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CHAPTER. II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Introduction:

The present study is made on the health status of the working women in

Gulbarga district. As such information on the general health of women,

reproductive health of women, stress related ill health, fatigue due to heavy

work load, etc are essentially needed. The literature is not available covering

all the aspects. Hence the researcher searched the relevant literature on

certain keywords which are able to fulfill the information requirements of the

research project. To collect the relevant literature, the researcher searched

various Journals and other publications such as books in the Women’s

Studies, Sociology, Social Work and other related subject disciplines on the

following keywords:

Health of Women;

Health of Working Women;

Reproductive Health of Women;

Menstrual and Menopause Health Problems;

Health of Elderly Women;

Hereditary Diseases of Women.

The collected literature on the above said keywords is discussed and

reviewed as under to find out the research gap.

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2.2. Review of Literature:

Many of the research papers published in journals proved to be

significant for the present study and only a few books are found useful for the

present study. The collected secondary literature is reviewed as under.

Sharma and Dhawan (1986) writes on “Health Problems of Rural

Women’ in ‘Health and Population: Perspectives and Issues’. The study

was conducted in two villages of Hisar district (Haryana) to determine the

nature and extent of health problems of rural women. The data were collected

from one hundred randomly selected rural ladies by interviewing them with

the help of an interview schedule developed for the purpose. The identified

health problems were classified. The findings of the study indicated the

prevalence of a number of health problems among rural women and a need

was felt for their education on health aspects. A sizeable number of them were

found to have suffered from bronchitis, coryza, indigestion, constipation,

diarrhea, conjunctivitis, dandruff, tartar deposits on teeth, skin diseases,

gynecological diseases and some other diseases like rheumatism, arthritis, etc.

The existence of a government hospital in village had no association of

significant level with the health problems of rural women. Majority of the

respondents perceived the treatment given in government hospital to be not

effective and several other constraints in availing of the treatment facilities.

Padmini Swaminathan (1997) published “Work and Reproductive

Health: A Hobson's Choice for Indian Women?” in ‘Economic & Political

Weekly’. The observed statistical correlation between increase in women's

outside employment and decrease in birth rates has catapulted the demand for

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increasing women’s wage employment as a primary goal, not necessarily on

its own merits, but as part of the demographic drive to reduce fertility. At

what costs to women's welfare do such demographic outcomes occur? The

existing structural nature of women's work (domestic as well as non-domestic)

has severe built-in hazards for women's health (reproductive and otherwise)

which no amount of first rate quality of care and/or access to health services

alone can deal with. Focusing on Tamil Nadu, the author argues in addition

that a demographic model state need not necessarily be a reproductively safe

place.

Janzen (1998) in his book “Women, Gender and Health”, presents a

broad overview and synthesis of the recent research literature on the major

psychosocial influences on women’s health. Part 1 reviews the variability of

health among women, with a particular emphasis on diversities in health

according to women’s major social roles of partner, parent and worker. The

context within which social roles are carried out, particularly the

socio-economic context, is identified as a critical factor. While research

examining women’s health within the context of both social roles and material

circumstances have produced complex findings, the research reviewed in this

study clearly suggests that to appropriately document and understand the

variability of health among women, attention to the particular circumstances

of women’s lives is required. This point is further highlighted in sections

describing the health issues of older women, Aboriginal women, and

immigrant and refugee women. Part 2 begins with a review of the research on

differences between men and women on various indicators of health and

ill-health. Frequently mentioned throughout the literature is the apparent

paradox in women’s and men’s health: men’s higher rate of mortality and

women’s higher rate of morbidity. Recent evidence demonstrating the

complexity and variability of gender differences in health is reviewed,

14

suggesting that broad generalizations about health-related gender differences

are inappropriate. As a means of clarifying more fully the significance of

gender as a determinant of health, gender is examined as it interacts with other

social characteristics associated with health and disease, such as

socio-economic status, paid and unpaid work, exposure to stressors, and social

support. The research that attempts to explain gender related differences in

health also is examined, among which social role explanations dominate. The

possible reasons for the diminishing longevity advantage of women over men

in recent years also are discussed.

Nakkeeran (2003) published “Women’s Work, Status and Fertility

Land, Caste and Gender in a South Indian Village” published in

‘Economic & Political Weekly’. Women’s work plays a significant role in

reducing gender inequality and is also seen to affect levels of fertility and

child mortality. However, the relationship between female work participation

status and autonomy and demographic indicators has not been clearly

established. This paper attempts to bring out the conditions of women’s work,

status and their relationship with child mortality and fertility in a south Indian

village. The aim is to explore the comprehensiveness of the term ‘conditions

of women’s work’ and how it reflects the entire milieu of a woman’s situation.

Mehrotra (2004) published a paper “Women, Disability and Social

Support in Rural Haryana” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. Women

with disabilities in India face double discrimination due to prevalence of

traditional gender roles and expectations. This paper explores the nature and

form of disability afflicting the individual and social life of women in rural

Haryana, both in terms of physical and mental parameters. It describes

community and family strategies in supporting disabled women in negotiating

family, work, economy and society. It also highlights the social effects of

15

physical disability on various stages of their life cycle, explored through life

histories of women belonging to different age groups and those belonging to

different castes.

Preeti Singh and Anu Pandey (2005) published a paper “Women in

Call Centres” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. This study looks at

aspects of employment of women in call centres in India, based on a survey of

100 women employees. It examines the recent phenomenon of women

working in night shifts, as well as the impact of call centre employment on

women’s health, family life and decision-making powers. The study finds a

direct and adverse effect of night shift employment on the health of women.

But there is also a greater acceptance of such ‘non-traditional’ jobs by families

across a larger segment of society.

Taylor, et al (2005) conducted a study on “Women’s Health Care

Utilization and Expenditures” and the study examines women’s use of and

expenditures for medical care in the United States. In 2000, 91% of women

aged 18 years and older used any health care services. Overall 82% of adult

women reported an ambulatory care visit, while 11% had an inpatient hospital

stay. Mean expense per person with expense was $3219 for that year. We

examined use and expenditures by sociodemographic characteristics. The

most notable findings indicate that women with private insurance, and those

on Medicaid, are more likely to use health services than uninsured women.

White women, compared to Black and Hispanic women, are more likely to

have an ambulatory care visit, buy prescription drugs, and use preventive

health care services. In addition, white and Hispanic women pay a higher

proportion of medical care expenses out-of-pocket than do Black women.

Finally, nearly 30% of older women in fair or poor health spent 10% or more

of their income out-of-pocket on medical care. In order to reduce disparities

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and improve the quality of health care for all women, it is important for policy

makers to understand the factors that influence their utilization and

expenditures for medical care.

Anandhi (2007) written “Women, Work and Abortion: A Case

Study from Tamil Nadu” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. Most of the

micro-level studies on abortion reach a misleading conclusion that abortions

are exclusively a method of family limitation or family planning. A study

conducted in four villages of Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu

contradicts this orthodoxy and opens up spaces for looking at the question of

reproductive rights anew. Women in the study villages consider abortion as a

necessity to negotiate the harsh realities in their work places and deal with

domestic violence and different social conditions and beliefs.

Kaila (2007) published “Women Managers in Indian

Organizations” in ‘Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied

Psychology’ and presented qualitative study of 140 female managers

interviewed in 81 organizations in order to review trend of problems faced by

women managers, the ways in which the problems affect them, and the coping

strategies used by them to overcome their problems. In-depth personal

interviews were conducted with the help of a structured questionnaire using

open-ended questions. The narratives of managers have provided a broad base

in understanding managerial life and profession of women. The implications

are underlined for better organizational health and performance.

Sudha Narayanan (2008) in her paper “Employment Guarantee,

Women’s Work and Childcare” published in ‘Economic & Political

Weekly’, commented that, a social audit in Tamil Nadu finds that the National

Rural Employment Guarantee Act has brought about major changes in the

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lives of women. However, the act overlooks the fact that childcare is a

problem for many of the working women, especially for young mothers.

Ratna Sudarshan and Shrayana Bhattacharya (2009) published

“Through the Magnifying Glass: Women’s Work and Labour Force

Participation in Urban Delhi” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. A study

conducted in urban Delhi through a household survey between September and

November 2006 estimates a greater female workforce participation rate than

recorded in the National Sample Survey. It indicates undercounting and

reflects the informality that surrounds women’s work. This paper seeks to

explore the nature of women’s workforce participation and attempts to

identify key factors influencing women’s decision to work, the type of work

they do, the constraints they face, and the perceived benefits and costs of

engaging in paid work outside the home. In doing so, issues surrounding the

methodology and underestimation of women’s work within the urban context

are also tackled. The study also suggests the need to understand the familial

and household context within which labour market decisions are made. The

role of family and kinship structures to determine women’s work-life choices

emerge as an important area for further study.

Reetika Khera and Nandini Nayak (2009) published a paper

“Women Workers and Perceptions of the National Rural Employment

Guarantee Act” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’. The National Rural

Employment Guarantee Act, which entitles rural households to 100 days of

casual employment on public works at the statutory minimum wage, contains

special provisions to ensure full participation of women. This paper, based on

fieldwork in six states in 2008, examines the socio-economic consequences of

the NREGA for women workers. In spite of the drawbacks in the

implementation of the legislation, significant benefits have already started

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accruing to women through better access to local employment, at minimum

wages, with relatively decent and safe work conditions. The paper also

discusses barriers to women’s participation.

Sengupta and Jena (2009) published a working paper “The Current

Trade Paradigm and Women's Health Concerns in India: With Special

Reference to the Proposed EU-India Free Trade Agreement” and

discussed that India is currently negotiating a Free Trade Agreement with the

European Union, which includes not only liberalization of commodity trading,

but also a wide range of chapters including deep services trade liberalization,

full investment liberalization, and stricter IPR conditions than the TRIPS

norms. As trade is an engine of growth and development, India’s trade policy

has many goals to meet. India shows high poverty level, increasing income

and social inequalities as well as deep seated gender inequalities. Health is an

area of special concern in the context of gender inequalities. Arguably, where

there is a constraint on health care access, whether due to education, income

or location, women experience a greater constraint compared to men. Since

the EU India FTA covers many areas which are known to have serious

implications for health, this needs detailed analysis. Liberalization of health

services coupled with investment liberalization, TRIPS plus provisions in the

IPR chapter are some concern areas and can affect the access to medicines and

treatment, as well as to food. In addition, the way deep trade liberalization

uses women’s labour and imposes adverse working conditions on them is

another aspect which must be taken into account. Domestic policy space at the

disposal of the Indian government to address gender inequalities and change

the social structure, can also be undermined the FTA. Therefore, an analysis

and evaluation of health impacts of this FTA on Indian women is necessary.

The need to indicate suitable policy interventions, both in the trade agreement

and in the domestic socio economic environment, to maintain and encourage

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women’s access to health and healthcare, is undeniable. This study is an

attempt to provide such an analysis in simple terms.

Ajithkumar and Radhadevi (2010) in their paper “Health of Women

in Kerala: Current Status and Emerging Issues”, examines the health

status of females in the state of Kerala, India. The state is ranked at the top in

terms of human development index, social development index and gender

development index among the states in India. The state is often described as a

land of ‘good health at low cost’ and is reported to have the lowest rural-urban

inequalities in public health status. The paper attempts to travel along the life

of Kerala women picking up elements that are relevant to a health study. For

comparison, the national scenario is presented. Wherever possible, a

comparison is made with men. The indicators considered in this paper can be

broadly categorised as those reflecting the general health status, child health,

reproductive health and health of the elderly. Some environment related

variables have also been analysed. The paper also tries to identify data gaps

and made use of narratives/anecdotal evidences to highlight problems. The

paper finds that females in Kerala compare favourably against India in all

conventional health indicators and that the problems related to women’s

health in Kerala are different from those addressed at the national level.

Therefore, priorities, approaches and strategies set at the national level may

not be appropriate for Kerala. The paper also calls for an in-depth examination

of the health polices of the state to understand whether the state has been

responding with gender sensitivity to the varying health care needs of women

beyond and before the reproductive age. The state needs to work out strategies

specific to particular groups of people who are vulnerable in terms of health

and issues such as problems of old age of women and widows, over

medicalisation, increasing cost of healthcare and occupational health of

women.

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Ashokkumar and Khan (2010) published a paper “Health status of

women in India: Evidences from National Family Health Survey-3

(2005-06) and future outlook” in ‘Research and Practice in Social

Sciences”. India, in the millennium set goals to minimize women health

problems after the ICPD (International Conference on Population and

Development, 1994, Cairo). As far as women health is concerned, mainly in

the developing countries, including India, the situation is very depressing.

Women have disproportionately paid the price of fertility regulation. But have

they benefited in terms of better health? This paper, five key factors have been

identified in the principal focus of this study: reproductive health, violence

against women, nutritional status, unequal treatment of girls and boys, and

HIV/AIDS. Analysis shows that the wide variation in cultures, religions, and

levels of development among Indian states and union territories, it is not

unusual and startling that women’s health also varies immensely from state to

state. The study suggests that many of the health problems of Indian women

are related to or exacerbated by high levels of fertility.

Geeta Kumari, et al (2010) in their paper “Studies on Health

Problems of Software People: A Case Study of Faculty of GCE and

GIMT Gurgaon, India” published in ‘International Journal of Innovation,

Management and Technology’, the various health problems of the

employees working in GCE and GIMT Gurgaon has been studied on the basis

of answers received from the employees for the given questionnaire. Very few

employees frequently use laptop at home. Also most of employees use desktop

/ workstation as alternative to laptop. Almost all employees use desktop at

their workplace,. It can be concluded seeing the responses that still today there

is a need for wide advertisement in media about various problems generated

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from working on computers and the companies must do something for the

better health of their employees.

Jamwal and Gupta (2010) in their paper entitled “Work

Participation of Females and Emerging Labour Laws in India” published

in “Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences”, stated that there have been

evidences of increase in work participation rate among women but still

women constitute one third of the total labour. Along with enhancement in

their work participation, which improves their overall status, there is increase

in the labour laws related to women. Various policies and programmes were

implemented to improve the conditions of working women and the policies

regarding the Indian women have been guided by the provisions of the

constitution. The framers of the Constitution bestowed sufficient thought on

the position of women in the Indian social order, which is quire evident from

the provisions of the Constitution. The paper attempted to trace out the

development of labour laws related to women and also to study their impact

on the increase in work participation rate. Although the working women have

been provided various benefits, concessions, protection and safeguards under

different labour legislations in order to provide security against various risk

peculiar to their nature which are likely to occur in their lives yet their work

participation is not up to mark. Many of the reasons are analyzed in the paper.

Kortum, et al (2010) in their paper “Psycho-social Risks and Work

Related Stress in Developing Countries: Health Impact, Priorities,

Barriers and Solutions” published in ‘International Journal of

Occupational Medicine and Environmental Health” explores experts’

perceptions of psychosocial risks and work-related stress in emerging

economies and developing countries. This paper focuses on knowledge of

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potential health impact of psychosocial risks and preliminary priorities for

action, and discusses potential barriers and solutions to addressing

psychosocial risks and work-related stress in developing countries. This

research applied a mixed methodology including semi-structured interviews,

two rounds of an online Delphi survey, and four focus groups. Twenty nine

experts with expertise in occupational health were interviewed. Seventy four

experts responded to the first round of an online Delphi survey and 53

responded to the second round. Four groups of experts with a total of 37

active participants with specific or broader knowledge about developing

country contexts participated in focus group discussions. Results: High

concern was expressed for the need to address psychosocial risks and

work-related stress and their health impact. Developing country experts’

knowledge about these issues was comparable to knowledge from

industrialized countries, however, application of expert knowledge was

reported to be weak in developing countries. Socio-economic conditions were

regarded as important considerations. Priorities to be addressed were

identified, and barriers to implementing possible solutions were proposed. The

future research and action paradigms in relation to psychosocial risk

management will need to be broadened to include the larger social, political

and economic contexts in developing countries beyond issues focusing solely

on the working environment. Work-related psychosocial risks and the

emerging priority of work-related stress should urgently be included in the

research and political agendas and action frameworks of developing countries.

Papadopoulos, et al (2010) published a paper “Occupational and

public health and safety in a changing work environment: An integrated

approach for risk assessment and prevention” in ‘Safety Science’. During

recent years the work environment has undergone significant changes

regarding working time, years of employment, work organization, type of

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employment contracts and working conditions. In this paper, consequences of

these changes on occupational and public health and safety are examined.

These include the disruption of human biological rhythms, the increase of

workers fatigue due to changes in patterns of working hours and years of

employment, job insecurity and occupational stress, which have a serious

impact on workers’ health and may result in an increase in occupational

accidents. Unsafe work practices related to workload and time pressure, the

impact of work changes on public safety and the deterioration of workers’

living conditions with respect to income, social-family life, health and

insurance benefits, are also described. In this context, difficulties that occur

due to the changing work environment in conducting effective occupational

risk assessments and implementing OSH measures are discussed (for example,

frequent changes between tasks and workplaces, underreporting of

occupational accidents and diseases, lack of methodological tools, etc.). A

fundamental criterion used while studying consequences on health and safety

and the relative preventive measures is that health and safety must be

approached as ‘the promotion and maintenance at the highest degree of the

physical, mental and social well-being of workers’ and not only as retention of

their work ability. The study limits in combining ‘‘flexibility” at work and

overall protection of occupational and public safety and health in a

competitive market are put forward for discussion.

Sahu and Saha (2010) in their paper “A trend in women’s health in

India – what has been achieved and what can be done” published in

‘Rural and Remote Health’, remarked that the health of Indian women is

intrinsically linked to their status in society. Research into Indian women’s

status has found that their family contributions are often overlooked and they

are likely to be regarded as an economic burden, especially in rural areas.

This attitude has a negative impact on their health status. Poor health has

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repercussions not only for women, but also for their children and other family

members. This commentary focuses on the trend in five key women’s issues in

India: maternal and child health; violence against women; nutritional status;

unequal treatment of girls and boys; and care quality. The discussion is based

on data extracted from Indian National Family Health Surveys (NFHS-1,

NFHS-2 NFHS-3) spanning the period 1993-2006, and data from the Indian

Sample Registration System and National Crime Research Bureau.

Holeyannavar and Itagi (2011) published a paper “Relationship

Between Stress, Health Status and Emotional Competence of Primary

School Teachers and Housewives” in ‘Humanity and Social Sciences

Journal’. It is an ex-post-facto study on stress, health status and emotional

competence of 105 married female primary school teachers with at least 5

years of teaching experience was conducted in Dharwad city during 2008-09.

50 housewives belonging to the same age and income ranges were selected as

the comparison group. Stress Index Questionnaire developed by Ivancewich

and Matteson was used to assess the stress levels, emotional competence was

assessed using EC-Scale developed by Bharadwaj and Sharma and health

status by Post-Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research (PGI)

Health Questionnaire N-2 developed by Wig and Verma. The results revealed

that majority of the teachers and housewives indicated average to competent

level of emotional competence (88-89.5%), high stress levels (66-74.3%) and

mildly affected health status (88.6-92.0%). Negative and significant

relationship was observed between emotional competence reduced the stress

levels and health problems (neurosis) significantly among primary school

teachers as well as housewives.

Jinky Leilanie Lu (2011) published an article “Occupational Health

and Safety of Women Workers: Viewed in the Light of Labor

25

Regulations” in ‘Journal of International Women’s Studies’. This article

is an analytic and discursive review of data and studies about women workers

in the manufacturing sector in the Philippines in the light of labor regulations.

The analyses focus on the following: occupational health and safety, health

and safety programs, provision of facilities at work, and labor issues

pertaining to women workers. Policy and advocacy work implications are

recommended based on the discursive analysis.

In their paper, “Social Support as Mental Health Improver for

Managerial Women in the Organizational Work Environment” published

in ‘Business Intelligence Journal’, Jocelyn Sackey and

Mohammed-Aminu Sanda (2011) assessed the relationship between social

support and mental health (depression, anxiety and somatic anxiety) relative to

its impact on managerial women in Ghana. The objective is to seek answers to

the question as to whether the availability of social support in the work

environment can help improve the mental health of women. This is because

the lack of spousal support for working women is found to have a direct

connection to diminished mental health. The findings show that spousal

support provided women with a sense of security and stability at home and

also reduced their possibility of being confronted with role conflict. It is thus,

concluded that the career progression of women managers can be greatly

enhanced when they receive spousal support, encouragement and guidance in

addition to those from superiors and co-workers.

Kaur and Kaur (2011) published a paper entitled “Psycho-social

Problems of Women Teachers Working in Schools and Colleges of

Punjab” in ‘Contemporary Research in India’. This paper is a study of

interactive effect of institution (school/college), area (rural/urban) and age

(<35 years and >35 years) on psycho-social problems of women teachers in

26

the state of Punjab. The sample of 1000 women teachers was taken, out of

which 500 (250 rural and 250 urban) were from schools and 500 (250 rural

and 250 urban) from colleges. The data was subject to statistical analysis and

the results revealed that there is no significant interactive effect of area

(Rural/Urban), institution (School/College) and age (<35 years/>35 years) on

the variable of psycho-social problems of women teachers.

Lakshmi Lingam and Vaidehi Yelamanchili (2011) in their paper

“Reproductive Rights and Exclusionary Wrongs: Maternity Benefits”

published in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’ remarked that, women

contribute to the economy with their unpaid labour as well as social

reproduction work but maternity protection in India is sector-specific and

employer-employee centric. It thus leaves out the large majority of women in

the unorganised sector. A new scheme such as the Indira Gandhi Matritva

Sahyog Yojana which is being piloted in 52 districts implicitly recognises the

need to compensate for wage loss due to maternity and provide support for the

mother and child’s nutrition. However, a series of exclusionary clauses mar

the objectives of the scheme. This paper attempts to demonstrate the

misguided “targeting” of this scheme. The Planning Commission is preparing

to scale it up at the national level in the Twelfth Plan, perhaps with the same

set of incentives and disincentives as are currently spelt out in the pilot phase

document. The data clearly shows that if these exclusionary clauses remain

they will “victimise the victim”.

According to Muhammad Shoaib, et al (2011) as stated in their paper

“Occupational Risk Factors Associated with Reproductive Health of

Working Women: A Case Study of University of Gujrat” published in

‘Academic Research International’, the occupational risk factors are those

factors which directly or indirectly influence the health and performance of

27

the workers. Present study aims at understanding the association between

occupational risk factors and reproductive health of married working women

in University of Gujrat (UoG), Pakistan. In Pakistan the opportunities for

working women is not appreciable as compared to developed countries.

Women are mostly secluded from such opportunities. So in this study

researchers try to highlight the importance of the issue in the context of the

Pakistan and more specifically working women in UoG. For the present study

110 married working women were sampled form University of Gujrat through

simple random sampling by using sample size determinant formula. The

results showed that there is a positive association between occupational risk

factors and reproductive health of married working women.

Nadeem Malik (2011) published a paper entitled “A study on

Occupational Stress experienced by Private and Public Banks Employees

in Quetta City” in ‘African Journal of Business Management’. Stress is a

universal element and persons from nearly every walk of life have to face

stress. Stress can have negative impacts on both the employee and the

organization. Actually, in this research paper it was checked that what the

impact occupational stress produced upon employees. The study describes the

occupational stress in public and private banks. A randomly selected sample

of 200 employees from private and public banks shows that occupational

stress is found higher among private bank employees compared to public bank

employees. Among different occupational stress variables role over load, role

authority, role conflict and lack of senior level support contribute more to the

occupational stress. Bank employees cannot afford the time to relax and "wind

down" when they are faced with work variety, discrimination, favoritism,

delegation and conflicting tasks.

28

Sherly Thomas (2011) published her research paper “A Study on the

Health Problems of Women Working in a Textile Unit in Coimbatore” in

‘International Journal of Science and Technology’. The economic status of

women is now accepted as an indicator of a society‟s stage of development.

Textile industry is the only industry to have employed women workers since

long time. Women workers unlike the majority in the informal sector have

been exposed to rigorous work, discipline, fixed working hours, specific

production norms etc. In TamilNadu, the garment industry is female

dominated field. There are many health problems to which the women

workers in textile industry is exposed to. To examine the health problems of

women workers in the textile unit a study is undertaken. The data was

collected with the help of a questionnaire administered to 60 women. The

study found out that many of them suffered from backache, joint pains,

headache and general tiredness. The medical expenses were a big burden for

these women. The women do not give much importance to their health. They

try to work even when they are sick and weak, just to supplement the family

income. The health hazards of the women working in the textile industry are

much higher compared to their counter parts in other sectors. It is therefore an

urgent need on the part of the policy makers to take effective steps to better

the condition of women in textile industry.

Vasanthi (2011) in her paper “Addressing Paid Domestic Work: A

Public Policy Concern” published in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’

remarked that while domestic workers are covered by the legislative

framework in many countries, in India they stand excluded from national

legislations that deal with minimum wages, dispute settlement, conditions of

work, social security and workplace injuries. This study draws upon the

findings of a research project of the National Domestic Workers Movement

that was conducted between February 2010 and February 2011. It sets out the

29

definition of domestic work as a conceptual issue that is necessary for

understanding domestic work and explores the constitutional and employment

law framework and the challenges in legislating for this sector. It concludes

with exploring ways of reducing the gap between law and practice.

Akhtar and Shimul (2012) write an article “Working Hazards as

Indicator of Occupational Stress of Industrial Workers of Bangladesh” in

‘Asian Business Review’. The primary objective of the present study was to

find out the hazardous factors and to see whether those factors are responsible

for uplifting occupational stress in two industrial sectors of Bangladesh. And

the secondary objective was to see how far the Bangladeshi industries

implement the policies and rules set by Bangladesh Labor Code, 2006. To

serve the above mentioned objectives two types of industries were selected

purposively and following incidental sampling procedure 130 industrial

workers from tannery and garments were interviewed by a structured

questionnaire. Through interviewing at first the hazardous factors were

identified according to the severity of effect on their physical and

psychological health. Then occupational stress was identified through a

questionnaire and collected data were analyzed by independent sample t-test.

Results revealed that some of the hazardous factors had significant differential

effects on occupational stress. This study also revealed that these two types of

industries do not ensure the set working conditions with all safety and

hygienic arrangements according to “The Bangladesh Labor Code, 2006”.

Ashok Kumar and Sundar (2012) published a paper “Problems

Faced by Women Executives Working in Public Sector Banks in

Puducherry” in ‘International Journal of Marketing, Financial Services

& Management Research’. India is a country with diverse traditions and

customs. In all the religions, women hold a venerable position. Unfortunately,

30

since ages, the role of women was confined to household chores and limited to

domestic issues. In the male-dominated Indian society, women suffered to

extreme levels of exploitation. Some factors – like death of bread winner,

sudden fall in family income or inadequate family income – forced women to

seek employment in informal sector (small trader, artisan or field laborer on a

family farm) but yet, that did not result in women empowerment. The

participation of women as workers and women’s education was negligible.

Indian women is distinct from their western counter parts in that they do not

shed their conventional roles as mothers and house wives inspire of their

professional responsibilities. They are skilled at blending professional

excellence and traditional love for home harmoniously. The study is purely

exploratory in nature and seeks to identify the factors preventing women

employees from aspiring for higher post and problems faced by women

executives in public sector banks related to work performance. Further this

aims also at finding out the organizational support for women employees to

achieve higher post. Conclusion has been given.

Bano and Jha (2012) writes “Organizational Role Stress Among

Public and Private Sector Employees: A Comparative Study” in ‘The

Lahore Journal of Business’. The aim of this study is to explore the

differences in job-related stress, if any, between public and private sector

employees, based on ten role stressors. It also examines the role of

demographic variables on the stress levels of both public and private sector

groups. Our methodology entails a survey of 182 public and 120 private sector

employees in Uttar Pradesh, India, whose responses are measured according

to an occupational role stress scale. We also use secondary data provided by

the literature review. The sample was collected through convenience

sampling. On applying the t-test and ANOVA test to the data, we find that

both public and private sector employees face moderate levels of stress. While

31

there is no significant difference overall between public and private sector

employees in terms of total stress levels, certain individual stressors—such as

work experience and educational qualifications—do yield differences. The

major limitation of this study is that it was conducted in Uttar Pradesh alone,

while the work culture of organizations other than in Uttar Pradesh may be

different.

Dalmia (2012) in her paper “Strong Women, Weak Bodies, Muted

Voices Women Construction Workers in Delhi” published in ‘Economic &

Political Weekly’ argued that, if Delhi is building its way towards becoming

a “global city” through mammoth infrastructure and construction projects,

then what is the story of those people whose work helps put up its massive

structures? The role played by women who are employed in the construction

of Delhi’s megastructures is even more intriguing, for they not only become

workers-earners in a vast city but continue to fulfill the role of a

mother-wife-householder.

Hasnain, et al (2012) published “Work-Family Conflict and

Occupational Stress as Correlates of Life Satisfaction Among Male and

Female Managers” in ‘International Review of Business and Social

Sciences’. The study was designed to investigate the differences in

work-family and family-work conflicts, occupational stress and life

satisfaction of male and female managers. It also investigated the percentage

of variance counted by work-family conflict and occupational stress in life

satisfaction. The sample of the study consisted of a total of 70 middle level

managers from one of the leading thermal power corporations, Delhi (India).

Among them, there were 35 male and 35 female managers. The respondents

were taken on incidental basis and their age ranged from 47 to 59 years. Male

managers had significantly greater means on all the variables i.e., work-family

32

conflict, family-work conflict and life satisfaction than female managers. The

result also revealed significant differences in different dimensions of

occupational stress: role overload, role conflict and strenuous working

conditions, and in all the dimensions male managers had greater mean scores

than female managers. The regression analysis showed that work-family

conflict, family-work conflict and occupational stress together contributed

16% variance in the life satisfaction of male managers and 18% of female

managers.

Holeyannavar and Itagi (2012) published a paper on “Stress and

Emotional Competence of Primary School Teachers” in ‘Journal of

Psychology’. It is an ex-post-facto study on stress and emotional competence

of 105 primary school teachers was conducted in Dharwad during 2008-09.

Stress was assessed using Stress Inventory for Teachers (SIT) and emotional

competence by EC Scale. Results revealed that most of the teachers (64.7%)

indicated average to high levels of stress and 35.2% with low stress. Majority

of them (89.5%) showed average to competent levels of emotional

competence, followed by 6.7% and 3.8% in incompetent and highly

competent levels respectively. The stress of teachers showed negative and

highly significant relationship with age and work experience whereas positive

and highly significant relationship with education. Age and work experience

were positively and significantly related with the emotional competence of

teachers. Negative and highly significant relationship was observed between

the stress and emotional competence of teachers. Thus, the study concluded

that increase in the emotional competence reduced the stress levels of the

primary teachers significantly.

In their paper “Occupational Stress in Relation to General Health

Among Information Technology (IT) Workers” published in

33

‘International Journal of Business and Management Tomorrow’,

Mangaiyarkarasi and Sellakumar (2012) assessed the level of occupational

stress and how stress is related to General Health among IT (Information and

Technology) workers in a selected company. A sample of 100 employees both

male and female was randomly selected from a selected IT industry.

Occupational Stress Scale and General Health Questionnaire were

administered individually to collect data. One-way ANOVA was used to

analyze the data to test the hypothesis. The result shows that there is a

significant difference found between high and low Occupational Stress on

General health. Hence it is concluded that increase of occupational stress

affects the general health of the IT workers.

Mariammal, et al (2012) published “Work influenced occupational

stress and cardiovascular risk among teachers and office workers” in

‘Journal of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Research’. School Teachers face

tremendous stress during teaching and handling children while it is less in

case of office workers. In order to assess the impact of working environment

on the study group, a standardized questionnaire was designed, covering all

the required data, served to the study group and a total of 600 respondents

turned up. Among the 600 respondents, 300 were teachers and 300 were

office workers including both sexes. The aim of the present study is to assess

the blood pressure, pulse rate of teachers and office workers of Thoothukudi

which is expected to be influenced by their working environment. There was a

significant increase in the mean arterial blood pressure, systolic and diastolic

pressure and of heart rate of the teachers and office workers were observed

when compared with the control populations. When the parameters of teachers

were compared with the office workers, there was a significant increase was

observed in teachers. In the anthropometric parameters measured such as

height and experience there was no significant change was observed among

34

the teachers and the office workers and when both compared with control. But

with regard to the age, weight and BMI of the teachers and office workers,

there was a significant increase noted than the control and this was considered

as one of the causative factor for the cardiovascular disorders. The study result

concluded that the working environment affected the teachers to a greater

extent resulted in increased blood pressure, pulse rate and pulse pressure

while the working environment of office workers affected their health to a

lesser extent than the teachers. But when both of them were compared with

the control population, both the workers are affected by their environment.

Muthu Velayutham and Chandru (2012) published a paper “An

Empirical study on Job Stress and its impact on health workers in

Private Hospitals at Tiruchirappalli, South India” in ‘Interdisciplinary

Journal of Contemporary Research in Business’. Stress may be referred to

as an unpleasant state of emotional and physiological arousal that people

experience in situations that they perceive as dangerous or threatening to their

well-being. In this study the researcher’s wants to know the various factors

that cause stress to health workers in private hospitals at Tiruchirappalli.

Primary data was collected by the researcher with the help of structured

questionnaire administered to the health workers in two leading private

hospitals at Tiruchirappalli, Tamilnadu. 128 employees from those

organizations constitute the sample size. Simple Random Sampling using

lottery method was adopted to select the respondents. The determinants of job

stress that have been examined under this study include, management role,

relationship with others, workload pressure, homework interface, role

ambiguity, and performance pressure. To test the reliability of the data

collected, the researcher used cronbach’s Alpha test and the value is 0.835

which shows that the data has satisfactory reliability and validity. Using

Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) some of the relevant tests were

35

carried out like factor analysis and reliability test. Based on the test result

some of the major finding will be derived that will be significant and relevant

to identify the factors that causes stress among health workers and means to

overcome it.

As stated by Nur Aqilah and Juliana (2012) in their paper

“Association between Occupational Stress and Respiratory Symptoms

among Lecturers in Universiti Putra Malaysia” published in ‘Global

Journal of Health Science’, there was considerable evidence that a subject’s

psychological status may influence respiratory sensations and that some

subjects may experience respiratory symptoms regardless of the presence of a

respiratory disease. The objective of this study was to determine the

association between occupational stress and respiratory symptoms among

lecturers. This cross sectional study was conducted in Universiti Putra

Malaysia, involved 61 lecturers from various faculties. Job Content

Questionnaire (JCQ) and questionnaires based on American Thoracic Society

were used to collect the data on socio-demography, stress level and respiratory

symptoms. High level of occupational stress (high strain) was determined

among 16 of the respondents (26.2%). Breathlessness was the common

symptom experienced by the respondents. Female lecturers were significantly

experienced high stress level compared to male (p=0.035). They were also

significantly having more breathlessness symptom compared to male lecturer

(p=0.011). Study highlighted in study population, gender plays a significant

role that influenced level of occupational stress and also gender has role in

resulting occupational stress level and respiratory symptoms. There was no

significant association between occupational stress and respiratory symptoms.

It can be concluded that this group of lecturers of Universiti Putra Malaysia

did not experienced high occupational stress level. Occupational stress level

36

was not statistically significantly associated with all respiratory symptoms

being studied.

Pandit and Upadhyaya (2012) published a paper “Role Conflict and

its effect on Middle Class Working Women of India” in ‘IOSR Journal of

Business and Management’. Women of India have marked their significant

presence in the world in various fields. They have been given the status of

power and prestige in India. With the emergence of middle class, women of

this segment have developed to a great extent. They form the major female

work force of India. In various sectors and fields of work, these middle class

women have majorly been employed. Conflicts arise when one or the other

party is not able to reach to an agreement. It is the stage where disagreement

crops up. Role conflict is an outcome of conflicts in number of roles

performed by an individual. Middle working women are major victims of this

issue. They perform number of roles through their lives to an extent that they

fail to retain their own identity. A major problem of conflict and identity

crises crops up.

Shunmuga Sundaram and Jeya Kumaran (2012) published “A

Study on Occupational stress and Coping strategies among Police Head

Constables (Grade III)” in ‘Research Journal of Management Sciences’.

Occupation stress is a renowned problem in police personals. Police

department is the occupation that has been identified as high level of stress.

This study reveals the frequency of stressful events faced by the grade III

police constables and stress coping strategies used by them. A standard

questionnaire was used to find out the demographic profile, frequency of

stress and coping strategies. 150 grade III constables are taken into account

for this study. This study explores the most common coping strategies, in that

waiting for right time to do the job is the most used coping method, because

37

most of the police constables are having more than 16-20 years of experience

(40%), second most used coping strategies is think how best he can handle the

problems, because most of them are having UG level qualifications and very

good experience in handling crisis situations. And also seeing criminals going

free and lack of personal time are most stressful events faced by the

constables, In this study it shows that poor organizational policy is the major

stressor for grade III police constables.

Shyam Pingle (2012) write an article “Occupational Safety and

Health in India: Now and the Future” in ‘Industrial Health’. India, a

growing economy and world’s largest democracy, has population exceeding

1.2 billion. Out of this huge number, 63.6% form working age group. More

than 90% work in the informal economy, mainly agriculture and services.

Less than 10% work in the organized sector; mainly industry, mining and

some services. New service industries like Information Technology (IT),

Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) are increasing rapidly; so is the

proportion of females in the workforce. The Occupational Safety and Health

(OSH)scenario in India is complex. Unprecedented growth and progress go

hand in hand with challenges such as huge workforce in unorganized sector,

availability of cheap labour, meager public spending on health, inadequate

implementation of existing legislation, lack of reliable OSH data, shortage of

OSH professionals, multiplicity of statutory controls, apathy of stakeholders

and infrastructure problems. The national policy of OSH at workplace,

adopted by the government in 2009, is yet to be implemented. Some of the

major occupational risks are accidents, pneumoconiosis, musculoskeletal

injuries, chronic obstructive lung diseases; pesticide poisoning and noise

induced hearing loss. The three most important OSH needs are (1) legislation

to extent OSH coverage to all sectors of working life including the

unorganized sector; (2) spreading the awareness about OSH among

38

stakeholders; (3) development of OSH infrastructure and OSH professionals.

Other issues include integration of occupational health with primary health

care.

Somashekhar and Vinodh Kumar (2012) published “Occupational

Problems and Challenges of Women Bus Conductors in Road Transport

Industry: With Special Reference to BMTC” in ‘International Journal of

Humanities and Social Science Invention’. The transport industry is

traditionally a male dominated sector. Women workforces in India were away

from this sector till 1980s. From past two- three decades women have

gradually entered to this sector as bus conductors and different strata of

employment in road transport industry in different parts of the country. This

situation can also see in Bangalore Metropolitan Transport Corporation

(BMTC) in Karnataka state. Even today if we have a closer look at the sex

balance in the transport employment, it shows that it is still male dominated.

This paper is to search that the transport sector is a gendered work space

dominated by masculine values and practices. Also seeks the reasons for

women who entering to transport sector in larger scale in recent days. The aim

of this paper is to focus on occupational problems, challenges of women bus

conductors and job satisfaction.

Sunny Jose (2012) writes a paper “Women’s Paid Work and

Well-being in Rajasthan” in ‘Economic & Political Weekly’ and

questioned that does women’s participation in paid work lead to their better

well-being? This analysis, through a primary survey carried out on the

outskirts of Jaipur in Rajasthan, suggests a mixed picture. Participation in paid

work is likely to bring some benefits to women but beyond a point the benefits

are context-specific – whether women enter the labour force out of sheer

survival necessity or due to other reasons. These findings provide neither a

39

neat narrative that paid work is empowering women by providing them with

choices and freedom, nor do they convey that paid work is demeaning and

devoid of any important benefit. Instead, the findings call for considering a

context-specific view of the potential of paid work for women’s well-being

and underline the significance of public policy in enhancing the well-being of

poor women in India.

Vijayadurai and Venkatesh (2012) published a paper “A Study on

Stress Management among Women College Teachers in Tamilnadu,

India” in ‘Pacific Business Review International’. Stress at work can be a

real problem to the organization as well as for its workers. Good management

and good work organization are the best forms of stress prevention. If

employees are already stressed, their managers should be aware of it and

know to help. Work related stress is the response people may have when

present with work demands and pressures that are not matched to their

knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope. Stress

occurs in a wide range of work circumstances but is often made worse when

employees feel they have little support from supervisors and colleagues and

where they can cope with its demands and pressures. There is often confusion

between pressure or challenge and stress and sometimes it is used to excuse

bad management practice. In the workplace and at home, stress and other

difficult situation are at an all- time high. Factors such as job insecurity, long

hours, continuous change and unrealistic deadlines can cause serious problem

for workers. The aim and goal of the paper is to know the various factors to

stimulate stress level among women teachers in college level. Workplace

stress occurs when there is an imbalance the demands and perceived pressures

of the work environment and an individual ability to cope. An individual’s

experience of stress at work is to a large extent affected by the level of control

they have over their working condition / pressures, the degree of support they

40

receive from others in the workplace and the strategies they use to respond to

work pressures.

Aadya and Kiran (2013) published “Occupational Stress of Women

Workers in Unorganized Sector” in ‘International Journal of Scientific &

Engineering Research’. The study was carried out with an objective of

studying the occupational history and to compare and analyse the occupational

stress among the women workers involved in construction work, chikankari

work and sanitary work. The study was conducted in Lucknow city selecting

60 respondents from each type of work. A self structured interview schedule

and a rating scale was prepared to collect the information using interview

method. Significant differences in the level of occupational stress i.e.,

physical stress (X2=56.94**, p<0.001 & p<0.005) and biomechanical stress

(X2=17.81** p<0.001 & p<0.005) was found among various types of work

and it was also revealed that highest amount of stress is perceived by the

women involved in sanitary work. Among the three types of workers, sanitary

workers perceive high level of physical, physiological and biomechanical

stress. Regularized working patterns have to be implemented in unorganized

sector to improve the working conditions and in turn to minimize the stress for

women workers. Ergonomic interventions may also be made to improve the

quality of life of women involved in unorganized sector.

Darshan, et al (2013) writes on “A Study on Professional Stress,

Depression and Alcohol Use Among Indian IT Professionals” in ‘Indian

Journal of Psychiatry’. Stress has touched almost all professions posing

threat to mental and physical health. India being the Information Technology

(IT) hub with lakhs involved as IT professionals, there is a need to assess

prevalence of professional stress, depression and problem alcohol use and

understand their association. The present study is made to screen for the

41

prevalence of professional stress, risk for depression and harmful alcohol use

among software engineers and to study the association between professional

stress, risk for depression and harmful alcohol use. The results revealed that a

total of 129 subjects, participated in the study. 51.2% of the study sample was

found to be professionally stressed at the time of interview. 43.4% of the

study population was found to be at risk for developing depression. 68.2% of

those who were professionally stressed were at risk for developing depression

compared with only 17.5% of those who were not professionally stressed.

Odds ratio revealed that subjects who were professionally stressed had 10

times higher risk for developing depression compared to those who were not

professionally stressed. Subjects who were professionally stressed had 5.9

times higher prevalence of harmful alcohol use compared to those who were

not professionally stressed. Subjects who were at risk for developing

depression had 4.1 times higher prevalence of harmful alcohol use compared

with those who were not at risk for developing depression. Such higher rates

of professional stress, risk for developing depression and harmful alcohol use

among software engineers could hinder the progress of IT development and

also significantly increase the incidence of psychiatric disorders.

Divya Raju, et al (2013) written a paper “Influence of Occupational

Stress on Health Among the Medical Transcriptors” in ‘International

Journal of Pharmacology and Biological Sciences’. Occupational stress is

one of the major problem in our modern world and it leads to various stress

conditions..The purpose of this study was to assess the influence of

occupational stress on health among medical transcriptors. After initial

assessment of occupational stress,a module was given to provide information

on stress reduction. The study result showed that females have higher

occupational stress compared to males. It was also observed that the

42

symptoms including somatic symptoms and psychological symptoms are

higher in females compared to males.

Kakkar and Ahuja (2013) in their paper “Stress Among Women

Lecturers Working in Govt. and Private Colleges: A Comparative Study”

published in ‘Advanced International Research Journal of Teacher

Education’ attempted to study the effect of stress among women lecturers in

different colleges so that remedies could be find out to live a stress less life.

The questionnaire was used for assessing the level of stress and making a

comparison between the groups of women lecturers from Government and

Private Colleges. The difference in stress levels was found insignificant

retaining the null hypothesis formulated for the study. The Lecturers in the

groups have however suggested some measures for reduction of stress levels

to develop healthy attitudes for leading better lives and avoiding diseases on

this account.

The study “Impact of Occupational Stress on the Health Status of

Working Women in Anantnag District (J&K)” published in ‘International

Journal of Social Science Tomorrow’ was carried out by Uzma Rashid and

Nisar Ahmad Wani (2013) with the objectives of study the impact of

occupational stress on the health status of working women. The study was

conducted on a sample of 100 respondents. Data for research was collected

through pre structured questionnaire method. The research is exploratory as

well as descriptive in nature, because after an intensive study the project has

been completed. After analyzing the data it was found that the occupational

stress is having greater influence on the health status of working women.The

hypothesis pertains that occupational stress among women of age group 25-35

is higher than those of age group above 35 years. Another hypothesis pertains

that occupational stress among private employees is higher than government

43

employees. This is due the fact that there is tough competition in private

sector and each company wants its employees to be highly efficient and

hardworking giving least or no importance the working conditions. Another

hypothesis pertains that occupational stress among urban working women is

higher than those of rural. Another hypothesis pertains that health status is

directly affected by the stress. With the increase in stress level, health of

women is tremendously affected. Another hypothesis pertains that

occupational stress in married women is greater than those who are unmarried.

Married women have to work in two shifts i.e; for home and in office as well.

Managing both duties sometimes becomes unbearable as she is not able to

give time and relaxation for herself, which in turn increases her stress level

which directly causes health problems.

Rajasekhar and Sasikala (2013) written a paper “An Impact of

Stress Management on Employed Women” published in ‘Language in

India’. Today women are in a state of transition caught between the illusory

safety of traditional role on one hand and the challenge to realize their

potential outside on the other hand. Women, have a lot of balancing to do

between home and workplace, and balancing between social and personal

requirements. The major issues are maternity, menopause, parenthood, gender

roles, conditions at home and workplace, familial and social support, often

blight women’s lives in the long run. Stress is the reactions of people have to

excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them. A woman is

constantly under stress either at home or at work place. At work place coping

with demands, time management, and completion of tasks before the

deadlines are the problems which need to be handled skilfully. At home

maintaining relationships, making ends to meet are factors that can cause

stress. Stress is caused whenever any event, internal or external, is perceived

as making demands over and above the copy resources possessed by the

44

women’s. Stress make a person more susceptible to disease, which then

aggravates any existing illness or chronic condition such as heart disease,

depression, ulcers, irritable bowel disease, diabetics, the common cold,

urinary tract infections. Some people seek comfort from stress by engaging in

behaviours such as alcohol and drug abuse, smoking, or overeating, which

have negative physical and emotional health consequences of their own. A

recent survey showed that 70-90 percent of women feel stressed at work place

and outside. Depression, only one type of stress reaction, is predicted to be the

leading occupational disease of the 21st century, responsible for more days

lost than any other single factor. Globally, 23 percent of women executives

and professionals, say they feel “super stressed”. The aim of the field study

has been to find out the cause and effects of stress on the working women.

Causes of occupational stress and several specific techniques have been

suggested through stress management. To conclude, the effective management

of stress involves directing stress for productive purposes, preparing role

occupants to understand the nature of stress helping them to understand their

strength and usual styles and equipping them to develop approach strategies

for coping with stress.

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