CHAPTER-II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The review of literature is the exploring phase of research. It helps

the researcher to investigate a specific field of his interest in respect of

researchers that have been conducted in India as well as in abroad. It

provides insight as well as direction in indicating and identifying the

research problem in taking a sample in selecting appropriate methodology

and statistical techniques.

According to J.W. Best "A summary of the writings of recognized

authorities and the previous research provide evidence that the researcher

is familiar with, what is already known and what is still unknown and

untested. Since effective researches are based on past knowledge, this

step helps to estimate the duplication of what has been done and provides

useful hypotheses and helpful suggestions for citing studies and shows

substantial agreement and those that seem to present conflicting

conclusions, help to sharpen and define understanding of existing

knowledge in problem area, provides a background for a research

project."

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Seeing the importance and quality of academic achievement, the

above field appears to have received attention recently in India. This has

been proved by the four surveys of educational research published by

M.B. Buch and others.

2.1 Studies Conducted in Abroad

Carole Ames, Jennifer Archer (1988), Achievement

goals in the classroom: Student's learning strategies and

motivation process. We studied how specific motivational

process are related to the salience of mastery and performance

goals in actual classroom settings. One hundred seventy-six

students attending a junior high/high school for academically

advanced students were randomly selected from one of their

classes and responded to a questionnaire on their perceptions of

the classroom goal orientation, use of effective learning

strategies, task choices, attitudes and causal attributions.

Students who perceived an emphasis on mastery goals in the

classroom reported using more effective strategies, preferred

challenging tasks, had a more positive attitude toward the class,

and had a stronger belief that success follows from one's effort.

Students who perceived performance goals as salient tended to

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focus on their ability, evaluating their ability negatively and

attributing failure to lack of ability. The pattern and strength of

the findings suggest that the classroom goal orientation may

facilitate the maintenance of adaptive motivation patterns when

mastery goals are salient and are adopted by students.

According to Zimmerman (1989), self-regulated learners are

individuals who are “metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally

active participants in their own learning process”

Wade and Trathen (1989) investigated the impact of highlighting

ideas in a text on perceiving the importance of those ideas and learning

them. They found that effective study requires more than underlining,

emphasizing, and note-taking. Questions were useful for all students,

particularly for low-ability learners.

Wittrock and Alessandrini (1990) investigated the influences of

reading text, using analogies, and producing summaries on analytical and

holistic capacities. Results showed that groups employing analogies and

summaries outperformed those employing reading only strategy because

those strategies stimulated higher level of analysis and synthesis. Hooper,

Sales and Rysavy (1994) further found that writing summaries produced

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higher performance than using analogies for university students because

the students were not really successful in producing good analogies.

Braten and Olaussen (1998) investigated the relationship between

motivational beliefs and the use of learning strategies. They found that

when students work hard toward accomplishing a goal, they employ more

and better strategies. McWhaw and Abrami (2001) confirmed that

students with high level of interest use more strategies than those with

low level of interest in a learning area. This is consistent with the result

that students have more power or control over the use of strategies than

teachers (Eshel & Kohavi, 2003).

Lambrecht (1999) concluded that the learning of computer and

information systems concepts usually involves listening to lectures,

taking notes, participating in discussions, and taking tests that are aimed

to provide an overall measure of how much is learned. The most

commonly used approach in a computer lab, on the other hand, requires

students to follow some type of step-by-step instructions to complete

projects or assignments on computers and the projects and assignments

are evaluated for mastery of the computer software.

Chun-Shih & Gamon (2002) "Relationships Among Learning

Strategies, Patterns, Styles, and Achievement in Web-Based

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Courses". This study analyzed the relationships among student

achievement, learning strategies, learning patterns, learning styles, and

student characteristics. The population of this study included 99 students

taking two Web-based courses offered by a land grant university in the

United States. Seventy-four students (75%) completed a learning style

test, an on-line questionnaire, and received grades by the end of the

semester. The learning style test was the Group Embedded Figures Test

(GEFT), which classified students as either field-dependent or field-

independent. The on-line questionnaire consisted of two scales (learning

strategy and learning pattern), with pilot-test reliabilities of .80 and .72,

respectively. The students used most of the learning strategies to find

important ideas from lectures and to memorize key words of important

concepts. They seemed to be more interested in checking their grades

than in communicating with the class and instructors via e-mail,

discussion forum, or chat room. Learning strategy was the only

significant factor that explained about one-fourth of student achievement

measured by class grade.

Caattheriine S. Chen(2002) "Self-regulated Learning

Strategies and Achievement in an Introduction to Information

Systems Course". The shift from behaviorism to cognitivism in

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educational psychology has placed an increasing responsibility on

learners for their own learning, and self-regulated learning has become a

frequent area of educational research. The Motivated Strategies for

Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) is a widely used instrument to assess

college students’ self-regulated learning. This research investigated

effective self-regulated learning strategies in a lecture-led concept

learning environment versus a hands-on computer lab learning

environment for an introduction to information systems course. The

findings revealed that effort regulation had a positive effect and peer

learning had a negative effect on learning computer concepts. The

findings on effective strategies for hands-on computer lab learning were

inconclusive. Further research is needed to examine the appropriateness

of MSLQ in assessing students’ self-regulated learning in a computer lab

learning environment.

Sizoo, Malhotra and Bearson (2003) compared learning

strategies of students in distance education and traditional face-to-face

education. They found no difference for male students in both modes of

instruction. However, female students in distance education programs

were more successful than their counterparts in traditional programs. The

literature also suggests that online learners usually have higher

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motivation and use more advanced strategies than traditional classroom

learners.

Rebecca L.(2003) "Language Learning Styles and Strategies:

An Overview". In “Language Learning Styles and Strategies,” the

author synthesizes research from various parts of the world on two key

variables affecting language learning: styles, i.e., the general approaches

to learning a language; and strategies, the specific behaviors or thoughts

learners use to enhance their language learning. These factors influence

the student’s ability to learn in a particular instructional framework.

Leigh M Wadsworth, Jenefer Husman, Mary Anne

Duggan, M. Nan Pennington (2004) Online Mathematics

Achievement : Effects Learning Strategies and Self -Efficacy.

Fluid and flexible learning strategies repertoire and self-efficacy

have been documented as important factors for learning and

achievement. However, there has been little research examining

the effects of these same factors on achievement in an online

learning environment. The current research investigates the

strategies used by and self-efficacy demonstrated by successful

college students in an online development mathematics course.

This article provides evidence of the relationship between

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learning strategies, motivation, self-efficacy, and student

achievement in this environment. Participants were 89 students

enrolled in an online developmental mathematics course. Results

indicate four types of learning strategies -motivation,

concentration, information processing, and self-testing-along

with self-efficacy predicting 42% (r=0.65) or the variance in

grade achievement.

Ido Roll, Ryan Shaun Baker, Vincent Aleven, Kenneth R.

Koedinger (2005) "A Metacognitive ACT-R Model of Students’

Learning Strategies in Intelligent Tutoring Systems". Research has

shown that students’ problem-solving actions vary in type and duration.

Among other causes, this behavior is a result of strategies that are driven

by different goals. We describe a first version of a computational

cognitive model that explains the origin of these strategies and identifies

the tendencies of students towards different learning goals. Our model

takes into account (i) interpersonal differences, (ii) an estimation of the

student’s knowledge level, and (iii) current feedback from the tutor, in

order to predict the next action of the student – a solution, a guess or a

help request. Our long-term goal is to use identification of the students’

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strategies and their efficiency in order to better understand the learning

process and to improve the metacognitive learning skills of the students.

Ghoniem Mohamed Ahmed (2006) "Prediction of Achievement

Goals and Academic Through Study Processes and Learning

Strategies". The aims of this study were to investigated how far study

processes, learningstrategies and achievement goals are variant,

predicting achievement goals through study processes and learning

strategies and forcasting achievement through study processes, learning

strategies and achievement goals. The researcher translated three

instruments (Study Processes Questionnaire /Learning Strategies

Checklist and Achievement goals scale). First, they were administered to

a pilot sample of 113 students and then to a final sample 227 students at

Bisha Teachers College, Saudi Arabia. Factor analysis and regression

analysis were applied in data analysis . The study came to the following

conclusions: i. Surface study processes (surface strategy /surface motive)

were variant learning strategy Surface study processes were not variant

from performance objectives as a dimension of achievement goals. (ii)

Interpersonal help seeking strategies motivation control were variant from

study processes and the two dimensions of achievement goals

(performance /learning). (iii) Beta values proved that surface strategies

/deep strategies /surface motive / motive control are the factor which help

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predict performance goals. (iv) Beta values proved that )rehearsal /active

reflection and deep motive) could help predict achievement.

Anneke Vrugt, Frans J Oort (2007) "Metacognition,

achievement goals, study strategies and academic

achievement : pathways to achievement". The purpose of this

research was to develop and test a model of effective self-

regulated learning. Based on effort expenditure we discerned

effective self-regulators and less effective self-regulators. The

model comprised achievement goals (mastery, performance -

approach and-avoidance goals), metacognition (metacognitive

knowledge, regulation and experience), study strategies

(metacognitive, deep cognitive, surface cognitive and resource

management strategies) and academic achievement. The

relationships in the model were tested with controlling for

intellectual ability, gender and age. The results showed that

effective self-regulated learning involved two pathways: a

metacognitive and a strategy pathway. The first pathway

involved a positive relationship of mastery goals and a negative

relationship of performance-avoidance goal.

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Age Diseth, Therese Kobbeitvedt (2010) "A mediation

analysis of achievement motives, goals, learning strategies,

and academic achievement". Previous research is inconclusive

regarding antecedents and consequences of achievement goals,

and there is a need for more research in order to examine the

joint effects of different types of mot ives and learning strategies

as predictors of academic achievements with metacognition.

Metacognition positively affected the use of the four study

strategies. The strategy pathway involved positive effects of

mastery and performance-approach goals on the use of

metachgnitive and deep cognitive strategies. Further,

performance-approach goals positively affected the use of

surface cognitive and resource management strategies. The use

of metacognitive and resource management strategies had a

positive and the sue of surface cognitive strategies had a

negative effect on exam scores.

O. Patrick Ajaja (2010) "Effects of Cooperative Learning

Strategy on Junior Secondary School Students Achievement in

Integrated Science". The purpose of this study was to determine how

the adoption of cooperativelearning as an instructional strategy for

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teaching Integrated Science influences students’achievement and attitude

towards studies. The study also determined how moderatingvariables like

sex and ability affect students' achievement in Integrated Science

whencooperative learning is used as an instructional strategy. To guide

this study, fivehypotheses were stated and tested at 0.05 level of

significance. The design of the studywas a 2x2x2x2 factorial, pre-test,

post-test control group design. These included twoinstructional groups

(cooperative and traditional classroom groups), sex (male andfemale),

ability (high and low), and repeated testing (pre-test and post-test).

Thepopulation of study was made up of 205 JS III students from where a

sample of 120students was randomly selected. The instruments used for

the collection of data included:a Scholastic Ability Test in Integrated

Science (SATIS), Students’ Attitude Scale (SAS),and Integrated Science

Achievement Test (ISAT). All the data collected were analyzed with

analysis of co-variance statistic. The major findings of the study included:

a significant higher achievement test scores of students in cooperative

learning group than those in traditional classroom; a significant higher

attitude scores of students in cooperative learning group than those in

traditional classroom; a significant higher achievement test scores of all

students of varying abilities in cooperative learning group than those in

traditional classroom; a non-significant difference in achievement test

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scores between the male and female students in the cooperative learning

group, and nonsignificant interaction effect between sex and ability, sex

and method, ability and method and among method, sex and ability on

achievement.

Simsek (2011) "Learning Strategies of Successful and

Unsuccessful University Students". The purpose of this study was to

assess the most commonly used learning strategies of undergraduate

students and how these strategies were related to their academic

performance. Toward this purpose, a 60 item Likert scale was

administered to a sample of 278 undergraduate students. The students

were selected based on their cumulative grand-point-average as the most

successful and the least successful five senior-year students from each

majoring area in the faculties of arts, engineering, science,

communication, and sports. The Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient

of the scale was 0,93. Results showed that successful students used more,

varied, and better learning strategies than unsuccessful students. Female

students were more effective in selecting and using appropriate strategies

than male students. There were a variety of differences among fields of

study; students of fine arts used the strategies least, while students of

sports used them the most. The most preferred group of strategies was

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metacognitive strategies, whereas the least preferred group was

organization strategies. The same pattern was found for the level of

success, gender, and field of study. The results overall imply that certain

strategies contribute to student performance more than other strategies,

and majority of university students are aware of this situation.

Keith et al. (1997) gave a note which is based on the results of a

study into the co-operative, competitive and individualistic learning

environments. It is argued that how the learning environment is defined

and the associated tendencies for the students to work on or off-task are

key issues affecting levels of the self-efficiency and achievement among

the students. The results indicated that the students who worked in the co-

operative learning environment had a significantly higher [P (0.05)]

adjusted mean or self-efficacy (knowledge) than the students who worked

in the competitive learning environment. For ten week, the co-operative

learning environment had an adjusted mean for achievement (knowledge)

that was significantly higher [P(0.01)] than the adjusted mean for the

same variable for the competitive learning environment. The confinement

of significant differences to the knowledge component of social studies,

as compared with the mapping skill component, points to the importance

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of taking the type of task into consideration in these types of studies, as

indicated by Cotton and Cook (1982).

The video analysis indicated that most of the class time observed

was spent working co-operatively or competitively as expected. In

summary, classes that did not use any competition maintained good

behaviour throughout the term. Those classes that began competitively

and then first five weeks and then had difficulty changing their behaviour

when the poor-behaviour condition was removed. When the classes

changed environments, a similar level of on or off-task behaviour tended

to continue until the students had worked for several weeks in the new

environment. Where major differences occurred between environments in

the degrees of off-task behaviours by students there was some degree of

complementary variation in measures on the dependent variables. An

example is with self-efficacy in weeks 1-5, when the less well-behaved

students under competition performed significantly worse than the

students in the co-operative learning environment, who were well

behaved.

Hick-Coleman (1997) compared the educational achievement of

high-risk parents when they are taught in different learning environment

and instructional settings. Three parenting education classes were planned

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and presented on child guidance, child developed and child nutrition. The

non-traditional learners were assigned randomly to four educational

groups, which were (a) teachers-centered individualized instruction, (b)

teacher-centered group instruction, (c) learner-centered individualized

instruction, (d) learner-centered group instruction. The subjects were

given a pre-test and post-test relating to the three areas of parenting.

Results revealed that achievement was slightly higher in teacher-centered

classes than in learner-centered classes. Achievement was also higher in

individualized setting than in-group settings.

Plucker (1998) examined the relationship between school climate

conditions and students aspirations and found that student's aspiration is

related to several educational outcomes, including academic performance,

affective health, attribution and leadership skills. Yet few have reported

explorations of school climate characteristics that may or may not be

related to aspirations. To provide more information on scholastic

condition that might be manipulated in order to increase student

aspirations the author administrated the secondary school 'Aspiration

Survey' to 1,170 students from two New England high schools. The result

of a multivariate analysis of variance and post hoc discriminate analysis

indicated that the students reporting high aspirations i.e., (inspiration and

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ambition) perceived a more supportive school climate then he students

with low aspirations did especially with respect to conditions related to

monitoring, self confidence and excitement.

Wang and Watkins (1998) investigated a longitudinal study of the

psychological environment and learning approaches in the Hong Kong

classroom and had given a structural equation models linking cognitive

and affective factors, approach to learning and perceptions of the actual

and preferred mathematics classroom environments were tested in a

longitudinal study involving 356 secondary school students in Hong

Kong. Models of acceptable fit that clarified the effects of classroom

environment on how students learn and the outcomes they achieve were

obtained. Numerous significant paths from prior learning experience to

environmental variables were identified; the most salient path from

classroom environment to learning outcomes was that between an

enjoyable classroom environment and cognitive achievement. An

enjoyable classroom environment mediated the causal relationship

between a deep approach and high-level achievement. However,

classroom environment did not seem to influence changes in approach to

learning (In general, approach to learning and classroom environment,

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particularly the actual environment, was highly correlated with the

affective and the cognitive outcome variables).

Kirsti Lanka (1999) study concentrated on the study practices of

advanced medical students and on how there is related to study success.

All 67 participants were high achievers who had gone through a

demanding selection process. The subject completed a questionnaire

concentrating on their study practices and conceptions of knowledge.

Individual ways of interacting with the learning environment were looked

at in the light of interviews of 35 volunteer students. The result showed

that students individual study orchestrations were related to study

success. It was concluded that dissonant study orchestrations might

develop because of the mismatch between the demands of the learning

environment and student's personal goals.

Dart et al. (2000) searched students' conceptions of learning, the

classroom environment, and approaches to learning and gave a model that

hypothesized relationship between high school students' conceptions of

learning, their perceptions of the classroom environment, and their

approaches to learning was tested using structural equation modeling.

Results suggested that important associations exist between conceptions

of learning and approaches to learning. Students who reported qualitative

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and experimental conceptions were likely to use deep approaches to

learning, whereas students who had quantitative conceptions of these

findings for teachers and the way they function in the classroom

environment are discussed. The influences of student's concepts of

learning and their perception of the classroom-learning environment on

their approaches to learning are examined in this study.

Church et. al (2001) conducted two research studies on,

'Perceptions of Classroom Environment, Achievement Goals, and

Achievement Outcomes' and re-examined the relationship between under

graduates' perceptions of their classroom environment, their adoption of

achievement goal for the motivation.

Results revealed a distinct antecedent profile for each goal in the

dichotomous framework; mastery goals were linked to the presence of

lecture engagement and the absence of an evaluation focus and harsh

evaluation, performance-approach goals were linked to the presence of

evaluation focus, and performance-avoidance, goals were evaluated.

When the perceived classroom environment and linked to the presence of

evaluation focus and harsh achievement goal variables were tested

together as predictors of graded performance and intrinsic motivation, the

result clearly demonstrate that the influence of the perceived classroom

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environment on these outcomes measures was indirect; the perceived

classroom environment influenced achievement goal adoption, and

achievement goal adoption, in turn, directly influenced graded

performance and intrinsic motivation.

Hagtvet, (1990); Valentine & DeBois, (2005), “Relations

Between Academic Self-concept and Academic Achievement”. Studies

have repeatedly shown moderate-to-strong correlations between academic

achievement and academic self-concept. Moreover, as research on self-

concept becomes more refined, a pattern on domain specificity has been

confirmed. That is, substantial correlations have been found between

matching areas of achievement (e.g. English and maths achievement)

with their respective self-concept (e.g. English and maths self-concept),

whereas substantially low correlations have been found between non-

matching areas of academic self-concept and achievement (see for

example Marsh, Trautwein, Lüdtke, Köller & Baumert, 2004). Although

the relationship between academic self-concept and academic

achievement is well established in the literature, there remains no firm

agreement about the causal ordering (Skaalvik & Valas, 1999). In fact, a

number of researchers purport that causal predominance remains an

unresolved issue (Byrne, 1996; Pottebaum, Keith, & Ehly, 1986). A

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number of competing models have been proposed from both logical and

theoretical grounds. These models of causation include: (a) Achievement

affects self concept (skill-development model), (b) self-concept affects

achievement (self-enhancing model), (c) achievement and self-concept

affect each other (reciprocal effects model), and (d) external variables

affect both achievement and self-concept.

Cokley, Kevin. (2005), “An Investigation of Academic Self-

Concept and its Relationship to Academic Achievement in African

American College Students”. This study examined the academic self-

concept construct in a sample of 206 African American students attending

historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) and predominantly

White colleges and universities (PWCUs). Institutional, gender, and class

status (i.e., year in college) differences in academic self-concept were

investigated as well as factors that predict academic self-concept.

Participants completed the Academic Self-Concept Scale. Findings

indicated that the best predictor of academic self-concept for students

attending PWCUs was grade point average, whereas the best predictor of

academic self-concept for students attending HBCUs was quality of

student-faculty interactions. Additional analyses indicated that grade

point average is significantly more important for the academic self-

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concept of African American students attending PWCUs than African

American students attending HBCUs. Implications for psychologists are

discussed.

Lisa S. Blackwell (2007) “Implicit Theories of Intelligence

Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A

Longitudinal Study and an Intervention”. Two studies explored the

role of implicit theories of intelligence in adolescents’ mathematics

achievement. In Study 1 with 373 7th graders, the belief that intelligence

is malleable (incremental theory) predicted an upward trajectory in grades

over the two years of junior high school, while a belief that intelligence is

fixed (entity theory) predicted a flat trajectory. A meditational model

including learning goals, positive beliefs about effort, and causal

attributions and strategies was tested. In Study 2, an intervention teaching

an incremental theory to 7th graders (N548) promoted positive change in

classroom motivation, compared with a control group (N543).

Simultaneously, students in the control group displayed a continuing

downward trajectory in grades, while this decline was reversed for

students in the experimental group.

Nada Salem Abisamra (2000) “Emotional Intelligence and

Academic Achievement: The Relationship between Emotional

68

Intelligence and Academic Achievement in Eleventh Graders". We

are at the beginning of a new century, and intelligence and success are not

viewed the same way they were before. New theories of intelligence have

been introduced and are gradually replacing the traditional theory. The

whole child/student has become the center of concern, not only his

reasoning capacities, but also his creativity, emotions, and interpersonal

skills. The Multiple Intelligences theory has been introduced by Howard

Gardner (1983), and the Emotional Intelligence theory by Mayer &

Salovey (1990) then Goleman (1995). IQ alone is no more the only

measure for success; emotional intelligence, social intelligence, and luck

also play a big role in a person's success (Goleman, 1995). The purpose

of this study is to see whether there is a relationship between emotional

intelligence and academic success. Do high achievers in 11th grade have a

high emotional intelligence level or isn’t there any relationship between

their achievement and their emotional intelligence? So, the population of

this study will be the 11th graders in Montgomery, Alabama. The sample

will be 500 11th graders-- boys and girls-- from public and private schools

in Montgomery, Alabama. The sampling will be stratified, making sure

that schools, genders, races, socioeconomic statuses, and abilities will be

appropriately represented. The sample will be given the BarOn Emotional

Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) which is the first scientifically developed and

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validated measure of emotional intelligence. The BarOn EQ-i consists of

133 items and takes approximately 30 minutes to complete. We shall

calculate the mean of all the grades each of the 500 students has had for

the last semester (this study being done in the second semester of school),

separating the high from the middle and the low achievers. Afterwards we

shall compare these grades with the Emotional Intelligence level of each

student, to see whether there is a relationship between emotional

intelligence and academic achievement or not, in order for us to be able to

accept or reject our hypothesis.

Habibollah Naderi1 and et al (2009) “Intelligence, Creativity

and Gender as Predictors of Academic Achievement among

Undergraduate Students”. The purpose of this cross – sectional study

was to assess prediction of intelligence, creativity and gender on

academic achievement among undergraduate students. Participants (N=

153, 105 = male & 48= female) completed intelligence and creativity

tests which were compared with their cumulative grade point average

(CGPA). A multiple regression analysis indicated that intelligence,

creativity and gender explained 0.045 of the variance in academic

achievement, which is not significant, as indicated by the F- value of

2.334. Multiple regression analyses also indicated that intelligence and

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creativity (gender is controlled) together explained 0.010 of the variance

in academic achievement, which is also not significant, as indicated by

the F- value of 1.562. Partial correlations between academic achievement

and IQ, creativity scores and gender were non significant at .05.

Coefficients also showed there is no significance between academic

achievement and IQ and gender at .05, except for creativity (t= 2.008, p=

0.046). Finding shows predicting lower independent variables of this

study (scores of intelligence, creativity and gender) on academic

achievement (CGPA).[Journal of American Science 2009:5(3) 8-19] (

ISSN: 1545-1003)

Keywords: Academic Achievement, Creativity, Intelligence,

Gender

Maliha Nasir & Rehana Masrur (2010,) “An Exploration of

Emotional Intelligence of the Students of IIUI in Relation to Gender,

Age and Academic Achievement". This correlational study was

intended to examine the relationship of emotional intelligence (EI) with

gender, age and academic achievement of students of International

Islamic University Islamabad (IIUI). In this study the predictor variable

was emotional intelligence and criterion variable was academic

achievement as measured by students’ Cumulative Grade Point Average

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(CGPA). Emotional intelligence was measured with the help of BarOn

Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQi). The validity and reliability of EQi

was measured and the instrument was found to be valid and highly

internally consistent. Correlation analysis, regression analysis and t-test

were performed to test the hypotheses. Results indicated a significant

correlation between emotional intelligence and academic achievement.

Emotional intelligence was found a significant predictor of academic

achievement. No significant correlation was found between age and

emotional intelligence. There was no difference in the mean EQi scores

of male and female students except on stress management scale where

male students scored higher than female students.

Rahil Mahyuddin, Habibah Elias and Nooreen Noordin (2010)

“Emotional Intelligence, Achievement Motivation and Academic

Achievement Among Students of the Public and Private Higher

Institutions”. This study examines the academic performances among

students from the Public Higher Institutions and the Private Higher

Institutions. Sanchez (2006) reported that Public schools perform

favorably with private schools when students’ income and socio-

economic status are taken into account The findings counter a popularly

held notion, that private schools outperform public schools. Another

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finding by The Center on Education Policy (CEP) (2007) also indicated

that private school students and public school students perform equally on

achievement tests. However this study conducted on 647 second year

students in two public and two private universities in Malaysia finds that

students from the Public Higher Institutions perform better academically

(Mean =3.25, SD =0.38) as compared to students from the Private Higher

Institutions (Mean =3.05, SD = 0.47). The students from the Public

Higher Institutions seemed to did better. Hence this study also looked into

two psychosocial factors (Emotional Intelligence(EI) and Achievement

Motivation (nAch) that may lead into the explanations on the differences.

However it was found there was no correlations between EQ and

Academic Achievement (except a dimension of EI) but there was a

positive correlation between Achievement Motivation and Academic

Achievement. There is also a significant correlation between EQ and

Achievement Motivation. The findings are discussed

Habibollah Naderi (2006) “Intelligence and Gender as

Predictors of Academic Achievement Among Undergraduate

Students". There has been significant discussion concerning the causal

preference of intelligence,gender and academic achievement. A number

of researchers’ have examined intelligence, gender and academic

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achievement as equal constructs. Others consider that intelligence and

gender as predictors of academic achievement are reciprocal. At a

standstill, others emphasize that intelligence and gender predict to

achievement. This study examined intelligence and gender as predictors

of academic achievement among undergraduate students. Participants

(N= 153, 105 = male & 48= female) completed intelligence test and the

cumulative grade point average (CGPA). The finding showed a lower

correlation independent variables (score of intelligence and gender)and

CGPA in this study. A multiple regression analysis revealed an

interesting pattern of relationship. Further, multiple regression analyses

indicated that intelligence and gender explained 0.019 of the variance in

academic achievement.

Saba Ghayas and Adnan Adil (2007) “Effect of Handedness on

Intelligence Level of Students”. The present study aimed at finding the

effect of handedness on intelligence level of students. The sample

consisted of 150 intermediate, graduate, and postgraduate students of

Sargodha district including an equal number of left and right handers.

Laterality Assessment Inventory and Raven Standard Progressive

Matrices Test were used to assess handedness and intelligence

respectively. Results indicated that left handed participants were

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significantly more intelligent than the right handed participants (p < .05)

and time taken by the right handers was significantly greater than that of

the left handers (p < .05). ANOVA showed nonsignificant difference

between the intelligence of students at different educational levels.

Mba Project Reports (2011) "The impact of demographics

variables on emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness on job

satisfaction” . Today emotional intelligence is a popular topic of many

discussions among academic scholars and corporate executives. What

exactly is emotional intelligence, and what role does it play in business

and in education? In this paper, I will attempt to answer these questions

by providing definitions and a brief history of emotional intelligence

(EQ); by discussing the key components of emotional intelligence. This

paper seeks to accomplish four objectives. The first is to provide meaning

of emotional intelligence (EI), communication effectiveness, motivation,

job satisfaction, and demographic variables. The second is to develop an

integration model showing the relationships among EI, communication

effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables.

The third is to invest in people through EI activities, communication

effectiveness and motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables

programs. Lack of recognition of the interconnection among EI,

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communication effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and

demographic variables in the literature motivated the authors to write this

paper.

Amy E. Colbert “Intelligence and Leadership A Meta-analysis

of the Relationship between Intelligence and Leadership”. Meta-

analysis was used to aggregate results from studies examining the

relationship between intelligence and leadership. One hundred fifty-one

independent samples in 96 sources met the criteria for inclusion in the

meta-analysis. Results indicated that the fully corrected correlation

between intelligence and leadership is .21 (.27 when corrected for range

restriction). Perceptual measures of intelligence showed stronger

correlations with leadership than did paper-and-pencil measures of

intelligence. Intelligence correlated with objective and perceptual

measures of leadership equally well. Additionally, the leader’s stress

level and the leader’s directiveness moderated the intelligence-leadership

relationship. Overall, results suggest that the relationship between

intelligence and leadership is considerably lower than previously thought.

The results also provide meta-analytic support for both implicit

leadership theory and cognitive resource theory.

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Oyesojl A. Aremu “Relationship among Emotional

Intelligence, Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement of

Secondary School Students". This study investigated the relationship

among emotional intelligence, parental involvement and academic

achievement of 500 Senior Secondary School Students in Ibadan,

Nigeria. The participants ranged in age between 14 and 18 years

(M=16.5, SD. = 1.7). Two hypotheses were tested for significance at .05

margin of error, Using Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient

and Multiple Regression Statistics. Results showed that both emotional

intelligence and parental involvement could predict academic

achievement. Similarly, there were significant positive relationship

between emotional intelligence and academic achievement; and between

parental involvement and academic achievement .The implications of

these results for academic are discussed.

Ulric Neisser and et al (1995) “Intelligence: Knowns and

Unknowns”. In the fall of 1994, the publication of Hermstein and

Murray's book The Bell Curve sparked a new round of debate about the

meaning of intelligence test scores and the nature of intelligence. The

debate was characterized by strong assertions as well as by strong

feelings. Unfortunately, those assertions often revealed serious

77

misunderstandings of what has (and has not) been demonstrated by

scientific research in this field. Although a great deal is now known, the

issues remain complex and in many cases still unresolved. Another

unfortunate aspect of the debate was that many participants made little

effort to distinguish scientific issues from. political ones, Research

findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their

scientific standing as on their supposed political implications. In such a

climate. individuals who wish to make their own judgments find it hard to

know what to believe. Reviewing the intelligence debate at its meeting of

November 1994, the Board of Scientific Affairs (BSA) of the American

Psychological Association (APA) concluded that there was urgent need

for an authoritative report on these issues - one that all sides could use as

a basis for discussion. Acting by unanimous vote, BSA established a Task

Force charged with preparing such a report. Ulric Neisser, Professor of

Psychology at Emory University and a member of BSA, was appointed

Chair. The APA Board on the Advancement of Psychology in the Public

Interest (BAPPI), which was consulted extensively during this process,

nominated one member of the Task Force; the Committee on

Psychological Tests and Assessment nominated another; a third was

nominated by the Council of Representatives. Other members were

chosen by an extended consultative process, with the aim of representing

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a broad range of expertise and opinion. The Task Force met twice, in

January and March of 1995. Between and after these meetings, drafts of

the various sections were circulated, revised, and revised yet again.

Disputes were resolved by discussion. As a result, the report presented

here has the unanimous support of the entire Task Force. In July 1995,

members of BSA and BAPPI were asked to comment on a preliminary

draft of the report. Many of their helpful responses have been

incorporated in this final version, and we are grateful for their assistance.

We also wish to acknowledge the energetic and indispensable logistical

support of the APA Science Directorate, especially Suzanne Wandersman

and Dianne Brown. It is our hope that the result of all these efforts will

prove to be a constructive contribution to the intelligence

Juan Pablo Rodríguez Prieto (2002) “Emotional Intelligence,

Motivational Orientations, and Motivational Learning Effort and

Achievement in Ball State University". There is a general feeling that

the role of emotions has not been well studied yet in Second Language

Acquisition (SLA) and, as a consequence, there is a growing interest to

include the role of emotions as a new source of students’ individual

differences (IDs) in the research agenda. MacIntyre argued that emotion

“just might be the fundamental basis of motivation, one deserving far

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greater attention in the language learning domain” (p. 45). Dörnyei &

Skehan (2003) listed some basic challenges that most motivation theories

have failed to address adequately, including “integrating emotional

influences into the primarily cognitive paradigms” (p. 616). Similarly,

Dewaele (2005) argued in favor of broadening the field of instructed SLA

by including the emotional dimension in research in order to provide

crucial theoretical insights into SLA that are now absent. One concern is

whether SLA researchers should concentrate on the relevance of isolated

emotions, or if a broader construct capable of integrating all possible

feelings might have a greater predictive power. Happiness,

embarrassment, anxiousness, nervousness, depression, euphoria,

humiliation, and anger are some examples of the emotions students can

exhibit in the language learning classroom. In fact, MacIntyre (2002)

stated that “to some extent language learning itself is prone to creating

intense emotion” (p. 67). Studying emotions one at a time would require

an agreement on the definition of what differentiates a given emotion

from a similar one if, for example, both of them are members of the same

family. In the field of psychology some theorists propose basic families,

though not all agree on them. Grief, sorrow, cheerlessness, gloom,

melancholy, self-pity, loneliness, dejection, despair, and even severe

depression had been included under the family entitled sadness. However,

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there is a recent theoretical construct that incorporates all possible

feelings as well as emotional skills into a unified framework, by

following the expansion of the scope of traditional intelligence proposed

by Gardner (1983). This construct is the theory of Emotional Intelligence

(EI).

Katrina L. Barker and et al, (2008) “Effects between

Motivational Goals, Academic Self-Concept and Academic

Achievement: What is the Causal Ordering”. Research has been

conducted on a) relations between academic self-concept and academic

achievement, which is well established in the literature; however there

remains disagreement about the causal ordering of these constructs b)

relations between motivation and academic achievement which show

moderate-to-strong correlations and c) relations between academic self-

concept and motivational indicators which show strong correlations. Of

the studies that combine self-concept and motivation, few examine

motivation from a goal perspective. The generalized hypothesis attached

to this investigation is that variables drawn from self-concept and goal

theories taken together will provide a fuller explanation of academic

achievement than is possible with either self-concept or motivational goal

variables alone. Hence, the purpose of this study was to examine with a

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longitudinal perspective, the relations between goal theory (mastery,

performance and social), academic self-concept (maths and English) and

academic achievement among seven-, eighth-, and ninth-grade students.

Mucheraha, Winnie and et al (2010) “Perceptions of self-

concept and actual academic performance in Math and English

among High School Students in Kenya”. This study examined the

relationship between self-concept and students’ academic performance in

math and English for high school students in Kenya. Participants included

1990 students from two same sex boarding schools-one for boys and the

other for girls. Results showed there were sex and grade differences in

academic performance and most aspects of self-concept. Specifically,

girls did better in math. Performance in English was not significantly

different. Grade level differences showed a downward trend relative to

norms in both math and English performance with the lower grade levels

performing better. This trend possibly related to the changing standards

by the teachers. On the self concept measures, boys rated themselves

significantly higher than girls except for physical appearance. As the

students progressed through each grade level, their perceptions of self

increased. Study implications are discussed.

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Ahmad, Jamaludin and et al (2010)“The Relationship Between

Self Concept and Response Towards Student’s Academic

Achievement Among Students Leaders in University Putra

Malaysia”. This is a quantitative research using Correlational method.

The purpose of this research is to study the relationship between self

concept and ability to handle stress on academic achievement of student

leaders in University Putra Malaysia. The sample size consists of 106

respondents who are the Student Supreme Council and Student

Representative Committee. Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS) was

used to evaluate respondents’ self concept and for respondents’ responses

strategy the Response Strategy Questionnaire were used. The

respondents’ CGPA is used to evaluate their academic achievements. The

findings illustrate that there is no significant relationship between self

concept and academic achievement. Correlation between self concept and

academic achievement is not significant (r = 0.06, p = 0.950). Meanwhile,

there is a significant relationship between respondents’ response

strategies and academic achievements X2 (10, N = 106) = 19.721, p =

0.032. This would mean that the respondent’s response strategy is

influenced by his or her academic achievement. The value of frequency

contingency, 0.396 illustrate that the relationship is positive and low. The

findings from this research will provide information to those who intend

83

to plan beneficial programs for the university or the community in

general.

Ray J. John (1984) Locus of Control as a Moderator of the

Relationship Between Level of Aspiration and Achievement

Motivation”. Basumallik and Banerjee, Weinstein, and Ray have

reported findings from India, the United States, and Australia which call

into question the once generally accepted relationship between high

achievement motivation and intermediate levels of risk-preference (1). It

now appears that the two variables are essentially unrelated. Wolk and Du

Cette (2) also found no overall relationship but reported that when they

studied only the "internals" (in Rotter's (3) sense) in their sample, the

predicted relationship could be found quite strongly. Their work in this

respect has been praised by Lefcourt (4), but it is nonetheless hard to see

how there could be a strong relationship in one half of the sample, no

relationship in the other half, and also no relationship overall. One would

surely have thought that the overall relationship would be some sort of

weaker (in-between) relationship.

There is an opportunity for independent replication of their work

with the use of data from Study II of the Ray paper (5) containing a

"belief in luck" scale derived from and shown to measure the core

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concept of the Rotter Locus of Control (LOC) scale (6). The Ss in this

study were therefore divided into those above and below the mean on

belief in luck, and all relationships were reexamined. There were 55

"internals." They were categorized into those who expected to get 0, 1, or

2 rings on the peg in the Litwin (7) experiment; those who expected to get

on 3 or 4 rings; and those who expected to get on 5 or 6 rings. This gave

low-, intermediate-, and high-level aspiration groups (ns 26, 17, and 12).

All Ss received personality inventories measuring achievement

orientation, task orientation, success orientation, fear of failure, and fear

of success. The means of the three groups on all inventories were

compared, and the Fs were all found not to be significant at the <.05

level. The Wolk and Du Cette results in respect of "internals" were not

confirmed.

Flynn (1991) “The Relationship Between IQ, Homework,

Aspirations and Academic Achievement for Chinese, Vietnamese and

Anglo-Celtic Australian School Children”. Proposed that students from

Asian cultural backgrounds typically achieve at higher levels than non-

Asian students with the same IQs. This study investigated relationships

between IQ, study time, educational and occupational aspirations, and

academic achievement among Australian school children ( n = 160) from

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Chinese, Vietnamese and Anglo-Celtic backgrounds. Mathematics grades

for Chinese and Vietnamese Australian children were higher. They spent

more time studying and were more likely to desire an occupation

requiring tertiary qualifications than Anglo-Celtic Australian peers.

Consistent with Flynn's hypothesis, students from Asian backgrounds

obtained higher mathematics grades than their Anglo-Celtic Australian

peers with the same IQ. However, study and occupational aspirations

formed only part of a more complex socio-cultural package that

contributed to group achievement differences. Parents' support for

studying and aspirations may interact with these factors to produce high

achievement.

Quaglia, J. Russell (1996) "Toward a Theory of Student

Aspirations". Student aspirations are a term that is used frequently in

education, yet there does little understand and agreement as to what it

means and even less understanding about its origin. It is the purpose of

this paper to trace some of the key historical perspectives of the construct

of aspirations, and from this backdrop introduces a new manner in which

to view student aspirations. We have elected here to highlight two

influential areas of research: level of aspiration and achievement

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motivation. These key areas, supplemented by social comparison theory,

provide a historical framework with which to understand aspirations.

Rojewski, Jay W. (1996) “Educational and occupational

aspirations of high school seniors with learning disabilities.” Using

the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, this study

investigated the educational and occupational aspirations of high school

seniors with and without learning disabilities. Effect sizes showed

practical differences between the aspirations of young people with

learning disabilities and their peers without disabilities, with the latter

holding higher aspirations--for both educational and occupational

outcomes. No practical differences were found for female versus male

adolescents with learning disabilities. Adolescents with learning

disabilities who aspired to a high school diploma or less, and those who

aspired to an advanced college degree, espoused lower occupational as

aspirations than did their peers without disabilities.

The purpose of this study is to check to what extent different

environmental and institutional surroundings affect educational

aspirations. We conduct a comparison study between different local

municipalities in Poland. We use statistical description to compare

educational aspirations in selected regions of Poland and apply

87

econometric techniques to test formally the relation between educational

aspirations and education, income and other socioeconomic factors. We

show that the level of aspirations is well diversified and is higher in

developed areas of Poland. We also found that contrary to the existing

literature, the educational aspirations seem to rise with age of the

respondent.

Wei-Cheng Mau and Lynette Heim Bikos (2000) “Educational

and Vocational Aspirations of Minority and Female Students: A

Longitudinal Study". This study examined the relative importance of

school, family, personal/psychological, race, and sex variables in

predicting educational and vocational aspirations. A nationally

representative sample of 10th-grade students was followed through 2

years beyond their high school. Results suggested that sex and race

significantly predicted educational and vocational aspirations of students.

The educational aspiration model was shown to be more robust than the

occupational aspiration model. Overall, students showed increases in

educational and occupational aspirations, regardless of sex and race.

Compared with other groups, Asian Americans had the greatest increase

in educational aspirations. Female students, on the average, had higher

educational and vocational aspirations.

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Cary M. Watson, Teri Quatman and Edler Erik (2002)

“Career Aspirations of Adolescent Girls: Effects of Achievement

Level, Grade, and Single-Sex School Environment". The career

aspirations of high-achieving adolescent girls were explored by

comparing them to the aspirations of adolescent boys as well as by

looking at the influence of grade in school, achievement level, and an all-

girls school environment. The participants' ideal and real career

aspirations, scored in terms of prestige, were investigated via 2 sets of

analyses, with coed (n = 704) and single-sex female (n = 494) adolescent

samples. Results showed that high-achieving girls exceeded the

aspirations of average-achieving girls and boys, and were the same as

those of high-achieving boys. Gender and grade differences in ideal and

real career choices over all achievement levels are also reported and

discussed. Girls at single-sex schools had higher real career aspirations

than did girls and boys at coed schools.

Fan, Xitao and Chen, Michael (2003) "Parental Involvement

and Students' Academic Achievement". The idea that parental

involvement has positive influence on students' academic achievement is

so intuitively appealing that society in general, and educators in

particular, have considered parental involvement an important ingredient

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for the remedy for many problems in education. The vast proportion of

the literature in this area, however, is qualitative and nonempirical.

Among the empirical studies that have investigated the issue

quantitatively, there appear to be considerable inconsistencies. A meta-

analysis was conducted to synthesize the quantitative literature about the

relationship between parental involvement and students' academic

achievement. The findings reveal a small to moderate, and practically

meaningful, relationship between parental involvement and academic

achievement. Through moderator analysis, it was revealed that parental

aspiration/expectation for children's education achievement has the

strongest relationship, whereas parental home supervision has the

weakest relationship, with students' academic achievement. In addition,

the relationship is stronger when academic achievement is represented by

a global indicator (e.g., GPA) than by a subject-specific indicator (e.g.,

math grade). Limitations of the study are noted, and suggestions are made

for future studies.

Zuzovsky, Ruth (2003) “Teachers' Qualifications and Their

Impact on Student Achievement” Regarding the relationship between

some teachers' characteristics and students' achievements. This

examination is needed for taking a stance in the hot debate in Israel and

90

elsewhere, regarding the nature of necessary reforms in initial teacher

education, opportunities for professional development and the reward

mechanisms and incentives that affect the career structure of practicing

teachers. The findings in this study, which are in line with findings from

many other studies, do support policy intervention aimed to provide more

opportunities and incentives for participation in content-focused

professional development. Keywords: Teachers' qualifications, student

achievement, teachers' policy.

Niklas Karlsson and et al (2004) “Household consumption:

Influences of aspiration level, social comparison and money

management” Present research posits and tests a model of household

consumption of less necessary or luxury goods and services. It is

hypothesized that a household's economic situation has a direct effect on

this consumption as well as indirect effects mediated by aspiration level,

social comparison and money management. Structural equation modeling

of questionnaire data from a sample of households in a metropolitan area

of Sweden (n=411) was used to test the model. The results reveal that as

expected the household's economic situation has a significant direct effect

on consumption and indirect effects through aspiration level and social

comparison. The results also show that satisfaction with consumption

91

increases with increased consumption and decreases with higher

aspiration levels.

Wambugu, Patriciah W. and et al (2008) “Effects of Mastery

Learning Approach on Secondary School Students’ Physics

Achievement” This study aimed at finding out the effects of Mastery

Learning Approach (MLA) onstudents’ achievement in Physics. The

study was Quasi-experimental and Solomon Four Non-equivalent Control

Group Design was used. The target population comprised of secondary

school students in Kieni East Division of Nyeri District. The accessible

population was Form Two students in district co-educational schools in

the division. Purposive sampling was used to obtain a sample of four co-

educational secondary schools. Each school provided one Form Two

class for the study hence a total of 161 students were involved. The

students were taught the same Physics topic of Equilibrium and Centre of

Gravity. In the experimental groups MLA teaching method was used

while the Regular Teaching Method (RTM) was used in the control

groups. The experimental groups were exposed to MLA for a period of

three weeks. The researchers trained the teachers in the experimental

groups on the technique of MLA before the treatment. Pretest was

administered before treatment and a post-test after three weeks treatment.

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The instrument used in the study was Physics Achievement Test (PAT) to

measure students’ achievement. The instrument was pilot tested to

ascertain the reliability. The reliability coe

ascertained their validity before being used for data collection. Data was

analysed using t-test, ANOVA and ANCOVA. Hypotheses were accepted

or rejected at significant level of 0.05. The results of the study show that

MLA teaching method resulted in higher achievement but gender had no

significant influence on their achievement. The researchers concludes that

MLA is an effective teaching method, which physics teachers should be

encouraged to use and should be implemented in all teacher education

programme in Kenya

Toldson, A. and et al (2009) “Promoting College Aspirations

Among School-Age Black American Males Ivory” This chapter

explores school-related, interpersonal, social, and family factors

associated with college aspirations among school-age black males.

Much of the literature on college aspirations among black males

suggests that African Americans aspire to attend college at rates similar

to their white peers (Mahoney&Merritt,1993; Pitre,2006; Toldson,2008),

and across races females aspire to attend college at higher rates than

males (Hallinan&Williams,1990). However, research evidence suggests

93

that many unique school and social barriers prevent black males from

accessing institutions of higher education (Chavous etal.,2003;

Howard,2003). Moreover, black

Males have demonstrated distinct patterns in achieving educational

goals that have implications for the work of counselors, teachers,

families, and educational activists (Jackson &Moore, 2006; Toldson,

2008). The literature reviews in this section surveys factors associated

with college access, college readiness, and college expectations. The first

section looks specifically at academician school- related factors.

Faize, Ahmad Fayyaz “Effect of Mother’s Level of Education

on Secondary Grade Science Students in Pakistan”. The study was

aimed at finding the effect of level of mother’s education on secondary

grade science student’s performance in Pakistan. The country has a poor

literacy rate that falls below 60% while, the female literacy rate is even

more miserable. The researchers tried to investigate whether the poor

performance of science students at secondary grade is influenced by the

level of mother’s education. A sample of 1233 science students was taken

randomly from 30 schools in the federal capital, Islamabad. The data

were collected through a questionnaire from science students seeking

information about the level of mother’s education. The performance of

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science students was obtained from the school record on the external

examination conducted by an examination board. The mean score of

students was tabulated for each level of mother’s education and further

put to statistical analysis using ANOVA. The researchers found that the

performance of students was better having educated mothers than

illiterate mothers. However, as the level of mother’s education rose, the

difference in science students score was not significant indicating a

certain minimum level of mother’s education required for better student’s

performance.

T. R. Horowitz, N Mosher "Achievement motivation and level

of aspiration: adolescent Ethiopian immigrants in the Israeli

education system” This paper focuses on two questions: Are Ethiopian

high school children who immigrated to Israel achievement motivated?

To what extent does the presence or absence of certain components of the

achievement construct in the indigenous value system of Ethiopian

students affect progress at school? The study is based on pilot research

conducted in Israel in 1987 for which the central research questions were:

Are elements of motivation to be found in the indigenous value system of

Ethiopian students? If so, what is their effect on progress at school? The

research is based on a questionnaire administered to 88 Ethiopian

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students and 85 veteran Israeli students. The main findings of this

research are: There are some elements in the socialization of Ethiopian

students that can be looked upon as components of achievement

motivation. These include a high level of aspiration, the ability to

postpone gratification, and obedience. These elements help the Ethiopian

children succeed at school. On the other hand, some elements in the

socialization of Ethiopian children hinder their progress: conformity

restraints on individual creativity and external locus of control.

Nitza Geri (2010) “Motives and Aspirations for Doctoral

Study: Career, Personal, and Inter-personal Factors in the Decision

to Embark on a History ". While extensive research exists for both the

doctoral experience and career paths after the doctorate, less is known

about the initial motives for starting a PhD. In this study, 11 History PhD

holders from an Australasian university were interviewed about their

reasons for embarking on the doctorate. The motives and aspirations cited

by the participants validate several of the categories identified in the

limited existing literature, such as improving career prospects, personal

development, and intrinsic interest in their discipline. Moreover, the data

support the contention that candidates enter the doctorate with multiple

motives. From this History sample, however, there were no overt motives

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relating to the participants’ sense of their own identity and pressing social

justice concerns or ‘research as politics’. The data reveal that third parties

(friends, colleagues, family members, and academics) when consulted

prior to enrolment did play a generally encouraging role in the decision to

start a doctorate. A recommendation emanating from this research is that

universities consider offering workshops for would-be candidates before

enrolment so that initial motives for doctoral study can be explored and

reflected upon before a candidate embarks.

Nira Danziger(1983) “Sex-related differences in the aspirations

of high school students” This article reviews research on sex

differences in the educational and occupational orientations of

adolescents. Because the aspirations and expectations of adolescents are

predictive of subsequent adult attainment, these variables are important

mediating factors in the process by which individuals of the two sexes

come to occupy different educational and occupational positions in

adulthood. Adolescent boys aspire to a higher level of education than

girls, and the occupational choices of the two sexes are highly sex-

stereotyped. Factors influencing levels of adolescent aspiration are

reviewed, including socioeconomic background, academic ability,

number of siblings, parental encouragement, mother's employment,

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academic performance, peer aspirations, dating, and participation in

school activities. Although sex differences exist in the process by which

both educational and occupational aspirations are formed, they are greater

with respect to occupational than educational aspirations. The author

wishes to thank Elizabeth Bates Harkins for helpful comments on an

earlier draft of this article and Susan M. Ball and Adeline Dinger for

typing the manuscript.

2.2 Studies Conducted in India

Kanchana, M. and Kaliappan, K.V. (2002) study was "Effect of

Behaviour Modification Techniques in Academic Achievement of High

School Girls and findings are (1) All the experimental groups

significantly reduced test anxiety, improved study skills and academic

achievement; but the control groups showed no improvement. (2) RT, SD

and Tm were effective in reducing test anxiety. (3) Reduction of test and

improvement of study skills enhanced academic achievement. (4)

Improvement of study skills contributed more to enhancement of

academic achievement than reduction of test anxiety. (5) Test anxiety and

study skills bear a significant negative relationship.

Kaur, Jagpreet J. S. Rana and et al (2009) Home Environment

and Academic Achievement as Correlates of Self-concept among

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Adolescents” The present study is an attempt to explore academic

achievement and home environment as correlates of self-concept in a

sample of 300 adolescents. The results of the study revealed self-concept

to be positively correlated with academic achievement, though not

significantly so. A significantly positive relationship of home

environment components of protectiveness, conformity, reward, and

nurturance with self-concept is revealed, thereby meaning that use of

rewards and nurturance from parents should be done for positive self-

concept development among adolescents. However, the correlation of

social isolation, deprivation of privileges and rejection components of

home environment is significantly negative with self-concept among

adolescents indicating that for positive self-concept development among

adolescents, there should be less or no use of social isolation, deprivation

of privileges and rejection. The study has implications for educationists

and parents as well.

Jaimini Nirupma., (1991); “Effect of Teaching

Strategies on Conceptual Learning Efficiency and Retention

in Relation to Divergent Thinking”. Study investigates the

effect of two major teaching strategies and their interaction with

creativity on learning outcomes in terms of learning efficiency

99

and retention. Methodology By using the purposive sampling

method three sections of class IX of GG Senior Secondary

Schools, Delhi, was selected. The Quasi Experimental, non

equalent control group design was used. The research employed

pre test- post test design with two experimental groups for two

strategies. Standard Progressive Metrics by Raven Mandis, Test

of creative thinking, and criterion tests developed by the

researcher. ANCOVA was used to treat the data.

Major findings were; (1) the concept retention of the

pupils was not significantly influenced by their divergent

thinking ability; rather it was significantly influenced by the

teaching strategies. (2) Interaction of teaching strategies and

divergent thinking was significant in the concept learning.

Shashi Mohan., (1991); “A Study of the Role of

Aptitude, Attitude and Motivation in English Acquisition”.

The study was aimed to find out the relationship of socio-

psychological factors (attitude, motivation) and linguistic

aptitude to English language learning of senior secondary classes

with reference to types of schooling. The sample comprised 233

students from three public schools and 313 from six govt.

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schools. The tools used, included, English Learning Attitude,

Motivation Questionnaire (ELAMQ), English Achievement Test,

and Language Aptitude Test. The research has used the ex-post

facto design. The collected data were treated using mean, SD,

correlation, regression and factor analyses. Findings were (1)

few aspects attitude and motivation should a significant

correlation to some aspects of English learning. (2) Parental

encouragement found positively related. (3) Attitudinal Variables

should more significant explanatory variance in achievement in

English. (4) Paired associates memory showed a positive

relationship to govt schools and all schools students in spelling,

language machines, language expression and total achievement.

Patadia H.J., (1991); “A Strategy for Mastery

Learning; Its Development and Comparison with

Conventional Methods”. The study attempts to test the

effectiveness of mastery learning in a group oriented classroom

to meet the conflicting demands of a classroom situation.

Methodology; The study employed a before and after design. In

the first phase, the actual teaching learning process in the grade

V mathematics classes were observed and discussed with

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teachers. In the second phase, an experimental group comprised

55 subjects matched IQ with a control group of 55 was subjected

to a corrective learning process which was evaluated. In the third

phase, a final tryout was carried out with 51 experimental and 43

control subjects. Scholastic achievement test and a questionnaire

and percentiles, mean SD and‘t’ test were used for data analyses

of results. Findings were (1) the use of mastery learning

strategies, the role of IQ in the learning of pupils was

considerably reduced, (2) Remedial measures have operative

effect on the overall achievement scores of students.

Odud Md., Abdul, (1989); “Effect of Strategies of

Instructions on Mastery Learning”. The study focused on to

investigate the effect of strategies of instructions on the criterion

of immediate attainment of mastery. Methodology: - the sample

comprised 300 learners of standard VIII Of five urban boys high

schools, distributed over three districts. Three treatment groups

were formed. Transmission of heat was the subject for mastery

learning. Learner programme text, work book, and audio-visual

aids were developed. Test of Formative evaluation which was

developed. Findings were as (1) there was no significant

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difference among different strategies of instructions on the

criterion of immediate attainment of mastery. (2) As regards the

retention of mastery all the three groups differed significantly in

favour of the third strategy followed by the second and the first.

Hence, formative evaluation is the best suited for mastery

learning (PDR 0630)

Sharma Rajkumar., (1988); “A Comparative Study

Between Arts and Science Students on the Effect of Economic

Conditions and Retentions Interval on Trace Structure”. The

study comprises arts and science students on the effect of

economic conditions and retention interval on trace structure.

Methodology: Sixty four students from science and arts faculty

of St John College Agra were selected using the random

sampling procedure. The material for the present investigation

was prepared from a pool of common words. First pool of 350

common words was prepared by the investigator. Other

investigation lists were also prepared by the investigator. Major

findings: (1) Retrieval cuing was one of the more promising

methods for studying properties of memory traces. (2) Far the

traces of individual events would be studied and described. They

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were usefully conceptualized and collective of mere elementary

components differed from one another, In some sense

qualitatively. They were at list to some extent independently

manipulability and variable, and the extent to which feature was

represented in a memory traces could be quantitatively assessed.

Dixit S., (1988); “Information Processing: Analyses of

the Acquisition of learning”. The study attempted to study the

different structures and components of the strategies of acquiring

and processing information, and the variance in strategies due to

certain demographic factors. The sample comprises 448 students

of grades X, XI and XII drawn from four English medium

schools of Baroda, using a cluster random sampling procedure.

Information Schedule for demographic information, and Revans

standard progressive metrics. Data were analyzed using factor

analyses, correlation, multiple regression analyses, Analyses of

variance and ‘t’ test. Findings: (1) Eleven factors extracted from

35 strategies were found to represent the principal strategies of

learning. (2) Performance in mathematics as found to be

significantly related to deep processing. (3) Sex, birth order, and

number of siblings were not associated with the selection of any

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particular learning strategies (4) selection of strategy was

independent of students IQ and achievement in mathematics

language or science subjects.

Dutta S., (1960); “Learning and Retention As a

Function of Affectivity”. The main aim of the study was to

explore the implications of the hypotheses that affective

intensity, irrespective of the quality of feeling tone, was the

determinant of selective receptivity of emotional experience.

Three experiments were carried out. Subjects were chosen from

Bengali lingual groups. Ten pleasant and ten unpleasant

adjective were matched for their intensity for effect and

frequency were presented to for groups. The results, generally

demonstrated that under varying degrees of emotional

involvement, the perceived intensity of affect got changed in

accordance with the principles of the theory of cognitive

dissonance, and that the affective intensities of P and U

materials, as experienced by the subjects, determined their

selective pattern of retention. (2) Selective patterns of retention

were found to be consistent with such patterns of affective

intensity or perceived by the subjects under two different levels

of emotional involvement.

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2.3 Comments on the Review

In the former studies following factors of arts and science

students have been studied as like social development, emotional

development, aspiration etc. Limited studies have been carried

out on learning strategies of arts and science students. It is quite

clear from literature that few researchers on learning strategies

have been conducted and most of the terms involving in the

above topic are by foreigner researchers.

Thus the investigator attempt to achieve the objective of

the term learning strategies in relation to intelligence, level of

aspiration and achievements of arts and science students.