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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE, CONCEPTS, AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK

2.1 Review of Literature

Undergraduate thesis entitled “The Analysis of Grammatical Error in

Writing Skill Made by the Third Students of SMAN 2 Karangasem” was written

by Widnyani (2006). This study focused on the grammatical error made by the

students in writing English text. The data were from the third grade students of

SMAN 2 Karangasem. This undergraduate thesis presents the analysis of English

grammatical rules errors in detail by tables; it make this study has a strength point.

In addition she also shows the application of the theory to classify the error.

Besides, the weakness point in this undergraduate thesis is the explanations of the

sources of errors occur is not clear enough. This study is relevant to this topic

since it applied the same theory.

Tatarani (2007) “An Analysis of Pronunciation of Some English Phonemes

Made by the Balinese Employees in Santika Beach Hotel”. Her undergraduate

thesis focused on the pronunciation of English phonemes made by Balinese

employees in Santika Beach Hotel. This study stated that several errors occurring

in pronouncing English phonemes made by the Balinese employees in Santika

Beach Hotel. The errors are usually influenced by the interference of their mother

tongue. The strength of her study is she gives the clear analysis of the English

phonemes which are unable to pronounce by Balinese employees and give the

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clear explanation about the English sounds which are absent in Balinese language.

The weakness is the data does not supported by more examples of words. It just

mentions the phonemes and one word as an example. This undergraduate thesis is

relevant to this study since it analyzed the English phoneme; it is such as vowel,

consonant, and etc.

Undergraduate thesis entitled “An Analysis of Students‟ Errors in

Pronouncing English Vowels” written by Puspita (2007). This study focus on the

pronunciation error made by the students and specifically focuses in analyzing the

errors in pronouncing vowels. This study had shown the specific percentages of

dominant errors occur in detail and explained about the sources of errors occur

clearly, it is the strength of her study. The weakness is in the examples of the

errors are not clear enough; it is only shown by the phoneme symbols and did not

supported by the example of words. This undergraduate thesis is relevant because

it focus on the pronunciation error and the object is vowel, this thesis also applied

the same theory.

Damayanti (2008) “English Pronunciation in Fricative Consonants by

Balinese Shopkeepers at Kumbasari Market”. Her undergraduate thesis focused

on the pronunciation of English phonemes made by Balinese shopkeepers at

Kumbasari Market. This thesis stated that some errors occur in pronouncing

English phonemes made by the Balinese shopkeepers and it usually caused by the

influence of their mother tongue. The strength of this study is she gives the clear

explanation about fricative consonants which are unable to pronounce by Balinese

shopkeepers and she also give the clear explanation about the factors contributed

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to the errors even her study is not concern on it. The weakness is the data does not

supported by more examples of words. She only mentions the phonemes and one

word as an example. Damayanti‟s undergraduate thesis is relevant to this study

since it also analyzed the consonant.

Undergraduate thesis entitled “English Pronunciation Error Made by Sixth

Grade Students in SD Saraswati 2 Denpasar” was written by Mahayani (2009).

Her study focused on the error of English pronunciation made by sixth grade

students in SD Saraswati 2 Denpasar. The result of her analysis had shown in

detail by percentage, it is the strength in this study since it can present how many

percent each errors made by the students in detail. The weakness point is the

explanations of the sources of errors are not clear enough since the attention is

more focused in the percentage of errors occurring. Mahayani‟s undergraduate

thesis is relevant to this study since the focus is in the errors in pronunciation and

it used the same theory.

Wahyu (2011) in her undergraduate thesis entitled “Reducing Students‟

Anxiety to Speak English”. This study focused on the anxiety of the students to

speak English. Her thesis stated that the students usually made an error in

speaking English words when the students face several situation such as do the

presentation in front of the class. Nervous feeling when they stand in front of the

class can increase the students‟ anxiety. Consequently, it affect in how the

students say something and usually it cause some errors in pronouncing English

words. Her work is related to this study since it is concern on the sources of

errors. The clear explanation about how the students‟ anxiety can cause the errors

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in speaking English and how to reduce that anxiety is the strength in this study.

The weakness is she did not give the other way or the solution to solve the anxiety

when in case one way is not give an effect or unable to reduce the anxiety.

Article entitled The Analysis of the First Year Students’ Errors in

Pronouncing English Words was written by Mulansari, Basri, and Hastini in

English Language Teaching Society (ELTS) Vol. 2 No. 3 81-96 (2014). Their

article is focused on the errors made by the first years students in pronouncing

English words at SMAN 1 Parigi Tengah. The strength of this article is they give

the clear explanation about the factors contributing the errors such as internal and

external factors. Besides, they give the clear example of the errors produced by the

students in SMAN 1 Parigi Tengah; it is explained clearly with percentages and

tables. However; the weakness is they did not give the examples in the form of

word, they only mentioned the phoneme symbols which are the errors produced

by the students in SMAN 1 Parigi Tengah. This article is related to this study since

the concern is in the pronunciation.

2.2 Concepts

The concepts of the study are based on the ideas proposed by the experts in

the field of Linguistic. There are several concepts which would be presented in

this study. The concepts presented were: error analysis, error and mistake, vowel,

and consonant.

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2.2.1 Concept of Error Analysis

According to Richard (1985:96), the error analysis is the study and analysis

of the errors made by second and foreign language learner. Error analysis may be

carried out in order to find out how a person learns a language and to find out how

well someone knows a language.

2.2.2 Concept of Error and Mistake

A mistake refers to a performance error that is either a random guess or

„slip‟, in that it is a failure to utilize a known system correctly. All people make

mistakes, in both native and second language situations. Besides, mistake is a

deviation that can be self-corrected and it is not happened repeatedly. An error

refers to a deviation that cannot be self-corrected and it is happened repeatedly

(Corder, 1967: 217).

2.2.3 Concept of Vowel

According to Oxford Dictionaries, vowel means “A speech sound which is

produced by comparatively open configuration of the vocal tract, with vibration of

the vocal cords but without audible friction, and which is a unit of the sound

system of a language that forms the nucleus of a syllable.”

According to Peter (2011: 31) the word vowel comes from the Latin word

vocalis, meaning "vocal" (relating to voice). There is a conflict between the

phonetic and phonemic definition of vowel “(a) Phonetically, vowels are produced

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without any obstruction of air, and, (b) Phonologically, vowels usually occupy the

centre of a syllable”.

2.2.4 Concept of Consonant

According to Oxford Dictionaries, consonant means “A basic speech

sound in which the breath is at least partly obstructed and which can be

combined with a vowel to form a syllable”. Peter (2011: 31), in his book entitled

A Manual of English Phonetics and Phonology stated that consonants are sounds

that are produced by an obstruction of an air-stream either in the pharynx or in the

vocal tract.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

This research is based on several theories in linguistics. First, theory

proposed by Roach (1984 15-39) about vowels and consonants in his book

entitled English phonetics and Phonology. This theory is applied to solve the first

problem. Theory by Corder (1967: 217) about the difference between mistake and

error is applied to support the first theory. Second, Theory by Richards (1974:

174) about types and causes of error in his book entitled Error Analysis:

Perspective of Second Language Acquisition is applied to solve the second

problem.

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2.3.1 Phonetics and Phonology

According to Roach (1984: 1) phonetics and phonology are learning about

speech sounds and how they used special symbol in any word. It is important to

learn English phonological system. Several people use special symbol to present

speech sound.

2.3.1.1 English Vowel

In producing vowels; there is no obstruction of an air flow as it passes from

the larynx into the lips. According to Roach (1984: 10) there are twelve sounds in

English vowel that are /ɪ/, /e/, /æ/, /ʌ/, /ɒ/, /ʊ/, /ə/, /i:/, /ɜ:/, /ɑ:/, /ɔ:/, and /u:/.

Roach (1984: 15) also divide the twelve vowel sounds into two parts; there are

short vowel sounds and long vowel sounds.

2.3.1.1.1 Short Vowels

1. A mid-close front-central vowel

The part of the tongue between the front and the centre is raised to just

above mid-close position, and the lips are slightly spread. The phoneme symbol

/ɪ/.

fish /fɪʃ/.

2. A mid front vowel

The front of the tongue is raised between mid-close and mid-open position,

and the lips are slightly spread. The phoneme symbol /e/.

egg /eg/

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3. A mid-open-open front vowel

The front of the tongue is raised between mid-open and fully open position,

and the lips are slightly spread. The phoneme symbol /æ/.

back /bæk/.

4. A mid-open-open central vowel

The centre of the tongue is raised between mid-open and fully open position,

and the shape of the lips is neutral. The phoneme symbol /ʌ/.

but /bʌt/.

5. An open back vowel

The back of the tongue is lowered to al-most fully open position, and the lips

are slightly rounded. The phoneme symbol /ɒ/.

on /'ɒn/.

6. A mid-close central-back vowel.

The part of the tongue between the centre and the back is raised to just

above mid-close position, and the lips are rounded. The phoneme symbol /ʊ/.

book /'bʊk/.

7. A mid central vowel

The centre of the tongue is raised between mid-close and mid-open position,

and the lips are in a neutral shape. The phoneme symbol /ə/.

ago /əˈɡəʊ/.

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2.3.1.1.2 Long Vowels

The phoneme symbols for long vowels are followed by a length mark made

of two vertical dots (:).

1. A close front vowel

The front of the tongue is raised so that it almost touches the palate, and the

lips are slightly spread. The phoneme symbol /i:/.

she /'ʃi:/.

2. A mid central vowel

The centre of the tongue is raised between mid-close and mid-open

position, and the lips are in a neutral shape. The phoneme symbol /ɜ:/.

bird /'bɜ:d/.

3. An open central-back vowel

The part of the tongue between the centre and the back is lowered to fully

open position, and the lips are in a neutral shape. The phoneme symbol /ɑ:/.

star /'stɑ:(r)/.

4. A mid back vowel

The back of the tongue is raised between mid-close and mid-open position,

and the lips are rounded. The phoneme symbol /ɔ:/.

horse /'hɔ:s /.

5. A close back vowel

The back of the tongue is raised so that it almost touches the palate, and the

lips are moderately rounded. The phoneme symbol /u:/.

you / 'ju: /.

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2.3.1.2 English Consonant

According to Roach (1984: 26) there are twenty-four sounds in English

consonant that are /p/, /f/, /θ/, /t/, /s/, /ʃ/, /ʧ/, /k/, /b/, /v/, /ð/, /d/, /z/, /ʒ/, /ʤ/, /g/,

/m/, /n/, /ŋ/, /h/, /w/, /l/, /r/, and /j/. English consonants can be classified in term of

place of articulation which is the place where the air flow will be more or less

obstructed; and manner of articulation which is concerned with the nature of the

obstruction.

2.3.1.2.1 Place of Articulation

1. Bilabial

Bilabial sounds are produced with both lips. The phoneme symbols /p/, /b/,

and /m/.

peace /piːs/ beach /biːtʃ/ mother /ˈmʌðə/.

2. Labiodental

Labiodental sounds are produced by a movement of the lower lip against the

upper teeth. The phoneme symbols /f/ and /v/.

film /fɪlm/ video /ˈvɪdɪəʊ/.

3. Dental

Dental sounds are made with the tongue tip and rims between the upper and

lower teeth or against the upper teeth. The phoneme symbols /θ/ and /ð/.

think /θɪŋk/ this /ðɪs/.

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4. Alveolar

Alveolar sounds are made with the tongue tip coming near or touching the

bony ridge behind the upper teeth, called the alveolar ridge. The phoneme

symbols /t/, /d/, /s/, /z/, /n/, and /l/.

teeth /tiːθ/ as in stop /stɒp/ need /niːd/,

dead /dɛd/ zoo /zuː/ love /lʌv/

5. Palatoalveolar

Palatoalveolar sounds are made with the tongue tip touching the alveolar

ridge, and with a simultaneous raising of the blade of the tongue towards the hard

palate. The phoneme symbols /ʃ/, /ʧ/, /ʒ/, /ʤ/, and /r/.

she /ʃiː/ visual /ˈvɪʒ(j)ʊəl/ red /rɛd/.

cheese /tʃiːz/ jack /dʒak/,

6. Palatal

Palatal sounds are produced when the body of the tongue comes near or

touches the (hard) palate. The phoneme symbol /j/.

you /juː/

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7. Velar

Velar sounds are made by placing the back of the tongue against or near the

velum, or soft palate. The phoneme symbols /k/, /g/, /ŋ/, and /w/.

as in kick /kɪk/ thank /θaŋk/

as in goal /ɡəʊl/ win /wɪn/.

8. Glottal

Glottal sounds are produced in the larynx when air passes through the

glottis. The phoneme symbol /h/.

horse /hɔːs/.

2.3.1.2.2 Manner of Articulation

1. Plosives

Plosives or stops are sounds for which the speaker makes a complete closure

at some point in the vocal tract, builds up the air pressure while the closure is

held, and then releases the air explosively through the mouth. The phoneme

symbols /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, and /g/.

peace /piːs/ teeth /tiːθ/ kick /kɪk/

beach /biːtʃ/ dead /dɛd/ goal /ɡəʊl/

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2. Affricates

Affricates are sounds that consist of two elements. The first element is a

plosive. This means that affricates, too, require a complete closure in the vocal

tract, but the air is released slowly enough to produce friction. The second element

is articulated in the same place. The phoneme symbols /ʧ/ and /ʤ/.

cheese /tʃiːz/ jack /dʒak/.

3. Nasals

Nasals have a closure in the vocal tract as well. They stand out from all

other English phonemes, however, in that the velum, or soft palate, is lowered, so

that air escapes through the nose. In the production of English nasals, usually all

the air escapes through the nose. The phoneme symbols /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/.

mother /ˈmʌðə/ need /niːd/ thank /θaŋk/.

4. Fricatives

Fricatives are made when air forces its way through a very narrow gap

between two speech organs, thereby producing audible friction. The phoneme

symbols /f/, /v/, /θ/, /ð/, /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, and /h/.

film /fɪlm/ this /ðɪs/ she /ʃiː/,

video /ˈvɪdɪəʊ/ stop /stɒp/ visual /ˈvɪʒ(j)ʊəl/

think /θɪŋk/ zoo /zuː/ horse /hɔːs/

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5. Laterals

Laterals or more specifically lateral approximants are made with air that

escapes around the sides of a partial closure of the speech organs. The phoneme

symbol /l/.

love /lʌv/.

6. Approximants

Approximants are generally made with a wider gap between the speech

organs than is the case in the production of fricatives. The speech organs approach

each other, but they do not touch each other. The phoneme symbols /r/, /j/, and

/w/.

red /rɛd/ you /juː/ win /wɪn/.

2.3.2 Error Analysis

According to Richard (1985:96), the error analysis is the study and analysis

of the errors made by second and foreign language learner. Error analysis may be

carried out in order to find out how a person learns a language and to find out how

well someone knows a language. Richard (1974: 174) in his book entitled Errors

Analysis: Perspective on Second Language Acquisition “Errors is frequent

regardless of the learner‟s language background”.

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2.3.2.1 Types and Causes of Error

Richards (1974: 174) stated that there are several types and causes of error.

They are called interlingual errors and intralingual and development errors. These

kinds of error reflect the learner‟s competence at particular stage and illustrate

some of the general characteristic of language acquisition. Types and causes of

error can be stated as follows:

1. Interlingual Errors

Interlingual error is the errors occur when learner‟s native language

automatically interferes with the learning of target language. That is caused by the

interference of the learner‟s mother tongue and the errors reflect their mother

tongue structures. The interference of the learner‟s mother tongue is considered to

be a major source of difficulty in second language learning.

2. Intralingual and Development Errors

Intralingual and development errors is the error caused by the learner‟s

competence. It reflects the learner‟s competence in learning the target language.

There are some factors as the main sources of the intralingual errors:

1. Overgeneralization of rules

The error where the learner crates a deviant structure on the basis of his/her

experience of other structures in the target language. It generally involved the

creation of one deviant structure in place of two regular structures. It might be the

result of the learners reducing their linguistics burden. For example is the students

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pronounce the word “put” /pʊt/ as /pʌt/ by the analogy based on their experience

in other structure in English such as the pronounce of the word “but” /bʌt/ and

“cut” /kʌt/.

2. Ignore of rule restrictions

It is the failure to observe the restrictions of existing structure that is the

application of the rules to context where they do not apply. For example is the

pronounced of word „systematic‟ /sɪstəˈmatɪk/; the learners creat a deviant

structure by analogy based on their previous experience, the learner feels

something incomplete about the pronounced of word „systematic‟ /sɪstəˈmatɪk/.

Therefore, the learners adds the vowel /e/ next after vowel /a/ to the word

„systematic‟ /sɪstəˈmatɪk/ becomes /sɪstəˈmaetɪk/.

3. Incomplete application of rules

Incomplete application of rules is occurrence of structure whose deviancy

represents the degree of development of rules required to produce acceptable

utterances, such as across languages background, systematic difficulty in the used

of questions can be observed. The illustration is; the student who is native in

Indonesian learns English as their foreign language, the differences in the

structure of both languages Indonesian and English make the possible error

occurrences arise.

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4. False concepts hypothesized

It is a kind of error, which has to do with faulty rule learning at various

levels. It is a class of development errors, which derive from faulty

comprehension of distinctions in the target language which sometimes due to the

poor gradation of teaching items.