chapter ii literature review a. definition of translation · brambang asem, tumpang, sego liwet,...
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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Definition of Translation
Generally, the definition of translation is a process of transferring
messages from source language into target language. Many experts define the
definition of translation in different ideas. In the definition proposed by Newmark
(1988:5), he points out that translation is a process of rendering the meaning of a
text into another language in the way that the author intended the text. Newmark‟s
statement indicates that he focused on how the translator transferring messages
from one language into another language intended the text, and he inferred that
meaning is an important thing in terms of transferring messages. Another
definition stated by Nida & Taber (1974:12) that translating consists in
reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source
language message, firstly in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style.
Looking at their definition of translation, Nida & Taber assume that meaning is
more important than style when transferring the message of source language.
In addition, Brislin (1976:1) also states that translation is a general term
referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language to another,
whether the language is in written or oral form, whether of the languages have
established orthographies or not; or whether one or both languages is based on
signs as with signs of the deaf. From the definition, it can be seen out on how the
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translation conveyed from one language to another language. While Venuti
(1991:1) contends that translation as the attempt to produce a text so transparent
that it does not seem to be translated. In the definition by Venuti, translators must
be able to make their translation sounds natural in the target language; in this case
the target readers do not feel confused with the language used by the translators.
Another expert, Catford (1965:20) defines the message as a textual
material. He states that translation is about replacement of textual material in
source language by equivalent of the textual material in the target language.
Catford points out that replacement of textual material means transferring
messages from one language to another language. Meanwhile, according to Bell
(1991:6), translation is the replacement of representation of a text in one language
by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language. Bell states that
replacement of a text means the result of source text message which is transferred
into target text.
Based on the definitions of translation by some experts above, it can be
concluded that translation is related to the three main elements, they are meaning
or message, source language (SL), and also target language (TL). Based on those
three main elements, there are source text, target text, translator, and target readers
which are connected each other. In this case, the translator holds the most
important role in the process of translating. The result of translation which is
produced by translator will be affected target readers‟ interest in reading.
Professional translators who fulfilled right techniques in translating the source text
into target text will be deliver good quality of translation result. Good quality of
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the result in translation means the target text is accurate, acceptable, and readable
for the target readers. This condition makes the target readers easily to catch the
message of source text which is transferred perfectly in the target text.
B. Problems in Translation
Translating is a process of delivering messages from source language to
the target language. Translators often face problems in the process of translation.
The problems in the process of translation can be solved by the translators by
choosing the right techniques. In this research analysis, the translators used
appropriate techniques to solve the problems in translation. Moreover, Nababan
(2003: 55) points out that there are four difficulties that might be faced by
translators in the process of translating texts. Those difficulties such as: (1)
differences of system between source language (SL) and target language (TL), (2)
complexity of semantics and stylistic, (3) competence level of the translators, and
(4) quality level of source text (ST).
1. Differences of system between SL and TL
Language is the most important thing for people to communicate
each other. Every language has its own system between one language
and another language. In this case, those differences of SL and TL
system become one of the difficulties for the translators in the process
of translating texts. Each language has different system in terms of
grammatical, semantic, and lexical. For example, the different
grammatical system can be found in the English language and
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Indonesian language. English language has linking verb to construct
the sentences, while Indonesian language does not have linking verb.
Linking verb is one of a part in grammatical system.
2. Complexity of semantics and stylistic
Every language has its own cultural terms. Sometimes, it becomes
a problem for the translators in translating texts because some cultural
terms in SL do not have equivalent meaning in TL. For example, in
culinary field, Indonesia has cultural terms such as cabuk rambak,
brambang asem, tumpang, sego liwet, gethuk lindri, and wedang
ronde. Those words do not have equivalent word in English dictionary.
Considering this phenomenon, the translators keep the original terms
and give explanations about those terms to solve the problem.
3. Competence level of the translators
In the process of translating texts from SL to TL, one of the most
important things for the translators is the level of competence. The
translators must have good competence and knowledge background to
solve the difficulties that might be face in translating the texts. Lack
competence of the translators will be affecting the result of translation.
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4. Quality level of ST
The quality level of the source language text also brings the
difficulties to the translators. The problems such as grammatical errors,
incorrect spelling, and ambiguous words create the difficulties to
translate. In this case, the translators should have abilities to solve the
problems in order to produce good quality of the translation.
C. Translation Techniques
In the process of translating texts, the translators often face problems
related to the cultural differences and untranslatability on grammar that exists in
the source language (SL) and target language (TL). Translators should apply
appropriate techniques in the process of translating to overcome the problems.
That situation aims to get the result of translation which is understood by the
target readers. There are some theories about translation techniques. Molina &
Albir (2002: 509) state that translation technique is the way micro-units of the text
are translated. They also state that translation techniques are affecting the quality
of translation and can be used to find solutions for different types of translation.
There are five basic characteristics of translation techniques proposed by
Molina & Albir, such as:
a. Affect the result of translation
b. Compare the result of translation with the original (between source text
and target text)
c. Affect micro-units of text (morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence)
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d. By nature discursive and contextual
e. Functional
In this research, I applied the theory of translation techniques proposed by
Molina & Albir (2002: 509-511) and Newmark (1988: 81-91). Molina & Albir
define that translation technique is a procedure to analyze and classify how
translation equivalents can be applied to various units of language. There are a lot
of data translated by using Molina & Albir‟s theory. Besides, some of data applied
the translation technique theory by Newmark. In this case, the data of this research
are more specific to analyze by using the theory proposed by Molina & Albir.
Molina & Albir (2002: 509-511) propose 18 techniques used to analyze
the translation, as follows:
1. Adaptation
This technique aims to replace an ST cultural element with one
from the target culture (Molina & Albir, 2002: 509). It occurs when
something specific to one language culture is expressed in a totally
different way that is familiar or appropriate to another language
culture. Adaptation replaces the cultural element by substituting
unfamiliar term in the source text into familiar term in the target text.
The terms used by translators must have the same concept, so it does
not change the meaning in the source text. For example:
Table 2.1. Example of Adaptation Technique
Source Language Target Language
Alex will join the Archery
competition this morning
Pagi ini Alex akan mengikuti
kompetisi panahan
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Archery is the art, practice, or skill of shooting with bow and
arrow. It is one of the kinds of sport. The translator replaces the word
„archery‟ in ST into panahan in the TT because the target readers are
familiar with panahan rather than „archery‟. Therefore, the technique
used by the translator to translate the example above is called as
adaptation technique.
2. Amplification
Amplification aims to introduce details that are not formulated in
the ST: information, explicative paraphrasing (Molina & Albir, 2002:
510). This technique includes explanative and additional technique. It
provides details explanation of implicit information found in the
source text. For example:
Table 2.2. Example of Amplification Technique
Source Language Target Language
Ramadhan Bulan puasa bagi kaum muslim
The translator gives the detail information about Ramadhan in the
TT, which is bulan puasa bagi kaum muslim. The target readers will be
understood what the meaning of ramadhan by read the translation in
the TT.
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3. Borrowing
Borrowing technique aims to take a word or expression straight
from another language. It can be pure (without any change) or it can be
naturalized (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). This technique is divided into
two types; they are pure borrowing and naturalized borrowing.
3.1. Pure Borrowing
Pure Borrowing corresponds to SCFA‟s borrowing (Molina
& Albir, 2002: 510). This technique is completely takes the terms
or words directly from the source language without any changes
in target language. For example:
Table 2.3. Example of Pure Borrowing Technique
Source Language Target Language
I can tell from minutes logged
by her username
Aku bisa tahu dari waktu log
masuk username-nya
The translator uses pure borrowing technique to translate
„username‟. According to the Merriam Webster Dictionaries, username
means a sequence of characters that identifies a user when logging
onto a computer or Website. The word „username‟ in the source text
has same meaning with the word „username‟ in the target text. In this
case, the meaning or message from the source text is conveyed
correctly in the target text.
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3.2. Naturalized Borrowing
Naturalized Borrowing corresponds to Newmark‟s
naturalization technique. (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). This
technique is directly takes the terms or words from source
language by naturalizing the spelling rules in the target language.
For example:
Table 2.4. Example of Naturalized Borrowing Technique
Source Language Target Language
The calendar on the wall
shows that today is Tuesday,
January 17, 2016
Kalender itu menunjukkan
bahwa hari ini adalah hari
Selasa tanggal 17 Januari 2016
In the example above, the translator uses naturalized borrowing
technique to translate „calendar‟ into „kalender‟. The translator
changed the spelling of the word „calendar‟ into Indonesian spelling
which is more simple and understandable to the target readers.
Definition of „calendar‟ stated by Oxford Dictionaries is a chart or
series of pages showing the days, weeks, and moths of a particular
year, or giving particular seasonal information. Therefore, it
naturalized become kalender in Indonesian language.
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4. Calque
Calque technique is literal translation of a foreign word or phrase;
it can be lexical or structural (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). For
example:
Table 2.5. Example of Calque Technique
Source Language Target Language
And now life has become the
future
Dan kini hidup telah menjadi
masa depan
The translator does not change the structure of the sentence above.
Therefore, calque technique used by the translator to translate a
sentence „life has become the future‟ in the source language into
„hidup telah menjadi masa depan‟ in target language.
5. Compensation
This technique aims to introduce an ST element of information on
stylistic effect in another place in the TT because it cannot be reflected
in the same place as in the ST (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).
Compensation is often used by the translators in translating literary
works. This technique can be used in untranslated words or sentence,
and the meaning that is lost is expressed somewhere else in the
translated text. For example:
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Table 2.6. Example of Compensation Technique
Source Language Target Language
A pair of jeans Celana jins
The example above shows that „a pair of jeans‟ cannot be reflected
in the same place as in the ST because it will be sounds unnatural in
the TT. „A pair of jeans‟ cannot translate into „sepasang celana jins‟, so
the translator only translate „celana jins‟ in the TT.
6. Description
Description technique aims to replace a term or expression with a
description of its form or/and function (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).
This technique used to change the terms in the source text which is not
familiar to the target readers with its forms of functions. For example:
Table 2.7. Example of Description Technique
Source Language Target Language
Those American-concept cafes
sell lava cake
Kafe-kafe berkonsep Amerika
tersebut menjual kue coklat yang
mengandung saus cokelat panas
yang mengalir keluar dari tengah
In the example above, the translator translates „lava cake‟ in SL
into „kue coklat yang mengandung saus cokelat panas yang mengalir
keluar dari tengah’ to make the target readers understand about what
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the meaning of lava cake. In this case, the translator replaces the term
„lava cake‟ into its description in TL.
7. Discursive Creation
This technique aims to establish temporary equivalence that is
totally unpredictable out of context (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).
Discursive Creation usually used in translating books or movie title.
For example:
Table 2.8. Example of Discursive Creation Technique
Source Language Target Language
The Grapes of Wrath Amarah
The translator uses this technique to attract the target readers‟
interest to read that book. It usually used by the translator to translate
books‟ title or movie title. In the example above, the translator
translates the title of a book „The Grapes of Wrath‟ from the source
language into „Amarah‟ in the target language.
8. Established Equivalent
Established Equivalent technique aims to use a term or expression
recognized (by dictionaries or language in use) as an equivalent in the
TL. This corresponds to SCFA‟s equivalence and literal translation
(Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). This technique is used by applying
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establish expressions, enclosed in dictionaries and known by the target
readers. For example:
Table 2.9. Example of Established Equivalent Technique
Source Language Target Language
Awkwardly Canggung
In the example above, the word „awkwardly‟ in the source text is
translated into „canggung‟ in the target text. The target readers exactly
know the word „canggung‟. Therefore, the translator used that word to
translate „awkwardly‟. Canggung is familiar in Indonesian language
and it also enclosed in dictionaries, so the target readers understand
what the meaning of canggung is.
9. Generalization
This technique aims to use a more general or neutral term. It is in
opposition to particularization (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).
Generalization technique is used because the TT does not have a
specific equivalence like ST. For example:
Table 2.10. Example of Generalization Technique
Source Language Target Language
She opened up the purse Dia membuka tas
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The translator uses generalization technique to translate „purse‟
into „tas‟. Purse is a small pouch of leather or plastic used for carrying
money, typically by a woman.
(http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/purse). The
translator generalized the word „purse‟ because the target readers more
familiar and more understand with tas.
10. Linguistic Amplification
Linguistic amplification aims to add linguistic elements. This is
often used in consecutive interpreting and dubbing. It is in opposition
to linguistic compression (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). For example:
Table 2.11. Example of Linguistic Amplification Technique
Source Language Target Language
Keep it in drive Biarkan mobilnya tetap siap
melaju
The translator translates the sentence „keep it in drive‟ in ST into
„biarkan mobilnya tetap siap melaju‟ in the TT. In this case, the
translator adds the linguistic elements in the TT.
11. Linguistic Compression
This technique aims to synthesize linguistic elements in the TT.
This often used in simultaneous interpreting and in subtitling. It is in
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opposition to linguistic amplification (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). For
example:
Table 2.12. Example of Linguistic Compression Technique
Source Language Target Language
You don‟t have to Tidak perlu
From the example above, there are synthesizing linguistic elements
in the target language. The translation in the target text is shorter, but
still delivers the message. The target readers still understand what the
message which is transferred even though the translation is shorter.
12. Literal Translation
Literal translation aims to translate a word or an expression word
for word. (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510). For example:
Table 2.13. Example of Literal Translation Technique
Source Language Target Language
I wrote on the corner of my
notebook
Aku menulis di sudut bukuku
The translator used this technique to translate word-by-word. The
translator usually does not relate the translation to the context. The
sentence „I wrote on the corner of my notebook‟ is literary translated
into the target text by the translator.
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13. Modulation
This technique aims to change the point of view, focus or cognitive
category in relation to the ST; it can be lexical or structural (Molina &
Albir, 2002: 510). For example:
Table 2.14. Example of Modulation Technique
Source Language Target Language
He doesn‟t know nothing Dia mengetahui segalanya
The translator used this technique to change the point of view from
active into passive. In this case, the sentence „He doesn‟t know
nothing‟ in the ST is structurally changes into „Dia mengetahui
segalanya‟ in the TT.
14. Particularization
This technique aims to use a more precise or concrete term. It is in
opposition to generalization (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510).
Particularization changes super ordinate terms in the source text into
subordinate terms in the target text. For example:
Table 2.15. Example of Particularization Technique
Source Language Target Language
Junk food is a kind of unhealthy
food.
Burger, hotdog, pizza, French
fries, dan sandwich adalah jenis
makanan yang tidak menyehatkan.
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The translator translates the word „junk food‟ in the ST into
„burger, hotdog, pizza, French fries, dan sandwich‟ in the TT which is
more precise in the TL.
15. Reduction
Reduction technique aims to suppress an ST information item in
the TT. It is in opposition to amplification (Molina & Albir, 2002: 510-
511). This technique is erasing words by considering familiar
information in the target language. For example:
Table 2.16. Example of Reduction Technique
Source Language Target Language
Barrack Obama, the president of
United States of America
Barrack Obama
From the example above, it shows that the translator make the
sentence in the source language become more implicit in the target
language. The translator erased the words „the president of United
States of America‟ in order to show familiar information „Barrack
Obama‟ in the target language.
16. Substitution
Substitution technique aims to change linguistic elements for
paralinguistic elements (intonation, gestures) or vice versa. It is used in
interpreting process (Molina & Albir, 2002: 511).
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For example: In interpreting process, „put a hand in the heart‟ by a
speaker from Arab means Thank you. Interpreter should
understand what the meaning of that sign and should
translate it by saying „Thank you‟ to the participants.
17. Transposition
This technique aims to change a grammatical category (Molina &
Albir, 2002: 511). Transposition changes sources text grammatical
category in the target text. Transposition technique can be used in the
level of units, for instance from word to phrase or vice versa. For
example:
Table 2.17. Example of Transposition Technique
Source Language Target Language
Closet Lemari pakaian
The translator used this technique to change the grammatical
category from source text into target text. In this case, the translator
translates the word „closet‟ in the source language into a phrase „lemari
pakaian‟ in the target text. The example above shows that this
technique used by the translator to change the grammatical category
from word into phrase.
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18. Variation
Variation aims to change linguistic or paralinguistic elements
(intonation, gestures) that affect aspects of linguistic variation: changes
of textual tone, style, social dialect, geographical dialect, etc. (Molina
& Albir, 2002: 511). For example:
Table 2.18. Example of Variation Technique
Source Language Target Language
That sucks Payah banget
In the example above, the translator translates „that sucks‟ into
„payah banget‟. The translation „payah banget‟ belongs to the social
dialect of teenagers in this era, especially Jakarta language.
In this research, I also applied the translation technique proposed by
Newmark (1988: 81-91). Newmark proposes the techniques which are used in the
data of this research, as follows:
1. Couplets
Couplets technique used more than one technique and particularly
common for translating cultural words (Newmark, 1988: 91). For
example:
Table 2.19. Example of Couplets Technique
Source Language Target Language
Together we pulled the backseat
up.
Bersama-sama kami mengangkat
jok.
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In the example above, the translator used particularization and
reduction technique to translate backseat in the SL into jok in the TL.
Related with Molina & Albir‟s technique, particularization technique
changes super ordinate terms in the source text into subordinate terms
in the target text. It means that particularization technique used a more
concrete term. In this case, the term backseat is translated into jok
which is more concrete. Then, reduction technique used to erase the
words by considering familiar information in the target language.
Reduction technique used to erase the term belakang, because the
original translation of the term backseat is jok belakang.
2. Through-Translation
Through-translation technique is a technique which applied the
literal translation of common collocations, names of organizations, the
components of compounds, and perhaps phrases. This technique is
known as calque or loan translation. This technique only applied when
the terms are already recognized by the target readers (Newmark,
1988: 84). For example:
Table 2.20. Example of Through-Translation Technique
Source Language Target Language
“She‟s the mouthpiece for it all,
the one crazy enough to do
everything.”
“Dia juru bicaranya, orang yang
cukup sinting untuk melakukan
segala-galanya.”
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The example above shows that the translator applied through-
translation technique to translate the term mouthpiece in the SL into
juru bicara in the TL. The translator is applied this technique by
loaning the term mouthpiece into juru bicara which is already
recognized by the target readers.
3. Shifts or Transposition
Shifts or Transposition technique is a technique which is changing
the grammar from the source language into target language. This
technique is similar with the theory of translation technique proposed
by Molina & Albir (Newmark: 1988: 86). For example:
Table 2.21. Example of Shift or Transposition Technique
Source Language Target Language
I could see Ben and my other
friends standing in a semicircle.
Aku bisa melihat Ben dan teman-
temanku yang lain berdiri
membentuk setengah lingkaran.
The example above shows that the translator applied shift or
transposition technique. This technique used to change the grammar
from source language into target language. In this case, the translator
translated the word semicircle into phrase setengah lingkaran.
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D. Translation Quality
Professional translators should have abilities to transfer message from
source text into target text perfectly. Right techniques applied by professional
translators in order to produce good quality of translation products. Seguinot
(1997: 104) states: “Translators and people who study translation know that
different text types require different approaches, and that different people can
translate the same text in different ways. It is also clear that different levels of
competence, familiarity with the material to be translated, as well as different
interpretations of the nature of the assignment will lead to differences in process
and results”. Seguinot explains in his statement that different translators will
produce different process and results of translation, although they translate the
same text because a translator and others have different ways when translating a
text. Therefore, the results of translation which are produced by different
translators must be accurate, acceptable, and readable.
Schäffner (1997: 1) defines that Quality of translation is a main priority
between translation products and translation process. Many experts called a
product of translation have good quality if:
1. The message in the ST can be transferred well in the target language without
changing, adding, omitting or reducing the message. It means that a translation
must be accurate
2. The translation must sound natural or acceptable
3. The translation is easy to be understood by readers. (Mangatur Nababan,
Ardianna Nuraeni & Sumardiono, 2012: 41)
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To produce a good translation, Larson (1984) proposes three aspects that
must be fulfilled by the translators; they are accuracy, naturalness, and clearness.
Other experts call it as accuracy, acceptability, and readability.
1. Accuracy
Accuracy is a term used to evaluate a translation which refers to the
equivalence between source text and target text. Nida & Taber (1982: 1)
states that this aspect used to check the similarity of meaning between source
text and target text. The accuracy of the message should be determined by
whether the target language readers can understand the message accurately,
as it was intended by the original authors.
Nababan (2012: 44) also states that “Keakuratan merupakan istilah yang
digunakan untuk merujuk pada apakah teks bahasa sumber dan teks bahasa
sasaran sudah sepadan atau belum. Konsep kesepadanan mengarah pada
kesamaan isi atau pesan antar keduanya. Suatu teks dapat disebut sebagai
suatu terjemahan, jika teks tersebut mempunyai makna atau pesan yang sama
dengan teks bahasa sumber”. Nababan explains in his statement that
accuracy refers to the level of equivalence of meaning and message. A
translator should not ignore, add, or reduce the meaning or message
contained in the source text. A translator should notice intensively also to the
naturalness of the target language in transferring the original message.
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2. Acceptability
Acceptability used to know how is acceptable a target language text
related to linguistic and cultural norms. Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997: 2)
propose that translations which lean towards acceptability can thus be
thought of as fulfilling the requirement of „reading as an original‟ written in
target language rather than that of „reading as the original‟.
Nababan (2012: 45) explains that “Keberterimaan merujuk pada apakah
suatu terjemahan sudah diungkapkan sesuai dengan kaidah, norma dan
budaya yang berlaku dalam bahasa sasaran ataukah belum, baik pada
tataran mikro maupun tataran makro. Terjemahan akan ditolak oleh
pembaca sasaran jika cara pengungkapannya bertentangan dengan kaidah,
norma dan budaya bahasa sasaran”. Based on Nababan‟s statement, this
aspect refers to the conformity of principles, norms, and cultures of target
language in micro or macro level. Translators should choose appropriate
terminologies in the target text to avoid unacceptable result of translation.
3. Readability
Readability used to know how easily the translation can be understood by
target readers. A text called readable if the target readers are capable to
understand the meaning or message in one time reading. Nababan (2012: 45)
states that “Keterbacaan digunakan dalam bidang penerjemahan karena
setiap kegiatan menerjemahkan tidak bisa lepas dari kegiatan membaca.
Keterbacaan tidak hanya menyangkut keterbacaan teks bahasa sumber tetapi
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juga keterbacaan teks bahasa sasaran karena pada hakekatnya setiap proses
penerjemahan selalu melibatkan kedua bahasa itu sekaligus”. Nababan
explains in his statement that readability is not only about the readability of
source text but also the target text. Richards (1985: 238) mentions three
points to measure the readability of a text, such as: (1) based on the average
sentence length, (2) complexity of sentence structure, and (3) the number of
new words used in the text.
E. Compound Words
In morphology, compounding word is categorized as one of the word
formation process. Many experts discussing compounding word and explaining in
their statements related to the morphology. Compounding word consists of two or
more words and written by hyphen, a space, and no space between one word into
another. Morphology becomes a branch in linguistic studies explains about
compounding. Mathew (1991) defines that morphology is a simple term of a
linguistic branch which investigates the word formation of a language. The word
formation process consists of conversion, clipping, blending, backformation,
compounding, affixation, and reduplication. One of the word formation processes
is compounding.
O‟ Grady (1996: 127) states that compounding is the combination of
lexical categories (noun, adjective, verb, or preposition) to create a larger word.
Compound word can be found in both spoken and written language.
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Some experts define the definitions of compound words in their own ideas.
Quirk, et al. (1985) points out the definition of compound words: “Compound
word is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both
grammatically and semantically as a single word”. Nigel Fabb (1988) states that
compound word is a word which consists of two or more words. The words in
compound retain a meaning similar to their meaning as isolated words, but with
certain restrictions. Other expert, Plag (2002) proposes that compound word as a
word consisting of two elements of which one element can contain more than one
word. Then, Fromkin, et al. (1996) state that compound word is two or more
words may be joined to form new word. Delahunty and Garvey (2010) points out
that a compound is a new word created by the word formation process of
compounding. The combination of some words creates a meaning of a word
which is easier to comprehend. There are also some of them which create a new
meaning. The meaning of the new word can be different and also can be same
from what the head and modifiers actually meant.
In determining the types of compound words, there are three perspectives
such as written perspective, meaning perspective and word class perspective. In
written perspective, compound word is written in three different ways; they are
closed form, hyphenated form and open form.
1) Closed form or solid compound
This form of compound word combines two or more words into
one solid word. It occurs when the two words are written as one.
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Closed form is usually written as one word, it does not write separately
and it also does not have a hyphen. For example:
Table 2.22. Example of Closed Form or Solid Compound
Notebook Wildlife Bathroom
Keyboard Streetlight Backstage
2) Hyphenated form
This form is a combination of words joined by a hyphen or
hyphens. The hyphen is a mark of punctuation that not only unites but
separates the component words; thus it aids understanding and
readability and ensures correct pronunciation. Words are hyphenated
mainly to express the idea of a unit and to avoid ambiguity. For
example:
Table 2.23. Example of Hyphenated Form
Six-pack Daughter-in-law Second-floor
Play-ground User-created Well-known
3) Open form
This form is a combination of words so closely associated that they
convey the idea of single concept but are spelled as unconnected
words. It occurs when two words are written separately. Open form
does not have a hyphen between one word and others. For example:
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Table 2.24. Example of Open Form
Post office Real estate Best friend
Middle class Social calendars Hilarious surprise
From the meaning classification, Katamba (1993) states that there are two
types of compound words, they are endocentric compound and exocentric
compound from the point of view of its „head‟. Endocentric compound is a
construction of compound that is hyponym of the head element. The example of
endocentric compound is schoolboy. The word schoolboy consists of school
(noun) and boy (noun). Schoolboy is a kind of boy. Katamba (1993) also states
the characteristics of endocentric compound, as follows:
1. They contain a constituent which function as the syntactic head.
2. The syntactic properties of the head categories are strain to the entire
compound word.
3. The head is on the right hand.
4. There is a tendency for semantic relation between the head and non
head to be one modification.
Meanwhile, exocentric compound is a construction of compound that the
compound is not hyponym of the head element. This construction often cannot be
transparently guessed from its constituent part. The characteristics of exocentric
compound as follows:
1. There is no element in compound that functions as the semantic head
of the compound which is modified by the non head element.
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2. The meaning of this construction is not clear. It is impossible to work
out what an exocentric compound means from the sum of the
meanings of its constituent.
The conclusion is the endocentric compound construction is a construction
in which one of the constituent becomes the head of the construction. Since the
meaning of the construction can be inferred from the meaning of its constituent,
the construction is an endocentric construction. Katamba (1994) states that
exocentric compound tends to be used less frequently than endocentric compound
in the creation of new words; therefore endocentric construction is more
productive than exocentric.
Then, from the word class perspective, Katamba (1993) points out that the
components of English compound words are lexical categories, such as: nouns,
adjectives, adverbs, and prepositions. English compound belongs to word-class
noun, verb and adjective and made up of at least two constituent bases which are
members of the categories noun, verb, adjective, adverb, or preposition. Based on
its components, English compound word belongs to compound noun, compound
adjective, and compound verb.
1) Compound noun
Compound noun contains a noun followed by another noun, an
adjective followed by a noun or a preposition followed by a noun.
(Katamba, 1993).
The structure rule of compound noun is generated as follows:
N [N/ Adj/ Prep] + Noun
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The example of compound noun, such as:
(a) N – N
Table 2.25. Example of Compound Noun (N – N)
Bookcase Basketball Farmhouse
Textbook Sunglasses Teacups
(b) Adj – N
Table 2.26. Example of Compound Noun (Adj – N)
Wildlife Blackboard Freshman
Hardwood Minivan Grandma
(c) Prep – N
Table 2.27. Example of Compound Noun (Prep – N)
Afterparty Downtown Afternoon
Backseat Backstage Downstairs
2) Compound adjective
Compound adjective is a compound which functions as an
adjective. This type contains a noun followed by an adjective, an
adjective followed by an adjective (derived from the past participle
form of verb), and preposition followed by an adjective (derived from
the present or past participle form of verb) (Katamba, 1993).
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The structure rule of compound adjective is generated as follows:
Adj [N/ Adj/ Prep] + Adjective
The example of compound adjective, such as:
(a) N – Adj
Table 2.28. Example of Compound Adjective (N – Adj)
Waterproof Icebound Lovesick
Homesick Airtight Oilfree
(b) Adj – Adj
Table 2.29. Example of Compound Adjective (Adj – Adj)
Lowspirited Bittersweet Shortlived
Wellborn Kindhearted Fullcolored
(c) Prep – Adj
Table 2.30. Example of Compound Adjective (Prep – Adj)
Outspoken Overgrown Underneath
Uphill Outstanding Overwhelming
3) Compound verb
Compound verb is a compound which functions as a verb. This
type is mostly contains phrasal verb, which consists a verb plus a
prepositional or adverbial particles (Katamba, 1993).
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The structure rule of compound adjective is generated as follows:
V [Prep/ Verb] or [Verb + Prep]
The example of compound verb, such as:
(a) Prep – V
Table 2.31. Example of Compound Verb (Prep – V)
Overacting Outgoing Outstay
Upcoming Offload Underestimated
(b) V – Prep
Table 2.32. Example of Compound Verb (V - Prep)
Workout Kickoff Burnout
Throwback Lookout Walkover
Based on the explanation above, there are three types of compound words
as stated by Fromkin et al. (1996), they are: closed form (solid compound),
hyphenated form, and open form. Meanwhile, Katamba (1993) mentions two
types of compound words from the point of view of its „head‟, they are:
endocentric compound and exocentric compound. Then, based on its components,
English compound words belong to compound noun, compound adjective, and
compound verb.
However, I am not discussing all types of compound words because the
data of this research is only closed compound words in Paper Towns novel. The
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data consists of closed form (solid compound) as stated by the theory of Fromkin
et al. (1996). In Fromkin‟s theory, closed form (solid compound) is one of the
three types of compound words.
F. Paper Towns Novel
Novel is one of the kinds of literary works. This kind of literary work is a
fiction prose written in a narrative and usually written in story form. The word
„novel‟ comes from the Italian novel “Novella” which means a story or a piece of
the story. The author of novel is called as a novelist. The contents of the novel are
more complex than the content in the short story. There are no structural
limitations and rhyme in the novel. A novel contains a plot with characters; it also
has settings, themes, and points of view.
Sumardjo (1998) states that a novel is a literary form that is very popular
in the world. Novel is also a story with the prose form in long shape, this long
shape means the story including the complex plot, many characters and various
settings. Therefore, novel is one of literary work consists of plot, characters,
setting, and point of view. It usually presented in the form of printed books and
also in an electronic book (e-book).
Novel is usually written by the novelist based on the fiction story,
sometimes there are some novels written based on the real life story. In the
process of writing the novel, the novelist may find some problems; it depends on
how the way a novelist delivers messages. If the novelist delivers messages in the
right way, the amount of the novel readers will be increased. The right way here
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means that the novelist choose a good diction, a good style, an interesting plot,
settings, characters, and point of view in writing.
The source of data in this research is a novel Paper Towns by John Green.
The novel contains many closed compound words which are the data of this
research. Paper Towns firstly published in the United States of America by
Dutton Books in 2008. In the translated novel in Indonesian language, which
entitled Kota Kertas, is translated by Angelic Zaizai and published by PT
Gramedia Pustaka Utama Jakarta in 2014. This novel is a fictive novel. The
novelist has written other novels such as: Looking for Alaska, An Abundance of
Katherines, Let it Snow, Will Grayson, and the most popular novel is entitled The
Fault in Our Stars.
Paper Towns is a New York Times bestseller and also an Edgar Award
Winner. This novel was printed in the United States of America. In the original
English version, it published by Dutton Books in 2008 and presented in 305
pages. Meanwhile, in the translated novel entitled Kota Kertas, the novel is
presented in 360 pages by Angelic Zaizai. The translated novel was published by
PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama Jakarta. This translated version of novel was printed
five times, firstly is published on 2014. Then, the novel is republished on June
2015, August 2015, and the latest is printed on September 2015.
This novel is also adapted into a movie entitled Paper Towns by Temple
Hill Entertainment. This film is released on June 5, 2015 by 20th
Century Fox. The
film director of Paper Towns is Jake Schreier. The genre of this film is comedy,
romance and mysterious. Paper Towns movie stared by Nat Wolff as Quentin “Q”
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and Cara Delevingne as Margo Roth Spiegelman who are the main characters in
the movie.
G. Review of Related Study
This research is analyzing closed compound words; it seems that no
researchers who analyze this topic yet. However, there is another research
analyzing compound words as the topic. In the previous research, Putu Desi
Anggerina Hikmaharyanti, 2013, Master Program of Linguistic Program in
Translation Studies, Udayana University, in her thesis entitled The Fidelity
Meaning of Compound Words‟ Translation in New Moon Novel, analyzed English
compound words found in New Moon novel and its meaning in Dua Cinta novel.
Hikmaharyanti also analyzed translation procedures used by the translator in
translating English compound words into Indonesian. Hikmaharyanti applied
library research method in collecting the data and used descriptive qualitative
method in analyzing data. The data consists of 209 compound words which are
found in the New Moon novel. Those 209 compound words contain 110 data of
closed form, 69 data of hyphenated form, 30 data of open form, 164 data of
compound noun, and 45 data of compound adjective.
I analyze the similar topic with the research above. In comparison with
Putu‟s research, the data of this research is not all types of compound words, but
only one type of compound words that is closed compound. Then, I do not
analyze translation procedures as Putu‟s, but I analyze translation techniques and
quality in terms of accuracy and acceptability used by the translator in translating
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the data. This research also has similarity with Putu‟s: this research aims to find
out the meaning of English compound words in the source of data. The data used
in this research consists of closed compound words which found in the novel
Paper Towns by John Green.