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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter consists of the theoretical description and theoretical
framework of the study. The theoretical description includes the discussion on the
Theories of English for Specific Purposes, English for the Personnel of Small-
scale Craft Industries and Department of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of
Kebumen District, Communicative Language Teaching, the Theories of Teaching
Speaking, and the Process of Instructional Design. The theoretical framework
discusses the stages of developing the English speaking learning materials for the
personnel of small-scale craft industries and the Department of Industry, Trade,
and Cooperatives of Kebumen district.
A. Theoretical Description
1. English for Specific Purposes
The designed materials in this study are based mostly on the theory of
English for Specific Purposes (ESP) by Hutchinson and Waters. It is
because the materials are developed based on the needs of the learners, i.e.
the need to be able to communicate with overseas buyers in international
trade fairs where the learners act as an exhibitor. The theories of ESP
support the development of the materials.
a. The definition of ESP
Richards defines ESP as language courses that focus on the
purposes for which learners need the language. The ESP approach to
language teaching began as responses to a number of practical concerns
(Richards, 2001: 28):1) The need to prepare growing numbers of non-English
background students for study at American and BritishUniversities from the 1950s
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2) The need to prepare materials to teach students who hadalready mastered general English, but now needed English foruse in employment, such as non-English background doctors,nurses, engineers, and scientists
3) The need for materials for people needing English for businesspurposes.
4) The need to teach immigrants the language needed to deal withjob situations
On the other hand, Hutchinson and Waters prefer to show “what ESP is
not” (1987: 18 – 19):1) ESP is not a matter of teaching ‘specialized varieties’ of English.2) ESP is not just a matter of Science words and grammar for
Scientists, Hotel words and grammar for Hotel staff and so on.3) ESP is not different from any other form of language teaching, in
that it should be based in the first instance on principles of effectiveand efficient learning.
They state that ESP has to be seen as an “approach” to language
learning based on learners’ needs rather than as a “product.” It is “an
approach to language teaching in which all decisions, such as content
and method are based on the learners’ reason for learning” (Hutchinson
and Waters, 1987: 19).
Meanwhile, Martin (1992) says that the essence of ESP is that it
is a planned and ecological approach to language teaching / learning
which is sensitive to the learners’ occupational purposes. Teachers can
“build foundations” and teach “foundational” English by considering
the real-life purposes of their learners. Therefore, the grammar, the
pronunciation and the spelling will be the same as those taught in
General English classes; the difference will be on the content and the
vocabulary where it will be attuned to the interests and needs of the
learners.
b. The categorization of ESP
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) categorize ESP based on
learners’ need and on “learners’ specialism.”
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1) ESP Based on Learners’ Needs
There are two types of ESP; they are English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). In
this study, the craftsmen and the officers of the department need
English to communicate with overseas buyers while doing their job
as traders in international craft exhibitions. Therefore, the English
needed is categorized into English for Occupational Purposes.
2) ESP Based on Learners’ Specialism
There are three categories of ESP that is based on learners’
specialism; they are English for Science and Technology (EST),
English for Business and Economics (EBE), and English for Social
and Science (ESS). In this study, the craftsmen and the officers of
the department use English to conduct trading activities. Therefore,
the English used by the craftsmen and the officers of the
department is categorized into English for Business and
Economics.
c. The characteristics of ESP program
The characteristic of ESP program is one of basic processes in
designing materials that is called as ‘needs analysis.’ Needs analysis has
to be established to find out learners’ purposes in learning the language.
It would be more useful to find out the ‘target needs’ (i.e. what the
learner needs to do in the target situation) which will be used to
determine the ‘learning needs’ (i.e. what the learner needs to do in order
to learn) (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 54). Hutchinson and Waters
(1987: 55–58) suggest conducting ‘needs analysis’ by considering
“necessities, lacks, and wants.”
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1) Necessities
It is what the learner has to know in order to function
effectively in the target situation. It is a matter of observing what
situations the learner will need to function in and then analysing the
constituent parts of them.
2) Lacks
It is what the learner knows already in the target situation. It
would be useful to decide which of the necessities that the learner
lacks.
3) Wants
It is what the learner wants to learn.
The table of “necessities, lacks and wants” below describes its relation.
Table 1: Necessities, Lacks and Wants (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 58)
OBJECTIVE (i.e. asperceived by coursedesigners)
SUBJECTIVE (i.e. asperceived by learners)
NECESSITIES The English neededfor success inAgricultural orVeterinary Studies
To reluctantly copewith a ‘second-best’situation
LACKS (Presumably) areas ofEnglish needed forAgricultural orVeterinary Studies
Means of doingMedical Studies
WANTS To succeed inAgricultural orVeterinary Studies
To undertake MedicalStudies
There are a several means that can be used to gather information about
needs. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 58) suggest the use of:
1) Questionnaires
2) Interviews
3) Observation
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4) Data collection, e.g. gathering texts
5) Informal consultation with sponsors, learners and others.
Furthermore, Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 59-60) state that
the analysis of target situation needs can be conducted by asking
questions about the target situation and the attitudes of learners in the
learning process. The analysis framework to collect information about
target situation needs is:
1) Why is the language needed?
This question is used to know learners’ purposes in learning
the language. They may learn it for study, for work, for training, for
a combination of these, and for some other purposes, e.g. status,
examination, or promotion.
2) How will the language be used?
This question is used to know the medium, channel and
types of text or discourse in using the language. The medium
means that the language will be used for speaking, reading, writing,
etc. The channel means that the language will be used through
telephone, face to face or others. The types of text or discourse
mean that the language will be used in the form of academic texts,
lecture, informal conversations, technical manuals, or catalogues.
3) What will the content areas be?
This question is used to know the subjects where the
language will be used and the level of students. The subjects can be
medicine, biology, architecture, shipping, commerce, or
engineering. The level can be as technician, craftsmen,
postgraduate, or secondary school.
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4) Who will the learner use the language with?
This question is used to know whom the learners will
interact with by using the language. It can be native speakers or
non-native speakers. It also will give information of the level of
knowledge of the receivers; it can be experts, laymen, or students.
The relationship between the learners with the receiver will also be
found out whether they are business colleagues, teacher and
student, trader and buyer, or superior and subordinate.
5) Where will the language be used?
This question is used to know the specific place where the
language will be used. It consists of physical setting (e.g. office,
lecture theatre, hotel, workshop, or library), human context (e.g.
alone, meetings, demonstrations, or on telephone), and linguistic
context (e.g. in own country or abroad)
6) When will the language be used?
This question is used to know the information about the
time, for example concurrently with the ESP course or
subsequently and about the frequency of using the language.
The characteristics discussed above are in line with the reasons
of the personnel of small-scale craft industries and Department of
Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen district to learn English,
i.e. to be able to communicate with overseas buyers in English when
conducting craft exhibitions in international trade fairs. Further
information about their learning needs is attained through needs
analysis. Questions about the target situation and the attitudes of
learners in the learning process are asked to find out their necessities,
lacks, and wants.
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d. Designing ESP
Designing ESP can be seen as an activity of thinking about
designing course materials since it is one important part in ESP
program. It involves teaching learning activities. Before starting with
designing materials, here are some principles to be understood
presented by Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 107-208):
1) Good materials provide stimulus to learning and encouragestudents to learn. They should contain interesting texts,enjoyable activities, opportunities for learners to use theirexisting knowledge and skills, and content that is suitable forthe teacher and the learners.
2) Good materials should help the teaching-learning process.They should provide a clear and coherent unit structure whichwill guide teacher and learner through various activities in sucha way as to maximise the chances of learning. The materialsmust be clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow forcreativity and variety.
3) Materials embody a view of the nature of language andlearning. They reflect the writer’s thinking and feeling aboutthe learning process.
4) Materials reflect the nature of the learning task. Languagelearning is a complex process involving different kinds andlevel of knowledge. The materials should create “a balancedoutlook” which reflects the complexity of the task and make itappear manageable.
5) Materials function to broaden the basis of teacher training byintroducing teachers to new techniques.
6) Materials provide correct models of appropriate language use.
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 108-109) then present a model
for writing materials. The model provides “a coherent framework of
integration of various aspects of learning” and, at the same time, allows
“creativity and variety” to develop. The model consists of four
elements. They are:
1) Input
It can be in the form of text, dialogue, video-recording,
diagram or any piece of communication data. It depends on the
needs the writer has defined in the analysis. The input provides:
a) Stimulus materials for activities
b) New language items
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c) Correct models of language use
d) Topic for communication
e) Opportunities for learners to use their information processingskill
f) Opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge ofthe language and the subject matter.
2) Content focus
The content focus means that language is a means of
conveying information and feelings about something. Therefore, it
generates meaningful communication in the classroom.
3) Language focus
It gives the learners the chance to take the language into
pieces, study how it works and practice putting it back together
again.
4) Task
Materials should be designed to lead towards a ‘communicative
task’ in which learners use the content and language knowledge
they have built up through the unit.
The figure A Material Design Model shows the relation between
input, content focus, language focus and task.
Figure 1: A Material Design Model (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987: 109)
CONTENT LANGUAGE
TASK
INPUT
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2. English for the Personnel of Small-scale Craft Industries and
Department of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen
District.
The craftsmen of small-scale craft industries and the officers of
Department of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen district
realize that English language has a significant role in their working field,
especially when they have to make trade transactions with foreign
customers in international trade fairs. According to Hutchinson and Waters
(1987: 16), the type of English needed by the craftsmen and the officers of
the department are English for Occupational Purposes and English for
Business and Economics.
Indeed, Business English is closely related to international trade.
Many non-native English speakers study English with a purpose of doing
business with partners from other countries. In fact, much of the English
communication that occurs in any business transactions around the world
exists between non-native English speakers; they use English as a lingua
franca. In cases like these, the objective of learning English is to be able to
perform effective and efficient communication.
The personnel of small-scale craft industries and Department of
Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen district attend international
trade fairs to establish craft product exhibitions and at the same time
conduct direct selling. As a result, they get a lot of chances to make trade
transactions with foreign customers. Joining trade fairs is actually a
strategy of marketing applied by Department of Industry, Trade, and
Cooperatives of Kebumen district to promote the leading products of crafts
from the district. Marketing is one of the major components in business
where it serves as the means to create customers.
Marketing is defined by the American Marketing Association
Board of Directors (2007) as “the activity, set of institutions, and processes
for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings that
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have value for customers, clients, partners, and society at large.”
Furthermore, Berman and Evans (1990) mention the decisions involved in
marketing as choosing who the customers are, what goods and services to
offer, where to sell the goods and services, what features to emphasize in
advertising, and what prize to charge. Here, the craftsmen and the officers
of the department have craft products as the ‘exchanging offerings that
have value for customers’ and they decide international trade fairs as the
market place where its visitors are targeted as their customers.
Berman and Evans (1990: 449 – 457) identify types of promotion as:
a. Personal Selling and Sales Promotion
1) Personal selling is a type of promotion that involves oral
communication with one or more prospective buyers by
representatives for the purpose of making sales.
2) Sales promotion is a paid marketing communication activity that
stimulates consumer purchases and dealer effectiveness such as
trade show, giveaways, demonstrations and various other limited-
time selling efforts which are not in the ordinary promotion routine.
Mostly, sales promotion involves personal selling in its process.
b. Advertising
Advertising is paid, non personal communication regarding
goods, services, organizations, people, places and ideas that are
transmitted through various media by business firms, non-profit
organizations, and individuals who are, in some way, identified in the
advertising message as the sponsor.
c. Publicity
Publicity is non-personal communication regarding goods,
services, organizations, people, places and ideas that are transmitted
through various media but not paid for by an identified sponsor.
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The type of promotion implemented by the craftsmen and the
officers of the department by conducting craft exhibitions in trade fairs is
included in personal selling and sales promotion. Furthermore, Berman
and Evans (1990) suggest that personal selling provides individual
attention to each customer especially by passes along a lot of information
to them. There is a dynamic interaction between a buyer and a seller in
personal selling that consists of three stages:
a. Salesperson determines consumer needs
b. Salesperson presents information and answer consumer questions
c. Salesperson and consumer conclude transaction
While conducting personal selling, the tasks performed by
salesperson need to be outlined. Berman and Evans (1990: 526) say that
the selling process involves:
a. Prospecting for customer leads
It is a procedure of generating a list of potential customers or
customer leads. Salespeople have to be aware of who might be
potential of being their customers.
b. Approaching customers
Here, salesperson may begin a conversation with customers and
tries to obtain information about the customers’ characteristics.
c. Determining customer wants
Salesperson ascertains customer wants by asking them a variety
of questions regarding price, product features, intended use, and other
kinds of information needed.
d. Giving a sales presentation
This activity includes a verbal description of a product, its
benefits, available options and models, price, associated services such
as delivery and warranty, and a demonstration (if needed).
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e. Answering questions
In this phase, salesperson is usually answering further questions
from customers for information / objection that must be settled before
a sale is made
f. Closing the sale
Closing the sale is the major goal of personal selling where it gets
the customers to agree to make a purchase.
g. Following up
Finally, salespeople should make a follow up after the sale to
ensure that the customer is satisfied. Salesperson must ensure that the
customer gains short-run satisfaction, and in the long run, repurchases
are more likely.
The English speaking learning materials for the craftsmen and the
officers of the department are developed based on the situation and on
what they have to perform in the target place. The stages of selling process
mentioned above provides a mental picture of type of communication that
might occurred in the process of trade transactions in international trade
fairs. They are considered when developing the speaking learning
materials.
The ESP designed for the craftsmen and the officers of the
department is aimed at improving the learners’ communicative
competence since they need English to communicate with foreign
customers. The English speaking learning materials are also developed
based on the result of ‘need analysis.’ The learners are asked to practice
their speaking competency in tasks designed like a real-life situation.
Therefore, the exercises are focused on the communicative tasks, such as
role play, games, short dialogues, etc.
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3. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
a. The Definition of CLT
Nunan (1999) defines CLT from the point of view that language
can be analyzed, described and taught as a system for expressing
meanings, therefore the aim of language teaching is to help learners
develop skills for expressing different communicative meanings. In
line with Nunan, Richards (2001) states that CLT is a broad approach
to teaching that resulted from a focus on communication as the
organizing principle for teaching rather than a focus on mastery of the
grammatical system of the language. Meanwhile, Brown (2001)
presents six characteristics as a definition of CLT, they are:
1) Classroom goal are focused on all of the components (grammatical,discourse, functional, sociolinguistic, and strategic) of communicativecompetence.
2) Language techniques are designed to engage learners in the pragmatic,authentic, functional use of language for meaningful purposes.
3) Fluency and accuracy are seen as complementary principles underlyingcommunicative techniques.
4) Learners have to use the target language both productively andreceptively.
5) Learners are given opportunities to focus on their own learning processby understanding their own styles of learning and by developingappropriate strategies for autonomous learning.
6) Teacher roles as facilitator and guide, not an all-knowing bestower ofknowledge.
Related to the definition of CLT above, the goal of the course in
this study is to make learners to be able to speak English
communicatively with their foreign customers.
b. Communicative Competence
Based on the definitions of CLT above, it seems clearly that
communicative competence is the prior target in this language
teaching. Savignon (1970: 9) as quoted by Nunan (1999: 226) states
that communicative competence is “the ability to function in a truly
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communicative setting – i.e. in a dynamic exchange in which
linguistic competence must adjust itself to the total informational
input, both linguistic and paralinguistic, of one or more interlocutors.”
While Hymes (1972), in Brown (2000: 246), refers to communicative
competence as “that aspect of our competence that enables us to
convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings
interpersonally within specific contexts.”
Further, Savignon (1997: 14 - 15) presents five characteristics of
communicative competence:
a. Communicative competence is a ‘dynamic’ rather than a staticconcept. It means that communicative competence depends onthe understanding between people who are communicating,whether they can or cannot understand each other.
b. Communicative competence occurs in written and spokenlanguage.
c. Communicative competence is ‘context specific.’Communication takes place in different context and the successof it depends on the speaker’s understanding of the context.
d. Competence and performance are different. Competence is theknowledge of language, i.e. what one knows about thelanguage. Meanwhile, performance is the manifestation of theknowledge, i.e. what one does with the language.
e. Communicative competence is relative and depends on thecooperation of all the participants.
Savignon then elaborates some competencies, which were
introduced by Canale and Swain, interrelated in CLT.
a. Grammatical competence
It is the ability to use the correct and accurate speech,
including vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, and spelling.
b. Sociolinguistic competence
It is the ability to use the target language in varied social
settings. The social settings include the role relationship, the
shared information of the participants, and the communicative
purposes.
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c. Discourse competence
It is the ability to combine and connect phrases and sentences
into a form of a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances.
d. Strategic competence
It is the ability to find way to convey meaning or send their
message, though they have imperfect knowledge of rules of the
language and face factors that give disadvantage in sending their
message, such as fatigue, distraction, or inattention.
In this study, in line with the principles of CLT, the learners are
hoped to be able to have communicative competencies. They are also
hoped to be able to use it in appropriate social context in appropriate
structural pattern.
c. The Communicative Task
CLT contains a set of communicative task. Nunan (2004)
defines communicative task as a piece of classroom work that
involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing, or
interacting in the target language while their attention is focused on
meaning rather than grammatical form. The task should also have a
sense of completeness, being able to stand alone as a communicative
act in its own right. The grammatical knowledge is important in the
sense of that it exists to enable the learners to express different
communicative meanings.
First, learners need to understand the structural pattern of
English as the target language, then to be able to perform English in a
communicative way using the appropriate structural pattern. The
course objective is to make the learners to be able to use English
communicatively, not to comprehend the structural pattern of English.
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Nunan then defines the elements that make up a task; they are
task goals, input, and learner procedures which are supported by
teacher, learner roles and the setting in which tasks are undertaken.
They are set out in the figure below:
Goals Teacher role
Input TASK Learner role
Procedures Settings
Figure 2: A Model of Task Components (Nunan, 2004: 41)
Furthermore, Nunan (2004: 19 – 25) presents the framework for
a communicative task as follows. First, we need to transform real-
world / target tasks into pedagogical tasks to create learning
opportunities in the classroom. Real-world / target tasks refer to
things we do with language in our everyday life – Halliday in Nunan
(2004) divides the tasks into three macrofunctions of language, i.e. to
exchange goods and services, to socialize with others, and for
enjoyment. Meanwhile, pedagogical tasks refer to those that occur in
the classroom. The pedagogical tasks are then placed on a continuum
from rehearsal tasks to activation tasks.
Rehearsal tasks are designed to provide learners with an
opportunity to rehearse the uses of the language beyond the
classroom. Therefore, it has a clear relationship to the real world.
Activation tasks are designed to encouraged students to activate a
range of language functions and structures and the learners’ emerging
language skills. The fact that pedagogical tasks involve
communicative language use urges the need of knowledge of
grammatical rules because it enables the language user to express
communicative meanings. Thus, the pedagogical tasks must be
supported with form-focused work presented in the form of enabling
skills. They are designed to develop skills and knowledge that will
ultimately facilitate the process of authentic communication. There are
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two kinds of enabling skills: language exercises and communicative
activities.
Language exercises have many shapes and forms and can focus
on lexical, phonological or grammatical systems. While
communicative activities provide manipulative practice of a restricted
set of language items. How these elements can be combined to form
units of work is shown in the figure below.
Real-world / target tasks
Pedagogical tasks Enabling skills
Rehearsal Activation Language Communicative
tasks tasks exercises activities
Figure 3: A framework for Task Based Language Teaching(Nunan, 2004: 25)
In this study, the speaking learning materials for the personnel of
small-scale craft industries and Department of Industry, Trade, and
Cooperatives of Kebumen district contain communicative tasks and
they are taught in communicative ways. The communicative tasks
support the course objectives, i.e. to make learners communicatively
competent in using English with overseas customers. Hopefully, by
using this approach, the learners can enjoy to learn and practice their
speaking skill.
4. Theories of Teaching Speaking
a. The Definition of “Teaching Speaking”
Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through
the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts"
(Chaney: 1998 in Kayi, 2006: 1). The goal of teaching speaking is to
improve students' communicative skills, so that students can express
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themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules
appropriately in every communicative circumstance. Nunan (2003), as
quoted by Kayi (2006), defines ‘teaching speaking’ as to make learners
to be able to:
1) produce the English sounds and sound patterns2) use words and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the
rhythm of the second language3) select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper
social setting, audience, situation and subject matter4) organize the learners’ thoughts in a meaningful and logical
sequence5) use language as a means of expressing values and judgements6) use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural
pauses, which is called as fluency
b. Principles of Teaching Speaking
There are some principles that need to be understood before
teaching speaking. The National Capital Language Resource Centre
(2004) explains the principles as follows:
1) Provide appropriate input
Input is the language to which students are exposed: teacher
talk, listening activities, reading passages, and the language heard
and read outside of class. Input gives learners the material they need
to develop their ability to use the language on their own.
2) Use language in authentic ways
Learners need as much as possible to hear and read the language
as native speakers use it. Teacher can make this happen through
‘teacher talk’ and ‘materials.’ Provide teacher talk that uses the
language as naturally as possible and give the learners authentic
reading materials from newspapers, magazines and other print
sources.
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3) Provide context
Context includes knowledge of the topic or content, the
vocabulary and language structures in which the content is usually
presented, and the social and cultural expectations associated with
the content. To help students have an authentic experience of
understanding and using language, prepare them by raising their
awareness of the context in which it occurs.
4) Design activities with a purpose
Communication has a purpose, i.e. to convey information.
Activities in the language classroom simulate communication
outside the classroom when they are structured with such a purpose.
In the classroom activities, learners use the language to fill an
information gap by getting answers or expanding a partial
understanding.
5) Use task-based activities
The use of task-based activities in the classroom is an excellent
way to encourage students to use the language. Tasks may involve
solving problems, developing plans, and working together to
complete projects.
6) Encourage collaboration
Ask students to work in pairs or small groups. Give students
structure in the form of a defined task and outcome. This structure
will allow students to collaborate as they develop a work plan,
discuss the substance of the task, and report the outcome. They will
thus use language in a variety of ways and learn from each other.
7) Use an integrated approach
Integration has two forms. The first is ‘mode integration,’ it is
the combination of speaking, listening, reading, and writing in
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classroom activities. The second is ‘content integration’ where
learners are given chance to use their existing knowledge in
classroom activities.
8) Address grammar consciously
Learners usually need direct instruction in points of grammar
that are related to classroom activities. These students often have
knowledge of the rules associated with standard use of their native
language (metalinguistic knowledge) and can benefit from
development of similar knowledge in the target language and
discussion of similarities and differences.
9) Adjust feedback / error correction to the situation
In the parts of a lesson that focus on form, direct and immediate
feedback is needed and expected. Encourage students to self-correct
by waiting after they have spoken or by asking them to try again.
10) Include awareness of cultural aspects of language use
Languages are used to express ideas and transmit cultural
values. When discussing language use with learners, it is important
to include information on the social, cultural, and historical context
that certain language forms carry for native speakers.
In addition, Kayi (2006) provides some considerations below for
English language teacher while teaching oral language:
1) Provide opportunity for students to speak the target language by
giving tasks that contains collaborative work, authentic materials and
tasks, and shared knowledge.
2) Involve each student in every speaking activity by using different
ways of student participation.
3) Reduce teacher talk when student practicing their speaking and
observe their performance.
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4) Indicate positive signs when commenting on a student's performance
and provide written feedback.
5) Ask eliciting questions to prompt students to speak more.
6) Do not correct students' pronunciation mistakes very often while
they are speaking. Correction should not distract student from his or
her speech.
7) Circulate around classroom to ensure that students are on the right
track and see whether they need teacher’s help while they work in
groups or pairs.
8) Provide the vocabulary beforehand that students need in speaking
activities.
9) Diagnose problems faced by students who have difficulty in
expressing themselves in the target language and provide more
opportunities to practice the spoken language.
c. Classroom Techniques and Tasks
Kayi (2006) then presents some techniques and tasks that can be
used to teach speaking, they are:
1) Discussion
It is an activity where learners are aimed to arrive at a
conclusion, shared ideas about an event or find solutions in their
discussions groups. Learners then present their opinions to the class.
This activity fosters critical thinking and quick decision making, and
learners learn how to express and justify themselves in polite ways
while disagreeing with the others
2) Information gap
It is an activity where someone has information which the others
do not have. Then, he shares the information using the target
language.
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3) Jigsaw activity
It is bidirectional or multidirectional information gap where each
person in a pair or group has some information the other persons
need. Then, they share the information using the target language.
4) Role play
Learners are given certain roles in various social contexts and
practice to share information they have to each other. They have to
practice speaking using English.
5) Simulation
In a simulation, teacher provides props and documents to set
realistic environment for language practice, e.g. practicing doctor-
patient check up.
6) Interviews
It is an activity where learners should conduct interviews on a
selected topic. The interviews can be done in pairs or with people
outside the classroom. Teacher provides a rubric to students so that
they know what type of questions they can ask or what path to
follow, but students should prepare their own interview questions.
Later, learners present the result to the class.
The principles of teaching speaking above are considered while
developing the English speaking learning materials so they can be
applied in the classroom. The materials also use the classroom
techniques and tasks presented above to make the teaching learning
activity more effective and enjoyable.
5. The Process of Instructional Design
“Instructional process is a systematic process in which every
component (i.e. teacher, learners, materials, and learning environment) is
crucial to successful learning” (Dick, Carey & Carey, 2001: 2). This study
is to develop a set of teaching-learning materials; therefore it should be
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developed neatly and carefully by following systematic procedures in
order to make it successful; i.e. it reach its objectives. Below are models of
instructional design that provide stages in developing an instructional
program / material:
a. Hutchinson and Waters’ Design Model
According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 65), course design
is the process of interpreting data about learning need in order to
produce an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences. There
are three main approaches to course design according to Hutchinson
and Waters (1987), they are:
1) Language-centred approach
Language-centred course design process aims to draw direct
connection between the analysis of the target situation and the
content of the ESP course.
2) Skills-centred approach
Skills-centred course design process aims to help the learners
develop certain skills and strategies. Therefore, its learning
objectives are to develop learners’ competencies so that they are
able to perform in the target situation.
3) Learning-centred approach
Learning-centred course design process concerns with the
process of learning of the learners. It aims to help learners
understand how they can acquire their competencies.
In this study, the skills-centred course design is the most suitable
approach since the study aims to develop English speaking skill of the
personnel of small-scale craft industries and Department of Industry,
Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen district.
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Further, Hutchinson and Waters present the process of designing
learning materials as follows:
1) Conducting needs analysis
2) Writing syllabus
3) Developing the materials
4) Developing teaching methodology
5) Trying out the materials
6) Evaluating the materials
7) Revising the materials
b. Kemp’s Design Model
Kemp (1977) states that instructional design plan is meant to
answer three important questions. They are:
1) What must be learned? (objectives)
2) What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired
learning levels? (activities and resources)
3) How will we know when the required learning has taken place?
(evaluation)
Then, Kemp adds that the process of designing instructional
program involves eight parts. Instructional design can attain its
learning objectives effectively and efficiently by considering those
parts. They are:
1) Consider goals, list topic, and state the general purposes for
teaching each topic.
2) Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners.
3) Specify the learning objectives.
4) List the subject content that support each objectives.
5) Develop pre-assessment to determine the learners’ background
and present level of knowledge about the topic.
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6) Select teaching/learning activities and instructional resources.
7) Coordinate support services to conduct the instructional plan. The
support services can be budget, personnel, facilities, equipment,
and schedules.
8) Evaluate learners’ learning based on their accomplishment of
objectives, revise and re-evaluate any phases of the plan that need
to be improved.
The relationship of the elements is interdependent, means that
the process between them is flexible and each part influences the
continuity of others. The diagram that follows illustrates the
relationship of each step in the plan to the other steps.
Figure 4: Kemp’s Instructional Design Plan (Kemp, 1977: 9)
LearningObjectives
LearnerCharacter-
istics
Goals,Topics, and
GeneralPurposes
SubjectContent
Pre-Assessment
Teaching/Learning
Activities,Resources
SupportServices
Evaluation
Revise
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The English speaking learning materials for the personnel of
small-scale craft industries and Department of Industry, Trade, and
Cooperatives of Kebumen district are developed by adapting and
modifying the process of instructional design presented above. The
three main questions suggested by Kemp in designing instructional
materials are considered in this study; the phases involved in
developing the learning materials are used as a means to answer those
questions.
B. Theoretical Framework
The development of English speaking learning materials in this study
consists of seven stages which are closely related to each other. The figure of
the theoretical framework below illustrates the process of developing the
English speaking learning materials for the personnel of small-scale craft
industries and Department of Industry, Trade, and Cooperatives of Kebumen
district.
Figure 5: The Framework of the Materials Design Process
Conducting needs assessment
Identifying instructional goals, topics, and general purposes
Writing the syllabus
Developing the materials
Evaluating the developed materials
Revising the developed materials
Trying out the materials