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CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Physical and Chemical Composition of Feed and Feed Quality :

Ward (1967) stated in his Poultry Science and Technology Guide that the term

“trace” refers to certain minerals which are in the feed in small amounts, such as grams

per ton. The trace minerals include copper, iodine, manganese, zinc, iron, selenium,

cobalt, magnesium, fluorine and molybdenum. In contrast, other minerals are sometimes

referred to as macro minerals because they are available in large amounts, such as

pounds per ton. These macro minerals are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chloride,

potassium and sulfur. Although required in small amounts by poultry, trace minerals

play a key role in their nutrition. For example, trace minerals make up part of the

enzyme systems in the body. He stated that the amount of trace minerals that should be

added per ton in finished feed as copper 8.0g, Iodine 4.0g, Manganese 55.0g, Zinc

50.0g, Iron 75.0g and Selenium 90.8g.

Mitchell et al. (1972) fed broilers on mash or pelleted diets with 23.6% crude

protein and 3190 kcal ME/kg of feed from 7 to 24 days. Broilers fed on pelleted diets

were heavier in body wt. and better feed conversion than on mash diet. They also

reported that pelleted diets significantly improved feed conversion ratio during 7 to 24

days of age as compared to mashed.

Proudfoot and Sefton (1978) studied with 800 chicks in two trials, where chickens

fed crumbled-pelleted diet from 1 to 28 days and pelleted finisher diet from 29 to 49

days of age, or the same diets as mash. Growth was better on crumbled and pelleted

diets than on mash. They also reported that feed conversion was better on crumbled and

pelleted diets than on mash.

Proudfoot and Hulan (1982) observed that mortality of birds was higher when fed

on crumbled-pelleted diets than on mash diet.

Proudfoot et al. (1982) used three forms of diet, mashed, crumbled-pelleted and

ground crumbled-pelleted in broilers. Birds fed the crumbled-pelleted diet grew more

rapidly than those on either the ground-pelleted or mash.

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Choi et al. (1986) fed starter diet from 0 to 4 weeks of age either as mash or as

crumbled form and finisher diet from 4 to 8 weeks of age either as mash or as pellet to

the broilers. They observed that the chicks fed the crumbled starter diet gained more

weight and consumed more feed (P<0.01), and the birds eating the pelleting finisher diet

also significantly (P<0.01) improved their weight gain and feed intake compared to

those fed the mash diet.

Milosevie et al. (1986) studied on 200 Hybro, Ross, Hubbard, Prelux Bro and

Vedette broilers fed starter and finisher diet containing 22% and 20% protein as pellet

or mash. They reported that broiler on pellet had better feed conversion efficiency than

on mash diet.

Moran (1990) concluded that Pelleting of feed given to meat type poultry usually

improves body weight.

Kim and Chung (1993) used starter (0 to 21 days) and finisher (22 to 42 days)

diets as mash, mash-pelleted, mash-crumbled, crumbled, crumbled-pelleted and

crumbled-mash to Arbor Acres broilers. At 42 days of age the overall body weight gain

of chickens fed the crumbled-pelleted diet was greater (P<0.05) than for mash or

extrusion.

Reddy and Narahari (1993) fed broilers on mash or pelleted diets containing

23.02% and 23.04% CP and ME of 2837 and 2433 kcal/kg of feed respectively. They

used pelleted or crumbled diet to broilers up to 3 weeks old and the broilers on pelleted

diet gained more weight than on mashed during a rearing period of three weeks.

Kim et al. (1994) assigned Arbor Acres broilers to 4 treatments of different feed

forms; mash, extrusion, crumbled starter and finisher diets and crumbled starter with

pelleted finisher diets and achieved more weight gain.

Mendes et al. (1995) fed starter diet to Arbor Acres broilers chickens from 1 to 21

days of age and grower diet from 22 to 42 days of age in the form of mash or as pellet,

observed more mean weight gain in chickens reared on compound (pelleted) over mash

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diet. Similarly feed intake was higher in pelleted diets (Nir et al., 1995). Asha Rajini et

al. (1998) reported that pelleted diet had a better feed efficiency up to six weeks of age.

The method presently used to formulate feeds for broilers relies on tables of

nutrient requirements for different phases in the life of the broiler do not reflect either

the requirements of broilers capable of growing at different rates, or that these strains

have different genetically determined degrees of fatness (Gousi, 1998). However, it is

possible to determine the most economical method of feeding broilers under a wide

range of economic conditions. The only defensible way in which nutritionists can

improve the efficiency of feeding broilers is by the use of simulation modeling.

Thomas et al. (1998) observed the effects of the diet ingredients and their

composition (e.g., starch, protein, sugar, fat and fibre content) on production

characteristics of pellets and on their physical quality (pellet hardness and pellet

durability) as compound animal feeds. Large differences exist in the effect on pellet

physical quality within and between groups of diet ingredients when incorporated in

pelleted animal diets. It has been recorded that the raw materials within one group are

much more the same than between groups with respect to pelleting properties and pellet

quality, since their composition varies only within a relative narrow range. Effects of

raw material constituents, both their level and physicochemical properties, may provide

more information on pelleting characteristics and pellet quality than the diet ingredient

inclusion level of the raw material percent. The effects of starch (native versus

gelatinized), sugar, protein (raw versus denatured), and solubility and resiliency of fibre

may be suggested with respect to pellet quality. The effects of pellet binders and their

mode of action are emphasized and the efforts should be directed towards the effects of

individual constituents and their properties, since the latter seems to affect, to a large

extent, the final hardness and durability of pelleted compound feeds. By relating pellet

quality to physicochemical properties, e.g., functionality of the constituent, the

manufacturer of compound animal feeds will be able to decrease the variability in final

pellet quality caused by differences in geographical origin and processing history of the

diet ingredients.

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Bista and Shrestha (2000) evaluated different feed ingredients from five

development regions of Nepal and reported that soybean found in eastern region was

significantly (P<0.05) rich in protein content (40.3%) than that of central region

(39.9%). Further, they noted that protein content (12.65%) of maize of central region

was significantly higher (P<0.05) than that of other regions (average 6.5%).

Thomas et al. (2001) commented that animal feeds are formulated by means of

least cost formulation. This requires the composition of the diet to be correct in terms of

amino acids, minerals, energy and raw materials, used. Up to date, it is not possible to

adequately present a model which also takes into account specific properties of certain

raw materials and which exert their effect on the physical quality of the manufactured

feed. They have discussed the costs and benefits of using specific ingredients in relation

with formulation and feed processing. Examples were cited presented to show the

various trade-offs that can be expected in terms of costs of raw materials, costs of

manufacture and commercial benefits.

Behnke and Beyer (2002) recorded that feed represents the most significant cost

of broiler production. Most production costs estimates range from 60-70% as being feed

costs. Certainly, the major portion of feed costs is for the ingredients used. However, the

cost of feed processing represents a significant portion of feed costs and likely gives the

greatest opportunity for influencing broiler performance beyond nutritional adequacy.

The rate of gain for broilers has increased substantially during the last few decades. In

1960, a commercial broiler chicken attained a 2.2Kg market weight by 12 weeks of age.

Today’s broilers attain the same market weight in just 6 weeks. This remarkable

improvement can mainly be attributed to improved genetic, however, tremendous

improvements in nutrition that have made it possible to take advantage of the genetic

changes. Furthermore, our understanding of feed processing and feed delivery has

allowed the economical implementation of many of the innovations in nutrition.

Roy et al. (2004) in their study on production of day-old chicks and evaluation

of compound broiler feeds manufactured in Bangladesh observed that all feed

manufacturers are maintaining energy and crude protein levels according to NRC

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(1994) recommendations. Amino acid profiles of different feed samples were not exact

to the recommendations of NRC (1994). To get an exact picture of compound (pellet)

broiler feeds manufactured in Bangladesh, feed samples were collected from the sales

and display centers of six feed mills. Three methods were used to evaluate the feed:

Visual observation, chemical analysis and a feeding trial with 390 broilers using broiler

starter, grower and finisher feeds. Furthermore, the content of all essential amino acids

was very close to the recommended level in starter feeds. There were differences in

overall performance of broiler chicks by using feeds from different feed mills in

Bangladesh. However, at marketing age live weight gain at all dietary treatment was

satisfactory. But some feed mills might be accurate in maintaining their quality and their

feeds showed tremendous results. There were significant differences in nutrient

concentrations, and in growth and feed conversion of the broilers, among the feeds

obtained from the six feed mills. These traits appeared to be related to the weighted

crude protein of the feeds but not to the fibre level nor the content of lysine or the

methionine/lysine ratio. Results of different treatments using feed from different feed

mills, it could be concluded that their should be control over the quality of different feed

mills, which in turn made higher quality, and such the productivity and farmers’

income. The crude protein content of commercial feeds has been appears as the best

criterion for supporting growth.

Carmencita and Carandang (2006) studied on feeding and economic Evaluation of

Corn, wheat and sorghum based diet in broilers. A total of 770 Arbor Acre day-old male

broiler chicks were fed one of 7 isocaloric/isonitrogenous broiler mash diets for 42 days.

Grain sources for the basal diets were as follows : diet 1-100% yellow corn, Diet 2-

100% US soft red winter wheat; Diet 3-100% low tannin US sorghum, Diet 4-50% corn

and 50% sorghum (equal weight basis); Diet 5-50% wheat and 50% sorghum (equal

weight basis); Diet 6- Diet 2 and a pigment source added in the grower/finisher period;

and Diet 7- Diet 3 and a pigment source added in the grower/finisher period. The

feeding value of low tannin sorghum and wheat grains relative to corn were 98% and

96%, respectively. The combinations of sorghum with either corn or wheat on an equal

basis had a feeding value of 100% relative to corn. Feed conversion was better in the

corn and corn-sorghum diets, which was significantly high compared to the wheat,

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sorghum, and wheat-sorghum diets. The feed cost per kg gain was significantly low in

corn-sorghum and sorghum based diets, 4.22% and 3.78% relative to corn based-diet.

The use of low tannin US sorghum has an advantage over wheat as cheap alternative to

corn in broiler diets.

Jahan et al. (2006) conducted a study on “Performance of Broiler fed on mash,

pellet and crumble” from 21 to 56 days to compare the performance of broiler on

different dietary groups. The body weight of birds fed on mash, pellet and crumble

group from 4th

to 8th

weeks of age differed significantly (P<0.01). The highest,

intermediate and the lowest body weight were observed for crumble, pellet and mash

group respectively. The body weight gain was also highest in crumble group (P<0.01).

Crumble group showed high trend of feed consumption. Higher FCR value (P<0.01)

was observed for mash group, which indicated low feed conversion efficiency. On the

other hand crumble and pellet group showed better fed conversion efficiency at

significant level. However, survivability percent of all treatments did not differ

significantly (P>0.01). Total cost of production was significantly (P<0.01) less for

crumble and this was statistically similar with pellet group and recommended that

crumble form of feed is better than mash and pellet form for the production of

commercial broiler for the age of 21 to 56 days.

Senkoylu and Dale (2006) conducted two experiments with broiler chicks to

determine the nutritive value of high-oil sunflower meal (HO-SFM), a sunflower oil

extraction by-product obtained through screw-press extraction and expanding processes

with a proximate composition of 32% crude protein, 12% crude fibre, and 19% ether

extract. Effects of a high level (46.4%) of HO-SFM on chick performance, pelleting the

feed to overcome the bulkiness indicated that addition of 46.4% HO-SFM to broiler

starter diets significantly (P<0.05) depressed body weight gain and feed intake but not

feed conversion in the experiment No.1. Fat pad and liver lipid were again significantly

(P<0.05) decreased in the HO-SFM treatment. Impaired performance might have been

due to the difference of the density of HO-SFM diet (608 g/L) compared with the

soybean meal control (723 g/L). When bulkiness was overcome by pelleting in

Experiment 2, it was found that pelleting the feed significantly enhanced growth of

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broiler chicks compared with SFM or soybean meal mash diets. Liver weights and lipid

content were again decreased in HO-SFM diets. The results of this study suggest that

HO-SFM can be used upto 28% without adverse effects on broiler chicks. Further

improvement was observed with pelleting. Liver weight and lipid content were

consistently reduced by feeding HO-SFM.

Tiwari et al. (2006) evaluated the nutritional variation of different feed

ingredients and compound feed found in different parts of Nepal. The highest content of

dry matter (99.51%), organic matter (98.45%), total ash (98.14%) and crude protein

(67.85%) was recorded for oyster cell, white maize grain, oyster cell and meat meal

respectively. Similarly, the rice husk was found to be superior in crude fibre content

(34.46%). In terms of mineral, oyster cell was found to be superior in calcium content

(35.94%) and bone meal in phosphorous content (1.59%) as compared to other feed

ingredients.

Arotupin et al. (2007) studied on microbiological and physicochemical qualities

of selected commercial poultry feeds namely, broiler finisher, broiler starter, broiler

super starter, grower mash and layer top mash obtained from their trade outlets in

Akure, Nigeria using standard microbiological and analytical methods. The bacterial

count was highest in the broiler starter with 2.50 x 104 cfu mL

-1, while the least count of

6.60 x 102 cfu mL

-1 was recorded in layer top mash. Fungal count was highest in layer

top mash (7.40 x 102 sfu mL

-1) and least in grower mash (1.50 x 10

2 sfu mL

-1). The

presence of some pathogenic microorganisms in the poultry feeds revealed the level of

contamination. Therefore, the commercial poultry feeds should be periodically

examined for bio safety, so as to reduce or probably prevent the risk of cross

contamination of poultry and poultry products.

Dass et al. (2007) observed high incidence of Fusarium verticillioides in poultry

feed mixtures while animal feeds expecially cotton seeds, fine wheat bran and maize

pellets showed high incidence of F. verticillioides, Bengal gram husk, coarse horse

gram powder, groundnut seed cake, sunflower seed cake and wheat flakes showed very

low incidence of F. verticillioides. The study not only reveals a high incidence of the

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potentially toxigenic F. verticillioides, in the local feeds of Karnataka region but also

represents the possibility of occurrence of Fusarial mycotoxins, especially fumonisins.

Goromela et al. (2007) in a study on Identification, characterisation and

composition of scavengeable feed resources for rural poultry production of Central

Tanzania to ascertain their nutritive range. In addition, proximate analysis of selected

scavengeable feed resources including chicken crop and gizzards contents was carried

out to quantify their feeding value. Results indicated that the most important

scavengeable feed resources in the dry season were cereal grains and their by-products,

oil seeds and oil seed cakes and in the wet season were forage leaves, flowers, seeds,

garden vegetables, insects and worms. Changes in seasonal conditions, farming

activities, land size available for scavenging and the flock size had a major influence on

the feed availability. This study showed that the nutrient concentrations of scavengeable

feed resources consumed by rural poultry were below the recommended levels for

optimum growth and egg production.

Leeman et al. (2007) found that the human risk assessment of feed contaminants

has been hampered by a lack of knowledge concerning their behaviour when consumed

by livestock and suggested for databases. These database-derived transfer factors enable

a more accurate risk assessment in the case of a feed contamination, and enable rapid

risk management decision-making and, or intervention.

Yegani (2007) conducted a study on variations in nutritional value of poultry

feed ingredients indicated that there are always variations in nutrient content of feed

ingredients. In a study on nutrient composition of main poultry feed ingredients used in

Sudan and their variations from local standard tables values Babiker et al. (2009)

observed that, Sorghum (Feterita), Groundnut Cake (GC), Sesame Cake (SC) and

Wheat Bran (WB) were considered the main poultry feed ingredients in Sudan. The

nutrient values of these ingredients were reported in the form of fixed figures in local

standard tables, a study was undertaken to know if it is necessary to make analysis for

feed ingredients before formulating the diets. Samples of the feed components were

brought from local markets of Khartoum. Each sample was analysed for proximate

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composition, minerals and amino acid contents. Considerable variations were observed

between samples and the local standard table’s values. Crude protein of sorghum

(Feterita) was 16.65%, whereas Metabolizable Energy (ME) was 14.25 MJ/kg. Values

for fat, fibre and ash were 3.86, 1.97 and 1.81%, respectively. Total concentrations of

critical Amino Acids (AA) were : methionine, 0.2925%, lysine, 0.3501% and threonine,

0.4822%. The variation noted between samples and tables values strongly suggestive

that confirmatory analyses should be conducted prior to use of sample for formulating

the poultry diets especially in the field of research.

Donkoh and Attoh Kotoku (2009) conducted an evaluation of a range of

Ghanaian poultry feedstuffs for their nutrient quality. The samples were subjected to

chemical analysis to obtain gross composition and apparent metabolizable energy

(AME) data and also to ileal digestibility bioassay, using broiler chickens, to determine

the digestibility of each of the amino acids (AA) in each of the samples of feedstuffs

under evaluation. For the cereals (maize, sorghum I and sorghum II) and cereal by-

products (wheat bran, rice bran, maize bran and dried brewer’s spent grains),

differences in crude protein, crude fibre and crude fat contents as well as AME and ileal

digestibility of protein and amino acids were observed. The mean content of low tannin

sorghum (sorghum I) was determined to be 0.38%, while the corresponding value for

high tannin sorghum (sorghum II) was 1.87%. Further the fishmeal samples showed a

wide variation in gross compositional values, AME contents and AA digestibility

coefficients. It had well been referred that the digestibility of amino acids varies greatly

among different feedstuffs and recommended the use of digestible values rather than

tabulated gross compositional values to obtain the precision of dietary formulation.

Pesti (2009) studied the impact of dietary amino acid and crude protein levels in

broiler feeds on biological performance and was categorical to stat that the requirement

of dietary protein was somewhat misleading. Since some amino acids are dietary

essentials for maximum growth and performance. It has been recognized that individual

essential amino acid requirements are functions of the total crude protein (CP) level.

Increased to level of CP maintains ratios of essential amino acids for growth, increase

feed utilization efficiency and carcass yields. Regardless of whether it is called “CP

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level” or “essential + nonessential amino acid level,” there is no clear requirement, only

a smooth response curve that approaches maxima at lower levels for growth, and then

feed utilization efficiency followed by lean meat yield and finally the minimum carcass

fat. As a result, decisions on feeding levels for essential and nonessential amino acids

should depend on the input-output relationships and costs.

Ebrahimi et al. (2010) conducted the trial to evaluate the effects of three various

physical forms of diets (whole pellet, whole crumble and mix crumble and pellet) on

broilers performance. It was performed using 150 broilers (male and female mix) from

commercial Arbor acres breed in a completely randomized design with 3 diets by 2

replication (25 chickens per each replication), daily gain, feed intake and FCR measured

in whole period, Body weight had no significant difference. Feed intake was highest in

the pellet groups.

Maiorka and Ananda (2010) reported that broiler performance had improved

enormously in recent decades due to supplementation of balanced vitamins. The further

opined that based on the genetic progress of the birds, appropriate vitamin

supplementation were essential appeared as useful tool for supplying the correct amount

of vitamins to broiler diets.

Mutayoba et al. (2011) studied the chemical composition and anti-nutritive

components for Tanzanian locally available poultry feed ingredients observed that

information on nutritive value of locally available feed ingredients is scarce, therefore

chemical composition, TAA, ANF and OSI for eleven feed ingredients commonly used

in Tanzania were determined. The ingredients were cereals/byproducts (BR, RS, WS1,

WS2 and MB), leaf meals (MOLM, GLM and LLM) and oil seed meals/by products

(SBM, SCM and CSM). Significant differences for CP, NDF, minerals, TAA and ANF

were observed between nutrient groups. Apart from energy most of the chemical

components were lower in cereals; CP and TAA were highest in SBM. CSM contained

the highest fat content (35.82%) with high oleic (22.63%) and linoleic (50.59%). They

observed chemical differences between (BR and MB) were probably due to their

differences in physical composition. The findings suggested that feed ingredients of

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plant origin vary in their chemical composition, therefore, they complement each other

when used in mixtures of animal diets.

Uppal et al. (2011) stated that a quality feed would supply all nutrients in

adequate quantity and high digestibility and ingestibility. Quality control of feed

ingredients is mainly based on ingredient quality-Physical characters (analyst’s skills) :

Color, (Qualitative) Texture, Odor and Taste, Particle size (screen analysis), shape,

evidence of wetting, adulteration, damage and deterioration, bulk density storage, pests,

faecal material, hairs, spot chemical tests, etc. Ingredient quality control are

determination of moisture, CP, CF, EE, NFE, ash (Quantitative) Acid insoluble ash

(silica or sand), salts, free fatty acids, biogenic amino urea, and NPN, amino acids along

with the determination of contaminants. Physical Evaluation includes any change in the

colour of the feed ingredients which gives an indication of the maturity of the grain,

storage conditions, presence of toxins, contamination due to sand, possible use of

insecticides/fungicides which gives dull and dusty appearance. Size of the grains govern

its energy value due to the proportional decrease/increase in seed and its coat. Smaller

the grain lower will be the ME value. The presence of contaminants like other grains,

husks broken grains, weed seeds, infested seeds gives the test for homogeneity.

Chemical Evaluation includes the estimation of nutrient contents and contaminants

analysis of proximate principles. This indicates possible constraints of usage due to the

presence of excessive content of crude fibre, fat or total ash. Low CP and high CF of oil

seed meals is indicative of adulteration with fibrous material. The high CF alone is

indicative of adulteration with urea and or some inferior quality oil seed meals like

mahua, castor or karanja cake. The amount of acid insoluble ash is a good guide to the

amount of sand or other dirt which may be present. The fish meals are usually

adulterated with sand during drying process.

Lpez, and Baiao (2012) carried out an experiment in order to evaluate the effects

of dietary particle size and physical form of ration on performance of broiler chickens.

Nine hundred day-old Ross broiler male chicks were used during the 47 days of trial,

following a completely randomized design of six treatments in a 3x2 factorial

arrangement, these physical forms of rations (mash, pellet and expanded-pellet) x two

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methods of grinding (intermediary and coarse). Intermediary and coarse grinding were

performed using screen size of 3.18 and 4.76 mm, respectively. Processing of diet by

intermediary grinding caused an increase in body weight broilers fed expanded-oekket

diet grew faster than broilers fed pellet diet. But those birds performed better as

compared with birds fed with unprocessed diet (P<0.05). In the coarse grinding, body

weights was higher with processed rations as compared with mash diet (P<0.05). It is

concluded that the grinding size of diet has no effect on broiler performance. Heat-

treatment of diet improves broiler performance.

Parsons et al. (2012) in their study determined the effects of particle size and

feed texture on broiler performance and carcass quality. Treatments consisted of five

similarly formulated mash diets, which varied in corn particle size (781, 950, 1042,

2242 microns) and two pelleted diets of varying texture – soft (manufactured with

added moisture) and hard (manufacture with a commercial pellet binder). Soft pellets

had a higher durability (90%) as well as fines percentage (44%) compared to hard

pellets (86 and 40% respectively). Broilers fed hard pellets had greater weight gain

(P=0.0001) but otherwise similar performance as broilers fed soft pellets. Broilers fed

soft pellets had an increased percentage breast yield (P=0.0127) compared to those fed

mash diets, although, broilers fed hard pellets did not (P=0.3244). These results

demonstrate that feeding broilers pelleted diets can improve performance compared to

feeding mash diets, and feeding pellets of soft texture may increase breast yield.

Furthermore, feeding broilers corn particles of smaller size may improve performance

and carcass characteristics compared to diets that incorporate larger sized corn particles.

Zohair et al. (2012) noted that in a total of 11000 Ross-308 broiler chicks in 4

groups (2750 chicks) fed on mash or pellet diet from the 1st to 28

th day of age

demonstrated their performance according to different diet. The results showed that

feeding on pelleted ration improved the weightgain, feed intake and feed/gain compared

to mash diets. The higher body weight throughout the 4 weeks was observed in Pellet

from Hendrix fed chickens (1103.73 gm), while the lowest body weight in different

weeks were observed in Mash from Koudijus. During the whole period it was observed

that pelleting increased the feed intake compound to mash feed. The highest (1595

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g/bird) at 4th

week and the lowest (1474 g/bird/week) feed consumption were observed

in pellet Hendrix (gr. 4) and Mash Koudijus (gr 1); respectively. The highest (0.786)

FCR value was observed in mash group, which indicated low feed conversion

efficiency. The mash feed given only for the first four week significantly reduced the

subsequent incidence of ascites. The normality with ascites in birds receiving pelleted

feed was consistently the greatest and was the lowest in birds fed on mash.

Ahmed and Abbas (2013) concluded that mash feed had significantly (P<0.05)

increased relative weight of gizzard compared to birds fed pellets and mix feed. The

inclusion of different diets had no (p>0.05) effect on other carcass characteristics. Thus

it is suggested that similarities of growth response between mash, mixed and pellet-fed

birds may be attributed to the pellet quality and greater lysine requirements of the pellet-

fed birds.

2.2 Performance Studies on Broilers - Growth Rate, Feed Consumption,

Feed Efficiency and Protein Efficiency Ratio :

Buamah and Singsen (1975) conducted a study on the protein efficiency ratio

method for the evaluation of poultry feed supplements. They conducted four

experiments on chicks to compare the protein efficiency ratio (PER) and the total

protein efficiency ratio (TPE) methods for evaluating five protein concentrates; soybean

meal, peanut meal, normal fish meal, fish meal subjected to either dry or moist heating;

and gelatin-supplemented casein, the latter serving as the standard. The concentrates

substituted for 40% of the total protein contents of basal corn-soybean rations varying

widely in protein levels. There were no significant differences between the PER (based

on average weight gain and protein intake) and the TPE (calculated as the total weight

gain, including weight of dead chicks, divided by the total protein intake) at the protein

levels studied. A new index, the maximum protein efficiency ratio (PER max), was

defined as the PER value estimated at the optimum dietary protein level.

Cherry et al. (1978) reported that body weights of broiler populations were lighter

at 28 days of age when fed a low nutrient density starting diet than when fed a diet with

a higher nutrient density. When placed on the same finishing diet from 28 to 56 days of

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age, the broilers previously fed with low-nutrient density diet grew at a more rapid rate

and were more efficient in feed utilization than their counterparts previously fed the

higher density starting diet. The influence of feeding regimes on the deposition of

abdominal fat varied among populations with the low nutrient density starting diet either

significantly increasing/decreasing, or having no effect on the amount of abdominal fat.

Feeding the diets with increased concentrations of protein apparently does not reduce

the growth rate depression of the broiler reared at 26 or 31ºC.

The nutritional quality of two types of fish silage for broiler chickens was studied

by Johnson et al. (1985) stated that – Fish waste was ensiled either by acidification with

formic acid or by fermentation with a bacterial starter culture and molasses. The

resulting liquids were mixed with wheat bran (85:15 w/w liquid: bran) and dried (70ºC)

to produce acid silage meal (ASM) and fermented silage meal (FSM). ASM and FSM

were incorporated into wheat-based diets at 25, 50 and 100 g kg-1

at the expense of soya

bean meal. There were no significant effects of dietary inclusion of either ASM and

FSM on the performance of broiler chickens relative to those fed on control diets. FSM

contained less crude protein and amino acids than ASM. The recovery of amino acids

relative to the total crude protein content from FSM was only 78.7%, presumably as a

result of formation of Maillard reaction products during drying.

Poddar and Biswas (1987) observed that the feed consumption with rice bran-A

diets with high ME was comparable to maize. As regards feed efficiency the same trend

like feed consumption was noted with both the rice bran, except that while feed

consumption was significantly higher even at 20% replacement of rice bran B, the

efficiency remain comparable to control at this level.

Owings et al. (1990) studied the influence of dietary supplementation with

Streptococcus faecium M-74 on broiler body weight, feed conversion, carcass

characteristics, and intestinal microbial colonization. Feed efficiency was significantly

better with the basal and diets supplemented with S. faecium than with those diets

supplemented with AP or AP and S. faecium.

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Isabel and Santos (1994) investigated the effects of organic acid salts (calcium

propionate and calcium formate) and plant extract (a blend of clove and cinnamon

essential oils) on growth performance and carcass quality characteristics in broilers. It

was concluded from this experiment that clove and cinnamon essential oils showed a

potential advantage over calcium propionate and calcium formate for improving FCR

and percentage of breast weight.

Zubair and Leeson (1994) studied the effect of varying period of early nutrient

restriction on growth compensation and carcass characteristics of Male Broilers.

Varying the period of nutrient restriction did not affect growth compensation. Birds that

received the diluted diet for 6 continuous d tended to be longer at 42d compared with

those that consumed the diluted diet for shorter periods. This latter effect may be related

to variable ME intake.

Tyagi et al. (1995) presented the effect of feeding broken rice (rice kani) on

growth, nutrient utilization and carcass characteristics of broilers. Rice kani (RK) was

substituted for yellow maize (w/w) at 0, 10, 20, 30 or 40% levels in diets for broilers

from 1-d old to 42-d age. Substitution of RK in diet for maize did not significantly

affect growth rate, feed intake, feed efficiency, mortality rate and retention of DM, OM,

CP, EE, Ca and P by chicks. However, a significant (P<0.01) positive correlation

existed between the dietary RK level and the abdominal fat content in male (r=+0.95)

and female (r=+0.98) birds, thereby, suggesting a lipogenic effect of feeding RK to

broiler chicks.

Kidd and Kerr (1996) conducted two experiments to evaluate threonine’s efficacy

in low crude protein diets adequate in methionine and lysine. For years poultry

nutritionists have decreased the use of protein-rich feedstuffs by adding methionine and

lysine. Because threonine is the third limiting amino acid for broilers. Low crude

protein diets containing threonine limiting ingredients may require supplemental L-

threonine for optimal feed conversion and weight gain.

Kumar et al. (1997) studied on the effect of diet dilution on compensatory growth

and carcass traits of broiler between 7 and 14 days of age. Diets diluted with 0, 20, 40

(23)

and 60% of rice hulls were given to 240 broiler chicks between 7 and 14 days of age.

Dilution of diet significantly (P<0.05) reduced body weight and weight gain at 15 days

of age as compared to the control.

Kerr and Kidd (1999) studied the lowering dietary CP without amino acid

supplementation reduced body weight (BW) gain and increased feed : gain ration.

Supplementation of glutamic acid (Glu) had no effect on feed conversion, but appeared

to decrease feed intake and BW gain. Supplementation of indispensable amino acids

(IDAA) in addition to Glu to the reduced CP diets improved BW gain and feed gain

ration, but failed to improve performance to a level achieved by birds fed the positive

control diet. Lowering dietary CP, without or with Glu, resulted in reduced carcass

yield, increased percentage abdominal fat, and reduced breast meat yield. Birds fed diets

supplemented with IDAA+ Glu had carcass yields, percentage abdominal fat, and breast

meat yields similar to those of birds fed the positive control.

Rasool et al. (1999) stated that hatchery waste including infertile eggs, dead

embryos in shell, dead or low grade chicks was cooked at 100ºC for 15 minutes and

then oven dried and ground. In biological evaluation trial, significantly higher weight

gain was observed in ration containing 12% HWM compared with that containing

similar amount of fish meal. Protein efficiency ratio on the two rations was 3.96 vs 2.85;

protein digestibility, 86.02 vs 71.9; net protein utilization, 64.9 vs 42.37 and biological

value, 75.37 vs 58.84, respectively, indicating better balance of amino acids in HWM

compared with fish meal. Growth performance trial on broiler chicks also revealed

better weight gain and feed efficiency on rations containing 12% HWM than that

containing similar level of fish meal.

Radhakrishnan et al. (2001) studied the effect of supplementation of choline

chloride, vitamin B12, lysine and methionine in a sole plant protein based diet on broiler

performance. They reported that addition of lysine and methionine either at a low or

high levels resulted in a weight gain of only 173.0 and 243.5g, respectively. The

inclusion of choline and B12 to a low lysine diet was not beneficial while in a high lysine

and methionine diet the birds gained 417.8g.The plant protein diet containing GNC,

soybean meal and sunflower meal in the ratio of 3:3:1 in total replacement of fish meal

(24)

supported a total gain of 459 g and at the same time helped to reduce the supplemental

requirement for lysine and methionine.

Plavnik et al. (2002) found the effects of inclusion of whole wheat to the diet on

broiler performance. The first trial examined the effects of inclusion of 100 or 200 g kg-

1 whole wheat in the diets replacing ground wheat. Inclusion of whole wheat improved

both BW and feed efficiency but did not significantly change gizzard weight or the

amount of abdominal fat. The content of breast muscle, gizzard size and quality of

abdominal fat were different between strains, whereas gizzard size and abdominal fat

were increased by whole wheat. The addition of whole wheat in commercial broiler diet

alters some carcass characters and enhances feed efficiency possibly since the use of

whole wheat allows better utilization of excesses of nutrients in commercial feeds.

Sarmiento-Franco et al. (2002) studied the performance and gut measurements

of broilers fed on diets containing different amounts of chaya (Cnidoscolus

aconitifolius) leaf meal (CLM) were examined in two experiments. The diets were

offered ad libitum for 2 or 3 weeks in the first and second experiments, respectively.

here were no differences for any of the variables studied between the birds fed on the

maize–soyabean diet and those fed on the CLM250, nor between males and females. In

the second experiment, weight gain, food intake and the food: weight gain ratio for birds

fed on C250 were lower (p<0.05) than those in birds fed on either the control or C150

diets. The weights of the gizzard and intestine were the lowest and the highest,

respectively, in birds fed on C250 (p<0.05). The length and weight of the caecum from

birds fed on the control diet were lower (p<0.05) than those of birds fed on either the

C150 or C250 diets. The results from this study suggest that CLM may be included up

to 150 g/kg in commercial diets without having an adverse effect on poultry

performance, and may also be mixed with maize up to 250 g/kg to improve the

performance of chickens fed on low-protein diets.

Hussein and Alhadrami (2003) studied that the addition of enzyme to diets did not

significantly affect broiler performance parameters. In an another experiment, it was

showed that dietary date pits did not affect body weight gain, feed intake or feed

(25)

conversion ratio during the starter and finishing periods. Adding 0.1% enzyme to the

starter diets significantly (p<0.05) increased body weight gain, but did not affect feed

intake and feed conversion ratio. These experiments showed that adding date pits with

or without enzyme to the broiler diets had no effect on broiler performance.

Taylor et al. (2003) in their experiment on “Comparison of broiler performance

when fed diets containing grain from Yield Gard rootworm (MON863), Yield Gard

nontransgenic control, or commercial reference corn hybrids.” Observed no differences

were observed percentage of moisture, protein, and fat in breast meat or thigh meat

across treatment diets.

Abdullatif et al. (2004) evaluated the nutritional value of locally produced dried

bakery waste (DBW) of Saudi Arabia in the broiler diets, found that due to the harsh

environment of Saudi Arabia, yellow corn and soybean, the main energy and protein

sources of the poultry diet are not successfully grown in this area. Early studies

suggested that bakery products could be considered as energy substitute to evaluate the

use of dried bakery waste in the diets of broilers. Five levels of DBW : 0, 5, 10, 20 and

30% were fed to 250 broiler chicks, were iso-caloric iso nitrogenous containing 3200

kcal/kg metabolizable energy (ME) with 22% crude protein in the starter diet and 20%

protein and 3200 kcal/kg ME in the finisher diet. The results provided evidence that

inclusion of up to 30% DBW in the broiler diets had no adverse effect on the

performance of the birds. It was concluded that DBW, obtained from local bakeries can

replace part of the corn in the broiler diets without negatively affecting the performance.

Body weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion efficiency, nutrient utilization, certain

blood constituents and carcass traits were not significantly affected by dietary

treatments.

Hernandez et al. (2004) studied the effect of different additives on digestibility

and found that different additives improved the performance slightly, but this effect was

not statistically significant.

Mandal et al. (2004) suggested that 5% inclusion level of Napoleona imperialis

seed meal could be used without any deleterious effects on finisher broilers. However

(26)

there is the need to subject Napoleona imperialis seed to processing that will enable its

utilization in broiler feeds at levels exceeding 5% inclusion.

Annon (2005a) in an Industry Impressions of Arbor Acres in respect of influence

of feed form on broiler performance informed that good broiler growth rates could be

achieved if the daily nutritional requirement of the bird is met. For good broiler growth

and efficient nutrient utilization it is therefore vital that a good feed intake is achieved.

Feed intake can be significantly affected by feed form. A poor feed form will inhibit

feed intake and have a negative impact on growth rate. It is important that both nutrient

density and feed form are optimal if feed intake and bird performance are to be

maximized.

Nguyen and Brian (2005) studied the effect of supplementing different green

feeds (water spinach, sweet potato leaves and duckweed) to broken rice based diets on

performance, meat and egg yolk colour of Luong Phuong chickens. A total of 204

female Luong Phuong chickens at 4 weeks of age were allocated at random to 4

treatments and 3 replicates. There were no differences in carcass yield, but liver and

gizzard weight on the diet with duckweed (DW) (48.3 and 50.3 g, respectively) were

higher than on the control diet (40.0 and 43.3 g, respectively. The control group had

highest abdominal fat (81.0 g), more than twice as high than on the experimental diets

(P>0.001).

Sabiha et al. (2005) studied on three dietary treatment groups viz., standard broiler

ration and standard broiler ration with 0.025 and 0.05 per cent probiotic having four

replicates of twelve chicks each. Body weight, body weight gain, feed intake, feed

efficiency and protein efficiency were studied upto eight weeks of age. The 0.025 per

cent probiotic supplemented birds showed a significantly higher (P<0.05) body weight

and weight gain upto six weeks of age. The food intake, feed efficiency and protein

efficiency were statistically non-significant at sixth and eight weeks of age among the

treatment groups. The mortality percentage was not affected by treatments. Cost of

production of broilers was lower in the 0.025 and 0.05 per cent probiotic supplemented

groups at six and eight weeks of age respectively. It was concluded that the probiotic

(27)

supplementation in standard broiler ration at a lower level was beneficial in the early

stages of growth.

Taylor et al. (2005) conducted a 42 days feeding experiment with growing Ross x

Ross 508 broilers showed that the nutritional value of insect-protected and herbicide-

tolerant corn was comparable to that of the genetically similar control and 5 commercial

reference corn hybrids. MON 88017 provides protection from feeding damage by

coleopteran pest corn rootworm and is tolerant to the action of glyphosate, the active

ingredient in the Roundup family of agricultural herbicides. Broilers overall performed

consistently and had similar carcass yield and meat composition when fed diets

containing MON 88017 or MON 88017 x MON 810 as compared with those fed the

conventional control and commercial diets, supporting a conclusion of nutritional

equivalence.

Esonu et al. (2006) conducted a study on evaluation of performance, organ

characteristics and economic analysis of broiler finisher fed dried rumen digesta at

dietary levels of 0, 5, 10 and 15% respectively found that feed intake of the groups on

varying dietary levels of dried rumen digesta were significantly (P<0.05) higher than the

control (0%) group. Birds on diets containing dried rumen digesta recorded higher body

weight gain than the control (0%) group. However, this increase in body weight, feed

conversion ratio and relative organ weights were not significant (P>0.05). The lower

feed cost per kilogram meat produced on dried rumen digesta diet suggest that the

material is economically viable alternative. Further research is necessary to investigate

the biosafety of dried rumen digesta.

Nwokoro and Obasuyi (2006) conducted a study to ascertain the effect of partial

substitution of soyabean meal with breadfruit (Artocarpur altilis) meal in broiler

chickens diets reared in a tropical environment. 300 broilers chicks were used for the

study and divided into 15 replicate groups. Five broiler starter diets (3000 Kcal MEKg-1

and 24% CP) were formulated such that the Soya bean meal in the diet were replaced

with breadfruit seed meal at 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40% levels. The birds were fed and

watered ad libitum for the 4 weeks of the study. There were consistent decrease in feed

and water consumption with increasing breadfruit meal level of dietary inclusion.

(28)

Results for the nitrogen retention revealed that the best values were recorded in diets 3

and 4 followed by diet 5, while the least were obtained in diets 1 and 2. Results for the

blood metabolites indicated that only PCV and globulin showed significant different.

Brickett et al. (2007) conducted a study on Influence of dietary nutrient density,

feed form and lighting on growth and meat yield of broiler chickens. The objective of

this study was to examine main and interactive effects of nutrient density (ND), feed

form (FF; mash, pellet) and lighting program (12L : 12D, 20L : 4D) on production

characteristics and meat yield of broilers raised to 35 d of age. Diets (starter, grower and

finisher) were formulated so that amino acid levels were in proportion to the dietary

energy level. Lighting programs were initiated at 4 d of age. Body weight was not

affected by ND when diets were fed in a pellet form but decreased in a linear manner

with lower ND when fed as a mash. Final VW of birds fed mash were less than those of

birds fed pellet diets. Feed to gain ratio decreased with increasing ND but was not

affected by FF. Feed intake decreased with increasing ND and was lower for birds fed

mash. Overall, carcass yields were reduced when broilers were fed mash or provided

with 12L:12D. Female birds had higher carcass yields and increased proportional breast

meat deposition compared with males.

Adeyemi et al. (2008) conducted a study with 234 two week-old broilers, that

were flood bred, were distributed into 18 groups of 13 birds each after balancing for live

weights, randomly allocated to six dietary treatments in which 0, 12.5 and 25% of maize

was replaced on a weight for weight basis with cassava enhanced with dried cage layer

waste and fermented with rumen filtrate (CCLW). The level of CCLW in the diet did

not significantly affect breast and thigh weights but the form of feed presentation

significantly influenced the weight of these two choice retail cuts. Serum total protein

was depressed with increasing level of CCLW but not affected by the form of feed

presentation. The data obtained from these series of studies indicate that CCLW is a

potentially useful feed material for monogastric feeding.

Ezieshi and Olomu (2008) in the study of Nutritional evaluation of palm kernel

meal on meat types broiler diet found the effects on live performance and nutrient

retention in broiler chicken.

(29)

Ingweye et al. (2008) observed the performance of broiler chickens fed fish and

shrimp wastes .The effects of replacing fish waste meal with shrimp waste meal at five

levels (0, 25, 50, 75 and 100%) on broiler chicken performance was studied in a feeding

trial involving 204 Anak breed of old. The replacement of fish waste meal with shrimp

waste meal was directly proportional to the feed consumption rate, feed conversion ratio

and organ weights but indirectly proportional to weight gain. Findings suggest that the

0%, control and 25% level of replacement, fish waste meal with shrimp waste meal

were optimum for broiler chicken performance.

Kamran et al. (2008) studied the effect of low-protein diets having constant

energy-to-protein ratio on performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens

from one to thirty-five days of age. A trial was conducted to determine the effect of

low-protein diets with constant ME:CP ratio on performance and carcass characteristics

of broilers from 1 to 35 d of age. Four experimental diets were formulated to have 4

levels of CP and ME, respectively. Weight gain was linearly decreased (P<0.001),

whereas feed intake and feed conversion ratio were increased (P<0.001) linearly as

dietary protein and energy decreased during grower, finisher and overall experimental

periods.

Rodenburg et al. (2008) studied feasibility of 100% organic feed for organic

broilers by comparing it with 80% organic feed (situation at the time of the experiment;

2004) and 95% organic feed (alternative). Diets were optimized for nutritional value,

allowing a maximum 10% increase in feed price when using 100% organic feedstuffs.

Probably the lower methionine content in the 100% organic feed negatively affected

performance. The results for 95% organic feed were similar to 80% organic feed, except

for a higher of breast blisters.

Zakaria et al. (2008) studied the effect of exogenous enzymes on the growing

performance of broiler chickens fed regular corn/soybean-based diets and the economics

of enzyme supplementation. Bergazym P (Berg) and Hemicell-D (Hemi) were added at

rates of 0.025 and 0.05%, respectively, to a control diet (Con) for starter (1-21 d) and

finisher (22-42) phases in a completely randomized design. Birds were randomly

allotted according to body weight to 3 dietary treatments with 12 replicate per treatment

(50 chicks per replicate). Enzyme supplementation had no significant effect on feed

(30)

intake (FI) at 21 and/or 42 days, even though, enzyme-supplemented birds consumed

more feed than control. Economic analysis showed no monetary benefits from including

the enzymes in poultry diets as there were no significant differences in final BW among

the three diets. Furthermore, birds fed diets weighed heavier than birds fed enzyme-

supplemented diets.

Dhumal et al. (2009) revealed from a study on performance of broilers fed on

different levels of Azolla meal that, replacement of soyabean meal by Azolla meal up to

5% in the diet of broiler birds had no deleterious effect on palatability, and efficiency of

feed utilization at every stage of life in the broiler birds. There were no significant

difference between the control and treated groups with regards to the body weights and

weekly gain. However, the body weights at 6th

week for treatment group were

numerically higher than the control. There was no significance differences in weekly

feed consumption and weekly feed conversion ratio at 6th

week of age.

Soltan (2009) investigated the effects of replacing soybean meal by palm kernel

cake (PKC) in broiler chick’s diets on an ideal protein basis without or with enzyme

supplementation. Five experimental diets were formulated containing 0.0%, 5%, 10%,

15% and 20% PKC and fed without or with enzyme supplementation to broiler chicks

for 6 weeks. PKC inclusion at 5% and 10% of broiler chick diets did not significantly

(P>0.05) affected body weight (BW) and daily weight gain (DBG) when compared with

control. However, higher dietary inclusion levels of PKC (15% and 20%) reduced

(P<0.05) BW. Moreover PKC increase daily feed intake and decrease FCR, PER and

EEU and antibody titer when compared with control.

Azarnik et al. (2010) studied the effect of different levels of diet protein and

feed restriction in broiler chicken. The feed consumption, body weight gain and feed

conversion ration (FCR) were measured weekly. Feed restriction reduced significantly

(p<0.05) body weight gain and feed consumption. Feed restriction had no significant

effect on FCR as well the dietary protein. Feed restriction reduced carcass weight,

breast weight and thigh weight.

(31)

Jafarnejad et al. (2010) conducted an experiment to investigate the effect of

crumbled-pellet and mash diets with different levels of protein and energy on broilers

performance. A total of 2800 male broiler chicks were fed with two forms of diet (mash

and crumble-pellet), two levels of protein (23% and 21% CP), and two levels of energy

(3200 and 3000 Kcal/kg ME) from 1 to 21 days of age. The bodyweight (BW) and Feed

Conversion Ratio (FCR) were affected by the form of diet with the crumble-pellet form

being better (P<0.001). The diet with high protein significantly increased BW and

decreased FCR (P<0.001). The different levels of energy did not affect FCR and BW in

crumble-pellet diet. There were no significant interactions for any of the parameters

tested except for interactions between energy and feed form. BW and FCR were

improved by energy when diets were fed in the mash form (unlike the crumble-pellet

form) at all ages.

Al-Ruqaie et al. (2011) studied the effect of replacing corn by bakery waste

product in broilers on body weight gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio and carcass

characteristics and demonstrated that the replacement of dietary corn for up to 100%

production of a kg live weight with no impairment on performance, nutrient is

concluded that BWP can completely replace corn in broiler diets from day offers

economic benefits for both bakery and poultry producers.

Egbewande et al. (2011) studied the Utilization of African Mistletoe (Tapinanthus

bangwensis) leaf meal by broiler chickens it was observed that Tapinanthus bangwensis

(African Mistletoe) leaf meal was used as a replacement for GNC at 0, 5, 10 and 15%

levels of inclusion in broiler diets. One hundred and twenty day-old (Anak strain)

broiler chicks were used for the study which lasted for six weeks. Feed intake and body

weight gain were determined weekly. The feed/gain and gain/feed ratios were also

determined. At the end of the study five birds per treatment were randomly selected,

starved and bled for blood samples to be used for haematological and serum chemistry.

It was observed that there was no significant difference (p>0.05) in feed intake, but

body weight gain was significantly difference among the groups. Treatment IV showed

the least feed cost/kg feed. No mortality was recorded throughout the feeding trial.

(32)

Mansoub (2011a) studied the effect of fish oil fed in a low-protein diet on

performance, carcass characteristics and blood indices in broiler chicks conducted to

assess the influence of fish oil (FO) in two different levels of protein on growing

broilers and some blood parameters. The birds were fed a common control diets, in the

pre-starter phase (1 to 7 d), and from d 8 on, 480 birds were assigned to 8 dietary groups

and received the diets supplemented with 1, 1.5, 3, or 6% FO with two dietary crude

protein (CP) level (21.5 and 19.5% for grower & finisher phases, respectively) and 10%

diluted CP (19.35 and 17.55 for grower & finisher phases, respectively), throughout a

35-d growth period. Body weight gain (BWG), daily BWG, feed conversion ratio (FCR)

and feed intake were measured. The birds slaughtered after blood sampling. The FCR

were improved in the groups treated with fish oil. Highest final BW, highest daily BW

gain, and best FCR were recorded for the 1.5% FO dietary group. A 10% reduction in

dietary CP level decreased the weight gain and feed intake of chickens. Feed conversion

ratio of chicks fed the crude protein diluted diets was higher (P<0.05) than chicks fed

recommended CP level. In addition, with increasing levels of FO in the broiler diets, the

blood glucose (G) level increased, total protein (TP), albumin (A) and globulin (GL)

concentrations decreased.

Hossain et al (2012) conducted a study on Energy Utilization and Performance

of Broiler Chickens Raised on Diets with Vegetable Proteins or Conventional Feeds The

study was undertaken to investigate the growth performance and energy utilization of

broiler chickens fed on conventional diets, based on soybean or canola, with fishmeal

(SBM50 and Can50, respectively) or on Vegetable Protein (VP) diets without fishmeal

(SBM75 and Can75). Feed intake was highest (p<0.001) on the SBM50 and Can50 diets

and lowest on SBM75 diet. Birds in the SBM50 and Can50 diet groups were heavier

(p<0.001) than the SBM75 and Can75 diet groups. Birds on SBM50 and Can50 diets

achieved superior Feed Conversion Ratio (FCR), while birds on Can75 diet were the

poorest. Mortality of birds was unaffected (p>0.05) between dietary groups. The

Apparent Metabolizable Energy (AME) intake on the SBM50 and Can50 diets was

higher (p<0.001) than in the VP. Fat intake was highest (p<0.001) on Can50 diet group

while protein intake was unaffected by treatment. Heat Production (HP) was identical,

but net energy of production (NEp) was improved (p<0.05) in the birds on SBM50 and

(33)

Can50. Whole body energy as well as fat (p<0.05) and protein contents were also

increased (p<0.01) in the SBM50 and Can50 dietary groups. Birds on SBM50 and

Can50 diet groups retained higher energy as fat (REf) (p<0.05) and as protein (REp)

(p<0.01). The efficiencies of utilization of ME for energy (kRE), protein (kREp) and fat

(kREf) retentions were unaffected. The results demonstrated that birds on the

conventional diets (SBM50; Can 50) utilized energy better and as such grew faster than

the birds on VP (SBM75; Can75) diets

2.3 Carcass Characteristics :

Baruah and Pathak (1978) studied the yield of edible carcass of young pigeons

(Columba libia) of about six weeks of age. The unfasted mean live weight, dressed

weight, eviscerated carcass weight and edible carcass weight were 227, 165.5, 121.24

and 142.08 g. respectively. The yields of dressed, eviscerated and edible carcasses were

81.53, 55.73 and 62.83 percent respectively.

Cherry et al. (1978) studied Genetic-Nutritional relationship in growth and carcass

characteristics of broiler chickens and reported that feeding the low nutrient density

starting diet did not significantly influence dressing percentage, weight or length of the

gastrointestinal tract, or breast angle.

Leeson and Summers (1980) studied the Production and carcass characteristics of

the broiler chicken observed that Food intake and body weights of sexed broiler

chickens offered commercial diets were recorded weekly throughout a 70-day trial.

Observations were made on 4 replicate pens of 15 birds for each sex. Each 7 days 5

birds of each sex, housed in comparable pens, were killed and numerous carcass and

visceral characteristics recorded.

Merkley et al. (1980) evaluated the eviscerated yield and carcass characteristics of

five commercial broiler crosses. In each of four trials, processed in December, March,

June, and September, 33 birds from each cross and each sex were used. Individual live

weights were recorded at 56 days of age, prior to feed withdrawal, and immediately

before processing (plant weight). The fresh eviscerated carcass weight, neck, abdominal

(34)

fat, liver, gizzard and heart weights were evaluated as a percentage of the plant weight.

The relative yield of parts, breast, back, wings, legs, and thighs were determined for

both sexes of each cross. The amount of abdominal fat was the longest significant

source or variation among the commercial yield of broiler crosses.

Monov et al. (1984) conducted a study on chemical and microbiological studies of

the meat of broilers fed mixed feeds with a bacterial protein supplement. The bacterial

protein was shown to have no adverse effect on the physicochemical composition of

poultry meat. The trend was towards the separation in individual layers of more fats in

the carcass with the increase in the percent of biomass of the combined feed mixtures

for poultry. Considering the content of total nitrogen, fats and ashes in the poultry meat

most expedient was the incorporation of 4 percent single-cell protein in the feed

mixtures for broilers.

Owings et al. (1990) studied the influence of dietary supplementation with

Streptococcus faecium M-74 on broiler body weight, feed conversion, carcass

characteristics, and intestinal microbial colonization and found no significant

differences in carcass yield or composition characteristics.

Howlider and Rose (1992) reported that the percentage of breast, thigh and

drumstick muscle in the carcasses of broiler chickens fed on grower mashed diets was

(9.7, 10.3 and 6.8%, respectively) which was lower than that of chickens fed pelleted

diets (13.4, 8.2 and 12.2%, respectively).

Dagnoko et al. (1994) in their study on sensory quality of broiler chickens to

profile separately the meat of female and male chickens to qualify the impact of three

diets on flavor and texture. Broilers fed grain diets, low (GL) and high energy (GH) and

a commercial rapid growing type of diet (CH). Though two-out-of five test showed

significant differences (P<0.05) between the three treatments in dark meat, white meat

and both. Thigh meat from female and male chickens fed with the GH diet showed

higher foreign flavor.

(35)

Aletor et al. (2000) studied on Low-protein amino acid-supplemented diets in

broiler chickens: effects on performance, carcass characteristics, whole-body

composition and efficiencies of nutrient utilization. They have conducted two

concurrent trials to investigate the influence of low-protein amino acid-supplemented

diets on the performance, carcass characteristics, whole-body composition and

efficiencies of nutrient utilization by the male broiler chicken from age 3 to 6 weeks.

The first trial comprised of five isoenergetic (13.0 MJ kg-1

) diets containing 225

(control), 210, 190, 172 or 153 g kg-1

crude protein (CP) supplemented with essential

amino acids (EAAs). In the second trial a composite mixture of non-essential amino

adids (NEAAs) was added to the lower-CP diets (i.e. 210-153 g kg-1

) such that they

became isoproteinous (N x 6.25) with the 225 g kg-1

control. Neither the lowering of

dietary CP nor NEAA supplementation had any significant influence on weight gain or

the relative weights of the various carcass cuts.

Panda et al. (2000) studied on growth, carcass characteristics, immunocompetence

and response to Escherichia coli of broilers fed diets with various levels of probiotic”

conducted the experiment with 320 broiler chicks to evaluate the influence of dietary

supplementation of probiotic on immunocompetence, response to E. coli, growth and

carcass characteristics. Probiotic had no influence on dressing percentage or weight of

internal organs such as liver, heart and gizzard.

Joshi et al. (2001) conducted a study to assess comparative nutrient utilization and

carcass quality in broiler chickens fed diets containing solvent extracted cottonseed

meal (CSM) processed from Bt & parental non-Bt line cottonseeds. For effective

comparison similarly processed meal of national check and commercially produced

cottonseeds were also used in the broiler diets and fed separately. The additional iron

(Fe) was included at the rate of 2 ppm for every 1 ppm of free gossypol. The carcass

characteristics in terms of dressing percentage and giblet yield were similar (P>0.05)

between the Bt, non-Bt, commercially produced, or control soybean meal treatments.

The eviscerated yields emanated from diets containing either Bt, non-Bt or

commercially procured CSM were statistically similar to that of the control.

(36)

Jaturasitha et al. (2002) studied three hundred and twenty birds receiving from

four equal groups were allotted in Completely Randomized Design (CRD). They were

fed from one day and slaughtered at 16 weeks of age. Breast and thigh muscles were

investigated for meat quality. Meat quality in terms of IMF, cholesterol and triglyceride

contents as well as n-3 fatty acid and the ratio of n-6/n-3 of Thai indigenous male strain

was more favorable compared to those all genotypes. Breast and thigh muscle were

higher in shear force value and collagen content but the sensory evaluation was not

significantly different.

Uchegbu et al. (2004) studied the performance, carcass and organ characteristics

of finisher broilers fed graded levels of raw Napoleona imperialis seed meal at 0, 5, 10

and 15% dietary levels. The raw Napoleona imperialis seed meal replaced 0, 8.33, 16.7

and 26.7% of maize in the finisher broiler diets. Data was collected on feed intake,

growth rate, feed conversion ratio, carcass and organ characteristics.

Faria Filho et al. (2005) evaluated the utilization of low-protein diets formulated

based on the ideal protein concept for broiler chickens. Birds reared at high

environmental temperature showed lower nitrogen intake and excretion. The results

showed that the decrease in protein levels from 7 to 21 days of age contributed to lower

nitrogen excretion in broiler chickens, but impaired performance and carcass

characteristics independent of rearing temperature.

Kadim et al. (2005) indicated that Near Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) can be

calibrated to predict the whole broiler carcass chemical composition, including minerals

in a rapid, accurate, and cost effective manner. It neither requires skilled operators nor

generates hazardous waste. These findings may have practical importance to improve

instrumental procedures for quick evaluation of broiler carcass composition.

Kannan et al. (2005) carried out an experiment on effect of feeding antibiotic and

probiotic on the immune status and carcass characteristics of broilers as well recorded

the effect of feeding of antibiotic and probiotic on the immune status against Ranikhet

disease and carcass characteristics.

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Shilpa et al. (2007) found the enhanced dressing percentage in supplemented with

yeast over the control.

Jaturasitha et al. (2008) conducted a comparative study on productive

performance, carcass and meat quality of Thai Native chicken (N) and Abor Acres

broiler (B) using a completely random design. The native chicken were fed ad libitum

with commercial layer diet and the broiler a commercial broiler diet. All chickens were

slaughtered at market size, the slaughtered weights of N and B were around 1.2 and 1.9

kg, respectively. The results showed that body weight at 0-6 weeks, average daily gain

and feed intake at 0-2, 2-4 and 4-6 weeks of N were less than those of B (p<0.01).

Furthermore, feed conversion ratio at 0-2 and 2-4 weeks of N were higher than of B

(p<0.01) but there was no significant difference at 4-6 weeks. The mortality rate of B

was higher than of N (p<0.05) at 0-2 and 2-4 weeks, however, at 4-6 weeks there was

no significant difference. Among carcass characteristics the dressing percentage of N

was less than of B (p<0.05), in contrast, the percentages of retail cuts in terms of thigh

and Pectoralis minor of N were higher compared to B (p<0.05) as well as wing

(p<0.01) and drumstick (p<0.05). The indirect meat quality in terms of pH value and

cooking loss percentage was higher in the case of B (p<0.05). However, thawing loss,

drip loss and nutritive value showed no significant difference between the groups. The

shear value of N in terms of maximum shear force (N), energy (J) and distance (mm)

had higher value compared to B (p<0.01).

Kamran et al. (2008) studied the effect of low-protein diets having constant

energy-to-protein ratio on performance and carcass characteristics of broiler chickens

from one to thirty-five days of age and reported that carcass yield, breast meat yield,

thigh yield, abdominal fat, and relative liver and heart weights were not affected by the

treatments. Feeding broiler chickens low-CP diets with constant ME:CP ratio has

adversely affected the growth performance, but carcass parameters were unaffected

without any increase in abdominal fat content.

Tuleun and Igba (2008) studied on growth and carcass characteristics of broiler

chickens fed water soaked and cooked velvet bean (mucuna utilis) meal for 56 days. All

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the meals were analysed for their proximate composition and included in the test diets at

20% dietary levels. One hundred and eighty, 7-day old Anak ® broiler chicks were

randomly assigned to six dietary treatments in a completely randomized design and

replicated three times. At 20% dietary level, raw M. utilis seed meal significantly

(P<0.05) depressed the performance of the birds in terms of feed intake, growth rate and

feed conversion ratio. Consumption of soaked Mucuna seed meal reduced body weight

gain similarly to the raw Mucuna seed meal diet. Weight of the gizzard, pancreas, liver,

proventriculus as well as the lengths of small and large intestine and the caeca increased

in birds fed raw Mucuna seed diet.

Dhumal et al. (2009) conducted a study on performance of broilers fed on

different levels of Azolla meal. The control A group was fed diet without Azolla and

group B and C were fed diet with SBM replacement with Azolla meal @ 2.5% and 5%,

respectively. There were no significant differences noted between the control and

treated groups with regards to the body weights and weekly gain. However, the body

weights of 6th

week for treatment group were numerically higher than the control. The

carcass yield obtained from different groups were 75.73, 75.89 and 74.95 respectively.

Manwar et al. (2009) studied the effect of feeding processed sorghum on carcass

traits and organ growth in broilers and found the influence of reconstituted sorghum

inclusion and enzyme supplementation on carcass traits and growth of digestive and

immune organs in broilers. The sensory attributes like appearance, flavour, juiciness,

tenderness, texture and overall acceptability score of freshly cooked meat, as judged by

the panelists did not differ (P>0.05) due to inclusion of sorghum. The processed

sorghum alone or supplemented with enzymes can be economically substituted in

broiler diets replacing maize to an extent of 75 and 100% for optimum meat production

in broiler chickens.

Soltan (2009) studied growth performance, immune response and carcass traits of

broiler chicks fed on graded levels of palm kernel cake without or with enzyme

supplementation. Trial was conducted with five hundred one-day-old Hubbard broiler

chicks to investigate the effect of replacing soybean bean meal by palm kernel cake

(39)

(PKC) in broiler chick’s diets on an ideal protein basis. Five experimental diets were

formulated containing 0.0%, 5%, 10%, 15% and 20% PKC and fed without or with

enzyme supplementation to broiler chicks for 6 weeks. PKC inclusion at 5% and 10% of

broiler chick diets non significantly (P>0.05) reduced body weight (BW) and daily

weight gain (DBG) when compared with control while the higher dietary inclusion

levels of PKC (15% and 20%) reduced (P<0.05) BW and DBG. Moreover PKC increase

daily feed intake and deteriorate FCR, PER and EEU and antibody titre when compared

with control. In regards to carcass traits, PKC inclusion had no effect (P>0.05) on

dressing percent and liver relative weight increase (P<0.05) gizzard relative weight and

improved relative weight of immune organs (spleen, bursa and thymus gland) when

compared with control.

2.4 Blood Biochemicals :

Bowes et al. (1989) conducted a study on serum biochemical profiles of male

broilers with female broilers and White Leghorn chickens. Serum biochemical profile

was analysed at 9, 20, 30 and 42 days of age in order to determine which, if any, of the

parameters tested might be useful in the identification of birds acceptable to sudden

death syndrome.

Khitam et al. (2007) studied the biochemical profile of blood in broiler fed

thiamin in their diet where 210 one day old boiler chicks were used. They were divided

in to two groups. The first groups kept on commercial diet as (control); the second

group was given thiamin (vit. B1) in dose 10 mg/bird was added to same commercial

diet. Results revealed a significant (p<0.05) increase in the total cholesterol and total

serum protein due to thiamin addition.

Nworgu et al. (2007) studied the performance and some blood chemistry indices

of broiler chicken served fluted pumpkin (Telfaria occidentalis) leaves extract

supplement conducted a 56-day experiment involving 120 day-old Anak 2000 broiler

chicks was carried out in a completely randomized design to evaluate the performance,

haematological parameters and serum metabolites of the broilers served Fluted Pumpkin

Leaves Extract (PFLE) supplement at four days interval for 8 weeks during the late dry

(40)

season. The birds were allotted to 5 treatments containing 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 ml

PFLE/litre of water. Each treatment was replicated three times. Broiler starters were fed

the same starter diet, while the finishers were equally fed the same finisher diet. The

FPLE was found to be rich in protein (21.31%) and ash (10.97%) most especially Ca, P,

Mg and Fe and relatively low in fibre, tannin and oxalate, hence a good protein and

mineral supplement for broilers during the late dry season.

Rasha et al. (2007) determined the effect of decorticated Hyacinth bean on the

performance of broiler chicks and some blood parameters. The results of the experiment

indicated that dietary treatments had significant (P>0.01) effect on feed intake, weight

gain and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Inclusion of Hyacinth bean in broiler diets

resulted in reduction in feed intake and weight gain. Moreover, the treatments had no

effect on dressing percentage. However, the treatment had significantly decreased effect

on serum phosphorus and bone ash and had no significant effect on total serum protein.

Ijaiya and Eko (2009) conducted a study on effect of replacing dietary fish meal

with silkworm (Anaphe infracta) caterpillar meal on performance, carcass

characteristics and haematological parameters of finishing broiler chicken. A total of

one hundred and fifty four weeks old anak broilers were randomly allotted to five

treatment groups in a completely randomized design with each treatment having thirty

birds.. Analysis of weight of carcass and body cuts as well as blood parameters apart

from blood albumin indicated no significant (P>0.05) differences between the treatment

means.

Mansoub (2011a) conducted a study on effect of fish oil fed a low-protein diet on

performance, carcass characterizes and blood indices in broiler chicks revealed that with

increasing levels of FO in the broiler diets, the blood glucose (G) level increased, total

protein (TP), albumin (A) and globulin (GL) concentrations decreased.

Mansoub (2011b) conducted a trial on performance, carcass quality, blood

parameters and Immune System for broilers fed diet supplemented with oregano oil

(Origanum sp.). Four hundred chickens were divided into four groups showed that using

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oregano oil (Origanum sp.) in chickens diet had not significant effects on blood

biochemical parameters and immune system of broiler chickens (p>0.05).

Polat et al. (2011) in a study entitled Serum Biochemical profile of broiler

chickens fed diets containing Rosemary and Rosemary Volatile Oil explained the

effects of dietary supplementation rosemary aromatic plant, rosemary volatile oil and

α-tocopherol acetate (Vitamin E) on serum variables of broilers fed on maize-soybean

meal based diets. In conclusion, the Rosemarinus officinalis plant and its volatile oil

have increasing effect on serum SOD activity and effect positively oxidation

mechanism. On the other hand, it can be assumed that rosemary plant created

hypocholesterolemic effect in this study.

Kheiri and Nasr (2012) conducting a study on Growth and blood biochemical

effects of dietary supplementation with ractopamine, a β-adrenergic agonist, in female

broiler chickens to investigate the effects of dietary added ractopamine, a β–adrenergic

receptor agonist, as growth promoter on female broiler chickens. A total of 180 female

broiler chickens, 3 week old, were randomly divided in 5 replicates for each dietary

treatment corresponding to 0, 5 and 10 mg/kg of ractopamine added to the basal

growing diet for 3 weeks. Body weight gain, food intake and food efficiency were not

significantly modified with ractopamine addition. By contrast, serum cholesterol,

triglyceride, uric acid, BUN (Blood Urea Nitrogen) and albumin concentrations were

significantly depressed while glycaemia was increased in birds treated with

ractopamine, especially at 10 mg/kg. Those results highly suggested that the β–

adrenergic receptor agonist promotes glucose and lipid mobilization but spares protein

utilization in female broiler chickens.

Obikaonu et al. (2012) studied on “Haematological and serum biochemical

indices of starter broilers fed leaf meal of neem (Azadirachta indica). In the study a 28-

day feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary inclusion of Neem

(Azadirachta indica) leaf meal on the haematological and serum biochemical indices of

starter broilers. Proximate analysis of the Neem leaf meal displayed same characteristics

as leaf meals from other tropical browse plants – high crude fibre (15.56%) and

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moderate crude protein content (18.10%). Haemoglobin (Hb) and packed cell volume

(PCV) of the birds were significantly reduced (P<0.05) but not below the level

considered normal for birds. Blood sugar was significantly raised (P<0.05) by the leaf

meal but cholesterol was significantly (P<0.05) decreased. Alkanine phosphatase

(ALP), alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) decreased with

increase of leaf meal (P<0.05). Serum electrolytes: calcium, sodium, potassium,

chloride and bicarbonate tended to show that Neem leaf meal up to 10% dietary

inclusion level could still maintain the integrity of the kidney in boosting cation/anion

exchange. The haematological and serum biochemical parameters obtained from this

study suggested that dietary Neem leaf meal has no deleterious effects on the internal

physiology of starter broilers.

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