2007, an estimated 13.93 million students were enrolled in the institutions of

Higher Education as against 10.48 million in the previous year and the faculty

strength was 0.488 million as compared to 0.472 m in the previous year. The

enrolment of women students at the beginning of the academic year 2006-07

was 4.466 million, constituting 40.40 per cent of the total enrolment. Of the total

women enrolment, only 12.35 per cent women have been enrolled in

professional courses and the rest in non-professional courses. The women

enrolment is the highest in Kerala (66.00 per cent) and lowest in Bihar (24.52

per cent) in terms of percentage enrolment to total enrolment.

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Higher education have long been recognised as a major contributing factor to

the social, cultural and intellectual life of society by improving the quality of human life.

According to the latest statistics available, there are 483 universities in India today (39

Central Universities; 255 State Universities: 59 private universities; 130 deemed

universities), and over 16,885 colleges including 1,798 colleges for women.

Higher Education sector has witnessed a tremendous increase in its

institutional capacity in the years since Independence. The number of

Universities/University-level institutions has increased 18 times from 27 in 1950

to 504 in 2009. The sector boasts of 42 Central universities, 243 State

universities, 53 State Private universities, 130 Deemed universities, 33

Institutions of National Importance (established under Acts of Parliament) and

five Institutions (established under various State legislations). The number of

colleges has also registered manifold increase with just 578 in 1950 growing to

be more than 30,000 in 2011. Government has set a target of increasing the

Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) from the present level of about 12% to 15% by

the end of XI Five Year Plan and to 30% by the year 2020.

In Tamilnadu, there are 19 State universities, 2 Central universities,

29 Deemed universities and over 418 colleges, that include both Arts and

Science and Professional colleges. There are 42 Government, 151 Aided

and 188 Private Arts and Science colleges where more women enrolment

occurs. Tamilnadu comprises high numbers of women educational

institutions with 2 Women Universities and 194 Women’s colleges.

In India there are five women’s universities and eight hundred and fifty-one

women’s colleges which exclusively serve women students. Similarly, there are two

hundred colleges of home-science, 46 schools of social work, 32 colleges of nursing

and several colleges of education, which primarily cater for women students. 15




Women head all the women’s universities and most of the women’s colleges

in the country. So are several of the colleges of home science, schools of

social work, colleges of nursing, and colleges of education. The women

managing these institutions have the opportunity to shape the futures of

several thousand women. At a point of time when the country is specifically

committed to use education as an instrument for the empowerment of

women, this is indeed a very special opportunity.

1.1.6 Academic Profession in Institution of Higher Education

Academic profession occupies a central position in the knowledge

production process. Academia can no longer isolate itself from traditional world

of learning and teaching exclusively. Every member of academia are executing

certain administration works along with teaching and learning, from being class

teacher to administrating the institution (Philip, Altbach, 2003).

Academic Professionals are generally salaried employees whose positions

meet specialized knowledge creation and transmission (Jayaram, 2003). But in this

period of rapid change stimulated by globalization and national policies promoting

the knowledge economy, the profession of academia changed rapidly where they

perform high-level duties, and frequently have specialized responsibilities in

academic, research, or administrative area, so academic professionals from the

position of knowledge workers, get elevated to educational administrator or educational mangers.

This means that institutional behaviour must adapt to accommodate the very

real strictures that are imposed upon it. There is a need to introduce an extended

range of management styles and skills, certainly to extend them beyond the

prevailing masculine models of behavior, which were, developed to serve an

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overwhelmingly male profession. Changes must be made to reflect the

society in which we now live and which the profession serves.

The administration of institutions of higher education is a very

complex, challenging and in many instances, frustrating undertaking. The

administrator must deal with many groups, such as students, faculty, other

administrators of state and local governing agencies, accreditation agencies,

business and professional organizations (Gilbert, Irene, 1972).

Higher education experts around the globe acknowledge the fact that the

academic professions have always been experiencing stages of change and are

of the opinion that it is no longer the same as before. Arguably, they also state

that there is no ideal, universal and stable state of the academic profession.

Nevertheless, academic staff in higher education institutions increasingly report

that their profession has been through a process of change.

In most institutions, more and more changes keep occurring within the job

specifications of academic staff. It is an undeniable fact that when developments

take place, it affects the relationship between academic professions and other parts

of society, as well as the position of this academic profession within the society.

These developments, not only change the academic profession, they also affect the

profession’s internal modes of regulation and its autonomy (Castells, 2000).

1.1.7 Women Leadership in Institution of Higher Education

Born of a patriarchal tradition, higher education continues to

marginalize women at every turn as students, administrators, faculty, and

academic leaders. Whether the bias is conscious or unconscious, women

are being penalized consistently for their gender (Alvesson & Billing, 1997).

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Given the increasingly competitive and challenging environments facing

higher education in the 21st century most of the colleges and universities need all

the good leadership they can get, but most of the institutions is seeking a only men

where only 49 percent of the population who are men” (Fretwell, 1991).

There is a truth that women are more likely to participate in academic

activities that are related to their academic career plans, than leading an

organization (Anderson & Ramey, 1990). The reason could be that women are not

as interested in politics and government as men and the second explanation for not

running for office could be that they do not believe they are qualified. Another

reason is women's family responsibilities and feminine interests have been found to

affect their career ambition and the kinds of political intention they pursue.

Raising questions as to the root causes for the persistence of this pattern is

manifestations of gender-based obstacles, i.e., lower salary, appointment at lower

rank, slower rate of promotion, lower recognition through awards, and not being

retained. For women in academia, timetables for tenure decisions often coincide

with optimal childbearing years, requiring women to individually resolve the conflicts

between their biological and career ladder (Bashaw & Nidiffer, 2002).

The female faculty member has many tough decisions to make due to family

front, which is not there for men, even when university employment is secured,.

Due to this, women must face necessary leaves of absence that are usually at the

convenience of the institution's schedule, upon return, she finds herself lacking in

scholarly activities necessary for promotion and tenure. Further, the ideal time for

achieving quality professional status is between the ages of twenty-five and thirty-

five which happens to coincide with the optimum period of children bearing.

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The main barrier is even though female academicians have greater earning

power than most other women do in the workplace, they continue to bear the

burden of the caretaking responsibilities of the home. In fact, socioeconomic status

is negatively correlated with the amount of hours spent in housework activities.

Study of the discussions may end with four factors; career paths to

leadership are slower and blocked for women, leadership positions are less

attractive to women, Women already in leadership roles are not well

recognized or appropriately rewarded and women are more often excluded

from the informal network of intellectual leadership.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

Indian higher education opened its doors to women in 1879, then,

women have gradually gained access to all aspects of higher education in that

they are represented as students, faculty, and staff (Chliwniak, 1997; Glazer-

Raymo, 2002; eduindia, 2011 & UGC). However, according to report submitted

by Commonwealth Universities Year book 1990 and the American Council on

Education’s (2002) statistics, the system remains male-dominated with 79% of

the institutional leaders being men. Report of Higher Education department of

India, also states Women continue to be disproportionately underrepresented as

senior decision-makers even though they have been higher education’s major

undergraduate clientele for more than 25 years.

The absence of women senior leaders in higher education institutions not

only causes alienation, frustration, and marginalization, but it also makes retention

and recruitment of future women leaders more difficult. In this study the term

‘women leadership issues in institution of Higher education’ has been used to

discuss the reasons for under-representation of women in academia, perception on

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their leadership capabilities, effectiveness towards administration of

academia and barriers for their advancement.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study was four fold such as, to know the perception

of women leader in administration, effectiveness of leadership skill and qualities

with regard to administration, level of effectiveness in their leadership roles,

obstacles experienced by senior women and strategies employed by them to

overcome the obstacles. The focus was on female leaders views on women in

leadership positions and the subjective meanings attached to these lived

experiences. The study aimed at uncovering reasons behind women leaders’

success, particularly their ways of handling difficult situations encountered in

their professional and personal life, so that valuable suggestions and advice can

be learned from their success for the benefit of other current or aspiring leaders.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This dissertation study was needed and important for the following

reasons. First, studies on leaders or leadership theories in higher education

have traditionally been focused on male subjects (Bolman & Deal, 1992; Mark,

1981 & Stokes, 1984). When compared with their male counterparts, women

leaders in higher education have received much less attention in the literature.

Successful women leaders’ stories are less documented, as outstanding as

they can be, and their voices are less heard. Due to the continuous lack of knowledge

about pioneering women leaders in higher education, scholars have called for more

studies focusing on senior women leaders’ practices and experiences so that not only

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new knowledge about women leaders can be gained but also aspiring leaders

can benefit from their success (Allen, 1986; Bond, 2000 & Etaugh, 1986).

Second, after conducting a comprehensive literature review on

women leaders in higher education, this researcher found that most previous

works focused on demographic data and career paths of executive women

leaders provided a wide range of background information about women

serving in senior leadership positions in context of institution of business and

“glass ceiling” in academia (Guteck, 2001 & Marshall, 2002).

Third, according to the literature, mentors and role models for women

in academia are scarce. Lack of women in top leadership positions,

hesitation of male leaders to mentor women and lack of time and energy for

mentoring were, due to the shortage of mentors in this field (Anderson &

Ramey, 1990). So, the task of making them to understand what they really

are and what they want to be, of current senior women leaders becomes not

only necessary but also important so that current and aspiring women

leaders can, at least, learn from these when they have no place to turn.

Cook, 2001 and Dickson, 2000 have attempted to find some explanation for

nonparticipation of women in higher positions, usually by focusing on the obstacles.

The research literature reveals several different obstacles for women’s lack of

success in entering administration. Although some works addressed the issues of

barriers to and strategies for success for women in higher education leadership,

most of them were opinion. Thus, additional studies need to be conducted so that a

more complete picture about what it takes women to achieve and remain in senior

leadership posts in higher education can be constructed.

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Given the importance and relevance to the women leaders and their facing

issues in institutions of higher education, the present research study would make a

significant contribution to the existing body of knowledge. Therefore, more aspiring

women leaders have an opportunity to understand the political nature of higher

education as well as to learn practical lessons from those who have already

mastered the art of politics. The findings of the study will not only throw the light on

the issues faced by the women aspirant leaders but also contribute to a wider

understanding on their personal and occupational issues and obstacles.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The guiding question of this research study was as follows: “What are

the issues the women leaders in institutions of higher education face in

administration of academia and to succeed and overcome various

challenges or barriers in their careers?”

The underlying assumption was that due to the extremely demanding and

political nature of the higher education environment, for women to secure and

remain successful in powerful positions, they must be able to overcome various

personal, family-related, interpersonal, institutional, and societal challenges.

Under this overriding question were the following key research questions:

1. What are the various issues faced in administrating the academia?

2. What is the perception towards the administration of academia?

3. What are the various leadership skills and qualities required in

administration of academia and their belief towards leadership

skills and qualities?

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4. What are the various expected leadership roles in

administration of academia and their levels of satisfaction

towards the expected leadership role?

5. What institutional, family, or personal challenges have they

encountered as they strive for career success?

6. What strategies or skills have they employed to overcome

various barriers to success?

7. Do they experience gender disparities on their careers in

higher education administration and do they perceive gender

as a factor that has an impact on their career.

8. What insights or advice do they have other current or aspiring

women leaders to help them succeed as top-level decision-

makers in higher education?

1.6 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY 1. To measure the perception of women leaders in administration of institutions

of higher education towards leadership capability, confidence on leadership

roles, success & failure on administration of academia and various barriers.

2. To identify required leadership qualities and skills and measure the level of

agreement towards the leadership qualities and skills, which required for

effective leadership in administration of institutions of higher education. 3. To identify expected leadership roles and measure the level of

effectiveness towards the leadership role in administration of

institutions of higher education.

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4. To identify and analyse the effectiveness in facing the problems

towards various issues in association with administration of

institutions of higher education.

5. To analyze the level of satisfaction towards administrative capacity of

leadership required to sustain success in development of institutions

of higher education.

6. To identify and analyse barriers and obstacles for under

representation and advancement of women in senior level position

in the institutions of higher education. 7. To suggest the supporting, training, and retaining measures for

women in institutions of higher education.

1.7 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY

Study of the discussions may go with the issues such as 1. Women

academicians’ perception of leadership with regard to administration of academia,

2. Their belief towards leadership qualities and skills in administration of academia,

3.Thier effectiveness towards their leadership role in administration of academia, 4.

Their satisfaction toward administrative capacity of leadership in development of

academia, 5. Their frustration towards the barriers for advancement in their career.

The study seeks to assess the responses of the Women in academia on

(a). Their perception with regard to the administration of academia by indicating

their level of Leadership Capability, Confidence on Leadership role, Success &

Effectiveness and Barriers. (b). Their agreement towards Leadership Quality -

Objectivity, Emotional stability, Knowledge of human relations, Energy, Personal

motivation, Courage and Skill - Communication skills, Teaching ability, Social &

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business skills, Business etiquette, Calculated risk taking, (c). The effectiveness of

their leadership roles such as Planner, Designer Guide, Mentor, Facilitator,

Supporter and Communicator, (d). Their effectiveness in facing the problems

towards various issues in association with the administrative issues in academia,

(e). Their level of satisfaction towards administrative capacity of leadership required

to sustain success in development of academia (f). Their opinion on Barriers/

Obstacles for advancement in leadership position such as Personal barriers,

Professional barriers, Internal obstacles and External obstacle.

Figure 1.1

Conceptual Model of the Study

Broader context

Leadership

Capability Confidence Success Failure

Qualities Leadership Problems Administrative Barriers/

Objectivity roles Issues capacity Obstacles

Emotional Stability Planner associated Towards various Personal

Knowledge of with areas of barriers

human relation Designer

administration development of

Energy

Professional

of academia

academia

Empathy Guide

barriers

Personal motivation

Courage Mentor Internal

Skills Facilitator obstacles

Communication Supporter External

Teaching ability obstacles

Social and business Communicator

skills

Business Etiquette

Calculated risk

taking

Effectiveness, Satisfaction, Frustration towards administration 25




1.8 VARIABLES OF THE STUDY (i) Dependent variables: The dependent variables of the study are effectiveness

and satisfaction with leadership capability, capacity and leadership role,

success & failure with various problems faced in administration of academia,

frustration with barriers of women leaders in administration of academia.

(ii) Independent variables: The independent variables of the study are leadership

qualities, leadership skills, leadership roles, administrative problems,

administrative capacity and barriers in administration of academia.

(iii) Other variables of Interest: The other variables of interest of the study

are age, marital status, type of family, no of children, type of family,

type of institution where the respondent work, designation, work

experience, career mentoring experience.

1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS

The key concepts of the study are operationally defined as under: 1. Academia: The community of students and scholars engaged in

higher education and research 2. Academic leadership : Leadership in administration of academia 3. Academic profession: An employment involved with research or teaching 4. Achievement: Attainment or accomplishment by superior ability 5. Administration: Management of any office 6. Advancement: An act of moving forward or promotion in rank 7. Barriers: A limit of any boundary, prevents the movement of people

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8. Business etiquette: Expectation of social behavior in business environment 9. Capability: A talent that has potential for development or use. 10. Capacity: The maximum or optimum amount of ability that can be

performed. 11. Career: A person's course or progress through work life. 12. Colleges: A degree-awarding tertiary educational institution, an institution

within a university, an institution offering vocational education.

13. Communication: The activity of conveying information through the

exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech,

visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. 14. Courage: The ability to confront fear 15. Designer: A person who devises or executes designs, especially one

who creates forms, structures, and patterns, as for works of art. 16. Effectiveness: Thee capability of producing a desired result 17. Emotional stability: Mental state of calmness, individual steadiness of mood 18. Empathy: The capacity to recognize feelings that are being

experienced by another 19. Energy: Capacity for vigorous activity 20. Facilitator: A person responsible for leading or coordinating the work

of a group, 21. Frustration: A feeling of dissatisfaction, often accompanied by anxiety or

depression, resulting from unfulfilled needs or unresolved problems. 22. Gender: A range of characteristics of femininity and masculinity

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23. Gender disparities: A gender difference is a distinction of biological and/or

physiological characteristics typically associated with either males or female

24. Gender justice: Recognising men and women equally. 25. Government institution: Institution formed by the government 26. Guide: A assistance or supervision to reach a destination 27. Head of the department: One who heads or leads the department for

the common goal 28. Higher education: Learning occurs at the college or university level

where degree is awarded 29. Human relations: Association between two or more people 30. Institution: An organization, establishment, foundation, society that devoted

to the promotion of a particular cause or program or educational.

31. Leader: Person who leads, guides, guides or heads a particular group 32. Leadership: Process of leading 33. Leadership role: What is expected from the position of a leadership 34. Leadership style: The manner and approach of providing direction,

implementing plans, and motivating people. 35. Mentor: A wise, trusted and influential counselor or teacher. 36. Motivation: An act of inspiring or inducing or providing a reason to act

in certain way 37. Objectivity: Existing freely or independently from the thoughts of a

conscious entity or subject. 38. Obstacles: Something that restraints or hinders progress.

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39. Perception: The act or faculty of apprehending by means of the

senses or of the mind; cognition; understanding. 40. Planner: Person who makes plans 41. Principal: Head of the academic institution 42. Private institution: Institution formed and run by a private persons 43. Professors: A teacher of the highest academic rank in a college or university,

who has been awarded the title Professor in a particular branch of learning;

44. Qualities: An essential or distinctive characteristic, property, or attribute: 45. Satisfaction: An act of satisfying; fulfillment, gratification. The state of

being contentment 46. Skills: The ability, coming from one's knowledge, practice, aptitude,

etc., to do something well 47. Supporter: One who holds or shields the another person 48. Teaching: Profession of those who give instruction, especially in an

elementary or secondary school or a university. 49. Universities: A university is an institution of higher education and

research which grants academic degrees in a variety of subjects and

provides both undergraduate education and postgraduate education 50. Vice – chancellor: Head of the university 51. Women leadership: Leadership by a women, leading by women

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1.10 ORGANISAITON OF THE REPORT

The thesis will be organized into five chapters. The first chapter includes

the introduction, which is overview of the research study, the statement of

research problem, the significance of the study, the research question, scope

and limitation, objectives, definition of terms and orgnisation of the study.

Chapter two focuses on the review of literature where an attempt have been

made to present the significant studies related to the research topic. Chapter

three describes the research methodology adopted to carry out this study and

procedure used to collect the data and analyze the same. The results of the

analysis of the data collected and the findings that emerge from the study are

given in chapter four. The final chapter five presents the summery of the results

of the present study, recommendations and suggestion for future research. This

is followed by the reference and appendices section.

Having presented the conceptual overview of the present study, the

following chapter on review of literature gives an overview of the existing

literature on the topic.

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