chapter - ii theoretical framework and review...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter - II
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
In order to create a foundation for the study, to understand the various
nuances and dimensions of the topic of study as well as to prepare a proper
methodology and framework for the study, elaborate efforts have been made
to review the theoretical studies and empirical studies available on the topic.
Some of the significant literature and their points of view are presented here
below;
2.1 Theoretical Framework
In the mid of 1980’s issues of entitlement were also added in the
concept of food security after Sen’s (1981) theory on food entitlement which
replaced earlier theories that stressed shortages in food availability as causes
of food insecurity. According to Sen, people are usually starved mainly
because of lack of the ability to access food rather than because of its
availability. Therefore, in the late 1980s, the issues of both availability and
stable access to food were also incorporated in the definition. FAO (1983)
also expanded this concept and indicated that access to stocks is as essential
condition of food security as the existence of stocks: “ensuring that all
people at all times have both physical and economic access to the basic food
they need”. Later, World Bank Report (1986) on “Poverty and Hunger”
focused on the temporal dynamics of food insecurity and explained
difference between chronic food insecurity and transitory food insecurity.
During 1990s a third dimension – food utilization - also became
prominent in food security discussions. This dimension is determined
primarily by people’s health status. The most widely accepted definition of
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food security is given by Food and Agricultural Organization in its report on
‘The State of Food Insecurity’ (2001). “Food security is a situation that
exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs
and food preferences for an active and healthy life”.
Tax Reform theory seeks to find out whether "small" departures from
the status quo can be welfare improvements - that is whether the current
situation is a "local" optimum (Newbery and Stern, 1987; Deaton, 1997).
The policy reform with which we are concerned falls under this theory since
we are interested in estimating the welfare consequences of marginal
changes in prices.
Exercise of tax reform is a specification of a social welfare function,
which provides a ranking of alternative social states. It is customary to
assume that social welfare is a function of individual utilities. As our data
set collects information about households, we shall assume that each
individual within a household receives the same utility and neglect the intra-
household distribution of utilities.
Valid Theory formulation possesses enormous power to elevate and
accelerate the expansion and development of human capabilities in any field,
leading to fresh discoveries, improvement of existing activities and capacity for
greater results. Science is replete with examples of theoretical formulations that
have led to important breakthroughs, such as the discoveries of Neptune and
Pluto, electromagnetic waves, subatomic particles, and new elements on the
periodic table. Today scientists are discovering new substances on computer by
applying the laws of quantum mechanics to predict the properties of materials
before they synthesize them.
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As management expert Peter Drucker put it, “There is nothing more
practical than a good theory.” Valid theory can tell us not only what should
be done, but also what can be done and the process by which it can be
achieved. Social development can be summarily described as the process of
organizing human energies and activities at higher levels to achieve greater
results. Development increases the utilization of human potential.
Social development remains largely a process of trial and error
experimentation, with a high failure rate and very uneven progress. The
dismal consequences of transition strategies in most Eastern Europe
countries, the very halting progress of many African and Asian countries,
the increasing income gap between the most and least developed societies,
and the distressing linkage between rising incomes, environmental
depletion, crime and violence reflect the fact that humanity is vigorously
pursuing a process without the full knowledge needed to guide and govern it
effectively.
Development Theory and Advances can enhance our social success
rate by the same order of magnitude that advances in theoretical physics
have multiplied technological achievements in this century. The emergence
of a sound theoretical framework for social development would provide the
knowledge needed to address these inadequacies. It would also eventually
lead us to the most profound and practical discovery of all – the infinite
creative potentials of the human being.
Any kind of development begins as a physical activity. The energy
released by the physical is always the lowest and the conscious awareness of
the being is also at the lowest in the physical and highest in the mind. The
true centre of energy is vital. It is the vital that energizes the body as well as
the mind. Still, the physical work releases the energy in low volumes. Mind,
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by lending its comprehension to the vital, is capable of energizing it several-
fold. As the development experience started with the physical and
essentially remains in that plane, development is necessarily slow and
unconscious.
Human being having started his life in the body and not in the mind,
experiences work and life. Body is not conscious and is subconscious. It
learns by doing. Learning succeeds doing. This is also so because existence
and survival compel man to act and to do. He has to eat, drink and sleep. His
act of eating over the centuries makes him learn how to gather food more
efficiently. The compelling need of thirst sets him in quest of water. He
cannot wait to learn about food and drink. Long practical experience leads to
knowledge of the process. That is true till now. The cities man has built the
religion he soared to, the science he has discovered and all he has achieved
today are achievements in experience, not experiences that issued out of
knowledge.
A few thousand years of man’s existence which is studded with rich
experiences have not led him to know the knowledge-basis of those
experiences. Medical theory is of recent origin. No theory of history is yet
born. Science is striving its best to found itself on a theory. As for social
development, we do not have any indications of thinkers trying to evolve a
theory. Hundreds of theories have been discovered and have gained social
acceptance, but they are of partial phenomena, rather a particular
phenomenon.
As man starts his experiences in the physical plane and moves to the
vital and mental planes later, a theory can emerge only when his activities
reach the mental plane. They have not yet reached that elevated, exalted
plane. What has happened is the physical plane is getting saturated with
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physical experiences. Saturation leads to maturity and maturity will lead to
moving to the higher planes. A theory can only emerge when the
experiences reach the mental plane.
The World’s developmental experience has not only saturated the
physical plane in several countries but also has saturated the vital plane. As
both planes are nearing saturation, the mind can act. Perhaps only when the
whole of humanity is essentially covered by physical experience will the
mind sail into action.
During the year 2000, representatives of 189 nations including 147
Heads of State and government gathered at the United Nations for a historic
Millennium Summit. The Summit adopted an ambitious set of goals, the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Achieving them by the target date
of 2015 will transform the lives of the world’s people, including reducing by
half of the number of people living in extreme poverty (UNFPA, 2003)
India is on a fast track to economic growth with an annual growth rate
of 8 per cent. Though growth has been seen viable, the trickledown theory
of Simon Kuznet (1969) has not done any magic. When Mahbub Ul Haq
(1976) wrote his ‘Poverty Curtain’, he advised the nations to take care of
Gross National Product (GNP), so that it will take care of everything.
However, this could not happen as around 300 million people in the world
are living on less than a dollar a day.
Inequalities between rural and urban areas are widening and the
regional imbalances are deepening. The gap between men and women are
also widening and one has to fear whether a big social divide is taking place.
Although recent positive economic developments have helped the Indian
middle- class a lot, India still suffers from substantial poverty. The National
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Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) estimated that 22.15 per cent of the
population was living below the poverty line in 2004-2005, down from 51.3
per cent in 1977-1978 to 25 per cent in 2002 in India. As of 2006, India’s
Human Development Index is 0.611, higher than that of nearby countries
like Bangladesh (0.530) and Pakistan (0.539), but lower than Vietnam
(0.709) and China (0.768) (United Nations, 2006).
Since the early 1950s, Government has initiated, sustained and
refined various planning schemes to help the poor. These Poverty
Alleviation Programmes (PAPs) in India are of two types. The first one is
the welfare programmes for the poor and the other is the programmes for
economic and social justice. The welfare programmes are mostly concerned
with transfer of income through payments, doles and relief measures either
in cash or kind. It is one thing to redistribute the generated income and
another thing to redistribute the factors through institutional and structural
changes which will raise the income-earning power, capability and
ultimately participation in decision making. Thus, people should be assured
with economic freedom and to assure this, the anti-poverty programmes
should be in the nature of improving their income-earning power, their
capabilities and their asset position, implementing participatory
development programme and ultimately enabling them to participate in the
process of decision making.
In view of this, poverty removal and employment generation have
become the two main pillars of planning in India. In correspondence to this
thrust, a number of poverty alleviation and employment generation
programmes have been initiated by the Government of India (GOI), through
the Ministry of Rural Development (MORD), keeping gainful rural
employment and productive assets/infrastructure creation as the primary
goals. As most of these direct Poverty Alleviation Programmes are being
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implemented with minimum consideration on the human rights aspects,
these programmes often failed and could not make any tangible impact on
the living conditions of the poor, particularly women in rural areas. The
human rights approach to development demands: (1) participation and
transparency in decision making (participation of all stakeholders); (2) non-
discrimination (equity and equality); (3) empowerment and (4)
accountability of actors (United Nations, 2004).
2.2 Review of Empirical Studies
A brief review of empirical studies is presented here below;
Shivarajsagar (2009) 1 in the study of “Public Distribution System-A
Case Study of Bidar District” observed that majority of cardholders belong
to labourers and marginal formers. Similarly if we take age distribution of
households, there in the age group 30-35 and 35-40 dominate the domino of
ration cardholders in the Bidar district. The distribution of households on the
bases of annual income is very important is important for the purpose of
government to implement certain social policies, specially for certain
income groups (For example there is a concession given to the children
who’s parental annual income is below Rs.36.000). The survey indicates
that vast majority of the households have annual income which is below
Rs.35,000 These points are out the fact that the cards have been a backbone
to the a labour income groups. The need of education is considered as a
means of social change. The welfare programs for the targeted group could
be implemented effectively by the government, if people are educated. The
literacy rate itself is very low in India.
Devendra Babu and Jayaramaiah (2007)2 in the joint study of “Food
Security: Management of Public Distribution System in Karnataka”
observed that there is strong case for PDS to be brought under the control of
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PRIs especially with the GPs. Presently its implementation and monitoring
by the State Department leaves much to be desired. The district and taluk
administrators have their own limitations in devoting time to PDS. The
problems afflicting the PDS are repetitive in nature. The families depending
on PDS have lost faith in the bureaucratic administration. The public
opinion as brought out elsewhere in this study favour panchayats to take
over the PDS administration.
Debes Mukhopadhayay (2011)3 in the study of “Public Distribution
System – A Poor Delivery System” observed that right to food is a human
right and denial of such means unfreedom. So this human right needs to be
protected at any cost. Unfortunately, PDS/TPDS in India has jeopardized the
food security to the target group not only in recent years but also in the early
years of 2000 when the country had piled up solossal food stocks. The level
of hunger and starvation is linked to this slapadash attempt of maintaining
food security. The need of the hour is the universal PDS rather than TPDS.
Livelihood security and right to food have to be the policy focus of any
government in power.
Ratan Lal Basu (2011)4 in the study of “Public Distribution System in
India and Food Security” observed that the basic causes of food security in
India lie not in supply failure but in declining income and employment in
the unorganised sector and failure of the TPDS that excludes a large
segment of the poor because of definitions and methods of implementation.
So far as policy of introducing the TPDS is concerned, it may be said that
the policy as such is not unsound but the real problem lies in the way it is
implemented.
Das .H.C.L (2011)5 observed in the study of “Inevitability of Public
Distribution System for Food Security in Bihar vis-à-vis India” that in India
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the need for a public distribution system as an effective instrument of price
stabilisation in the national economy was felt for the first time during the
Second World War. The Food grains policy committee in 1943
recommended setting up of a procurement and rationing machinery by the
government to meet the war time situation. With the current situation of
price rise in foodgrains and general inflation accompanied by limited and
low wage jobs, the role of the government for providing affordable
foodgrains is extremely crucial. To be able to do so, food security needs to
be maintained with efficient and universal public distribution of food grains.
This requires adequate allocation of foodgrains for distribution under PDS
economically and financially viable, programmes to augment the purchasing
power of the people.
Anju Singh, Kalanand Singh and Asha Dubey (2011)6 in their study
on “Management of Public Distribution System in India – An Arrangement
for Food Security” observed that 70 percent of people living in villages and
40 percent of landless labourers, beside this 20 crores of the poor people are
rural agricultural labourers. Food problems can be solved by the integration
of the PDS with other anti-poverty programme like Antyodaya and other
programmes. The public distribution system is a vital programme to ensure
distributive justice to the weaker sections of the community. Lastly, it may
be quote the line of Mother Theresa, “if we have no peace, it is because we
have forgotten that we belong to each other”.
Subodh Kumar Sinha and Vinod Kumar Sinha (2011) 7 in the study of
“Role of PDS and Food Security” observed that the most important
consideration affecting cropping pattern is the economic consideration. Even
in a country like India which is dominated by farmer steeped in poverty and
conservation’s and where farmers hold tiny bits of land cropping pattern can
be changed through appropriate change in economic motive. Experience in
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recent years has been that the farmer does accept the logic for a change
wherever he is shown a better cropping pattern. The recommendations listed
in the 10th plan for PDS should result in making the system more vibrant and
efficient and capable of meeting the requirements of a liberalized economy.
Jha.N.C and Navendu Shekhar (2011)8 in the study entitled
“Significance and Role of PDS in food security for downtrodden in Jharkhand”
observed that in Jharkhand the PDS should have impressive coverage so that
not a single poor if any category be left to get the proper benefit from different
scheme which would be only possible if the PDS is efficient honest, upto-date,
modernize; poor friendly and free from all loop holes and corruption. If it were
the reality we are not only sure but also confident that it would provide full
food security to the BPL families of the state.
Ranjana Singh (2010) 9 in his paper on “Impact of the Public
Distribution System on Poverty and Food Security” opined that there is a
need to shift from the exiting expensive inefficient and corruption ridden
institutional arrangements to those that will ensure cheap delivery of
requisite quality grains in a transparent manner and are self-targeting.
Kumari Sudama Yadav and Shabnam Parween (2010) 10 in the joint
study of “Management of Public Distribution System in Bihar: A Goal of
Food Security” observed that the public distribution system is a vital
programme to ensure ‘distributive justice’ to the weaker sections of the
community. In actual practice through the micro analysis it is found to be
less satisfactory. The defective procurement, unscientific management,
consumer’s dissatisfaction, vested interest and many other issues like wrong
classification of cards, and malpractice has rendered the programme less
effective which is causing widening gap between promise and performance
of a crucial public policy.
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Chandra Kant Singh and Rakesh Kumar Singh (2010) 11 in the study
of “Role of Public Distribution System in Food Security” observed that
there is need to amend law to ban controls and restrictions on trade between
states. There should be free movement of all kinds of commodities including
agricultural produce.
Mritunjay Prasad Singh, Amita Sinha and G.S.Dokania (2010) 12 in
the study of “Public Distribution System, Food Security and Poverty
Alleviation Programmes – A Case of Bihar” observed that the foodgrains
have to be transported to the godown for storage and from the godowns they
have to be taken to the fair price shops. A very meagre amount is paid to the
fair price owner and they make up their loss by adopting corrupt measures.
Hence, the Government should undertake to transport the foodgrains or the
transporter should be paid a sum adequate to defray the actual expenses of
the transport.
Parasuraman.S and Rajaretnam.T [2001]13 in the study on
“Agriculture, Food security and nutrition in Vidarbha; A House Hold Level
Analysis”, is based on an assessment of agricultural practices and
livelihoods of people in Vidarbha, one of the most distressed regions in
India. Using the data generated from a baseline survey on a sample of 6,990
households covering six districts, this study attempts to assess the
relationships between agriculture, food security and nutrition for children,
adolescents and married of reproductive age. The study indicates that [i]
overall under nutrition amongst children adolescents and married women in
the study area is substantial and it does not differ significantly between
different socioeconomic groups, [ii] higher the food crops production, lower
are under-nutrition levels, and [iii] The public distribution system
contributes significantly to the food security of poor families and it must be
extended to included families above the poverty line as well.
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Raja Mohan Rao.K, Samwel Kakuko Lopoyetum and Surulivel.L.
[2010]14 in their joint study on “Dimension of Food security challenges and
strategies”, analyzed the present environment, food security system in one of
the most significant human development aspects. There are close linkages
existing between food security and socio-economic development, human
rights, rural health, public distribution system (PDS), and improving human
development indicators in the developing and under developed countries. It
is well documented that most poor families in the world spend nearly 80%
of their total income on food grains. Further, people often fail to eat enough
food only because they do not have sufficient purchasing power or adequate
source of income source or the disposable income is in sufficient.
Indrajit Ray [2011]15 in his work entitled “New List for Old: Re-
Constructing the Poor in the BPL Census”, argues that in analyzing this paper
aims to understand the implications of implementing the Saxena committee’s
recommendations in respect of identifying the poor in India. Relative to the
one currently in use, the application of the proposed methodology appears to
be more beneficial in general to social groups such as scheduled tribes, most
back word classes and Mahadalists, as well as those land owing households
that might suffer from specific debilitating conditions. However, in some
cases it is less sensitive to Muslims, non-Mahadalit scheduled castes and
agricultural labourers. These observations are based on the result of a census
survey covering 4,500 households in is rural works of Bihar and west Bengal.
By comparing the subset of households classified as poor according to the
2002 and the 2009 methodologies, the paper analysis “moving in” and
“moving out” of poverty lists according to occupational categories, caste
groups and land owning profile of the poor.
Parameshwara Gupta. E.A., Sathya Pal Sharma.N.K., and Karunakara
Reddy. B.A.[2010]16 in their article “Farmers Suicide, Food Security, Food
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Grain production in India: Future strategies”, they describes that the article
there is little scope for bringing more are under cultivation which says
clearly that we need to produce more from the available land, while
minimizing post harvest losses. Investment in agriculture in a sizable
manner is required today. Besides this investment in infrastructure, R & D
and extension services, timely availability of credit should be made so that
suitable technology may be employed in order to enhance productivity rates.
Jena.A.C. [2002]17 in the study of “Public Distribution System
Impact, status and Future Programmes”. He argues that PDS is a still an
essential requirement in India, given that the 30% of the population is still
living below the poverty line and another 20% needs support so as not to go
below the poverty line and not become food insecure. The PDS is also
required at the time of disasters and natural calamities. In addition to this,
while the country has been witnessing huge stocks of food grains on the one
hand the food security has remained a far cry for the large number of people
of the country on the other hand.
Shared Tandon, Rip Landes [2011] 18 in their article on “The
Sensitivity of Food Security in India to Alternate Estimation Methods”. They
argues that there are a number of assumptions required to estimate actual
calories consumed from expenditure data regarding calories contained in
processed foods and meals eaten outside the household ideally, estimates of
calories consumption and the assessment of food security would be quite
small. How ever, this paper, which estimates the calories consumed per
Indian household using the 61st round of the assessment of food security
varies significantly under slightly different assumptions. Given the significant
amount of measurement error in estimates of calories consumed, it is
important to analyze not only house hold consumption surveys, but also
aggregate food availability studies and health survey collecting
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anthropometric measures that accompany under nourishment, such as
stunting.
Ashok Kotwal, Milind Murugkar, Bharat Ramaswami [2011]19 in
their study based on “PDS Forever?”. analyzed that there is a case to be
made for cash transfers replacing the sale of food through the public
distribution system. The article argues that cash transfers offer many
advantages over in-kind food transfers, and that their design can address
potential pit falls pointed out by critics. The more salient of such objections
are discussed, and models for implementing cash transfers based on existing
technology and infrastructure are proposed. However, in conclusion, it is
recommended dismantling of the Public Distribution System, the decision
on the means of delivery should be left to the states.
Suragit Deb [2005]20 in his article entitled “Public Distribution of
Rice in Andhra Pradesh: Efficiency and Reform options” says that this paper
explores various efficiency aspects of the Rs. 2 per kg. rice scheme, which
has been relaunched in Andhra Pradesh. The statistical analysis suggests a
substitution of demand between the open market and public distribution
system purchase in response to changes in the open market price of rice in
the state. An examination of the consumer benefit and subsidy burden
involved in the rice scheme during 1983-2007 indicates that the gap between
the two typically remained small. In the light of the Central Government’s
PDS reform package, the paper suggests strategies for a cost-effective PDS
management in Andhra Pradesh.
Debarshi Das [2008]21 in his article on “A Relook at the Bengal
Famine”. the Bengal famine of 1943 is arguably the worst economic disaster
of 20th century South Asia. This paper traces the background of the famine
and analyses the role of the land market in fuelling food price rise. It appears
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that in a monetized, already famished, agrarian economy, during situations
of subsistence crisis, interlinking of food and land markets has the potential
to cause an exponentially high degree of disaster. The role of a universal
public distribution system, which carries over food from a surplus to a
deficit year, and insulates the food market, thus becomes paramount.
Suryanarayana. M.H [2008]22 in his article on “Agflation and the
Public Distribution System”. In this article analyzed that the demand for
“Universalisation” of the public distribution system during a period of rising
prices is not relevant since, more than four-fifths of households in rural
areas and two-thirds in urban centre’s are already covered by it. Yet, a very
small proportion of rural/urban households actually make purchases of
either rice or wheat from the PDS; an insignificant amount of consumption
is met by ration shop purchases. The pattern is some what better for below
the poverty line households with ration cards. What all this shows is that the
issue is not universalisation but improved functioning, greater efficiency and
BPL-friendliness of PDS.
Tejinder Singh, Rajesh Jaiswal[2008]23 in their joint study on “Jan
Kerosene Pariyojana Impact and future policy Responses”, a Analyzed that
the Jan Kerosene Pariyojana was launched to revamp the subsidized
Kerosene distribution measure in the country. Initial impact analysis leads
us to believe that the scheme has the potential to realize the intended
reforms. This paper attempts to provide a scope for future policy changes to
further rationalize the public distribution system by tracking transactions
through electronic data capture terminals downs the supply chain to the
households.
Dwaipayan Bhattacharyya, Kumar Rana (2008) 24 in their article
“politics of PDS Anger in west Bengal.” described that the combination of
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factors have been responsible for the incidents in late 2007 involving the
public distribution system in West Bengal. While the central policy of
targeted public distribution system and decreased allocations to the state
have been primary contributory factors, local level dynamics that have
affected the panchayati raj system are also of significance. This article tries
to combine a field study in rural West Bengal with macro level analysis to
analyze the problem.
Jyotsna Jain, Mihir Shah [2005]25 in their article “Antyodaya Anna
Yojana and Mid-day meals in Madhya Pradesh”, examined that the first-ever
report, based on a survey in Madhya Pradesh, on the functioning of the
Antyodaya Anna Yojana reveals that the scheme has made a significant
contribution to the survival of families on the verge of distribution. How ever,
with the poor out reach of the public distribution system in the tribal areas and
the insufficient coverage of the AAY within each village, the yojana fails to
make the difference it potentially can to the food security of the poorest of the
poor. This article also evaluates the “Ruchikar” (relishing) mid day meal
programme of the MP Government as a result of which enrolment in schools
has dramatically increased despite the poor meal quality and inadequate
infrastructure. But the absence of a separate administration for meal
management has placed an enormous burden on teachers, which poses a danger
of further compromising the already very poor quality of primary education.
Reetika Khera [2001]26 in her work entitled “India’s public
Distribution system: utilization and Impact”, studied the effectiveness of
India’s public distribution system (PDS) as a food security intervention,
using field survey data collected by the author in Rajasthan, utilization is
low, and many households purchase wheat from the market at higher prices
before exhausting PDS quotas. This ‘Puzzle of under-purchase’ is analyzed
by extending the dual-pricing model to account for supply-side (for example
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diversion) and demand side (for example, transaction costs) constraints.
Primary and secondary data as well as field observations suggest that under
purchase is mainly due to supply constraints. We also find that the PDS
affects the composition, rather than level, of cereal consumption.
Jha, Raghbemdra Bhattacharyya [2011]27 in his article entitled
“Social safety nets and nutrients deprivation: An analysis of the national
Rural Employment Guarantee Programme and the Public Distribution
System in India”. This article said that using primary data collected during
2007-08 we examine nutritional status with respect to two macronutrients as
well as various micronutrients of rural households in three Indian states:
Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Rajasthan and find serious deficiencies in
regard to these nutrients in all three states. The impact of two policy
interventions (NREG and PDS) on nutrient intake is considered and
significant impacts are discovered. The impact effects of a change in these
policy measures are also computed. Finally, to assess the impact on under
nutrition, both the nutrient-income relation and how the proportions of under
nourished vary are considered the nutrient-income relation and how the
proportions of under nourished vary are considered.
Bhaskar Dutla and Bharat Ramaswam [2004]28 in their study on
“Reforming Food subsidy schemes: Estimation the Gains from self-targeting
in India”. The paper uses the theoretical frame work of the theory of fax
reform to analyze whether a “small” change in an existing food subsidy
program can be both welfare-improving and revenue neutral. It shows how
existing econometric methods can be adopted to estimate demand
parameters even when households-level data exhibit little price variation
because the government controls food prices. The methodology is used to
estimate welfare changes from shifting a rupee of subsidy on existing
commodities to coarse cereals in the Indian public distribution system.
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Shalini Dixit, Bani Chatterjee.V. [2007]29 in their study based on
“Impact of Public Distribution System on Nutritional Security evidences
from Jharkand”. This article discussed the availability of food grains is a
necessary but not possible condition to ensure food security to the poor. In
addition to food availability, it is necessary that food accessibility is also
ensuring to the poor households. This can be done either by raising the level
of income of these poor households or by providing them food grains at
subsidized prices. Public distribution system (PDS) is a way to ensure
accessibility of food grains to these poor households. This paper is an
attempt to study the Impact of PDS on nutritional security of the households.
Data were collected from rural households in the Dumka district of
Jharkand, India. The results indicated that lack of availability of food and
mismanagement in PDS has hampered the nutritional security of the
household’s articles provided by IVP publications in its journal the IVP
journal of managerial economics.
Kochar, Anjini[2005]30 in their study on “Can Targeted Food
Programmes Improve Nutrition? An Empirical Analysis of India’s Public
Distribution System” argued that despite the widespread belief that a
substantial assault on poverty requires targeting scarce resource toward the
poor, practitioners frequently clain that targeted programs deliver fewer
benefits to poor households than do universal programs. This article
evaluation this concern through an analysis of India’s targeted food
distribution program, the public distribution system. It first examines the
case for targeting by assessing the responsiveness of caloric intake to the
amount of the food grain subsidy; a low elasticity suggests that
improvements in nutrition may require large subsidies and hence, a targeted
program. It then examines whether targeting adversely affects that
probability of poor households participating in the program. The empirical
analysis identifies the effects of the program by combining time-varying
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policy changes in the value of the program. With cross-sectional variation in
program benefits generated by variation in market prices. The results
confirm the low responsiveness of caloric intake to food grains subsidies
and hence suggest the need for a relatively generous program. However, I
also find that, under the current design of the program, targeting reduces the
probability of participation by poor households, relative to a universal
program.
Ruth Kattumuri [2011]31 in the study of “ Food Security and the
Targeted Public Distribution System in India” observed that annual food
production is enough to feed the 6.9 billion people in the world today.
However, access and distribution of food in order that people do not have to
die due to hunger continues to remain elusive even in the 21st century
making food security one of the major global challenges. The Food and
Agriculture Organisation (FAO), World Food Programme (WFP) and other
organisations of the United Nations; World Food Convention (WFC); and
other Non-Governmental Organisations are providing food in emergencies
and helping save many people’s lives. But their efforts to strengthen
capacities of countries to reduce hunger have remained inadequate. Some
country programmes, in particular China and Brazil, have been successful
through the progress they have achieved in providing access to food for their
people and reducing poverty. Targeted Public Distribution System (TPDS)
in India, launched in 1997, seeks transparent and accountable distribution of
food for the poor. If TPDS meets the challenges of efficient and accountable
implementation, it can ensure people have regular physical and economic
access to sufficient food to meet nutritional needs.
Omonona, Bolarin Titus and Agoi, Grace Adetokunbo (2007) 32 in the
joint study of “An Analysis of Food Security Situation among Nigerian
Urban Households: Evidence from Lagos State, Nigeria” observed that the
63
food insecurity incidence for the study area is 0.49. Food insecurity
incidence increases with increase in age of household heads. It is highest
when household heads are within the range of 61 – 70 years at 0.58 and least
within range 21 –30 years at 0.30. Food insecurity incidence is higher in
female headed households at 0.49 than in male-headed households at 0.38.
Food insecurity incidence decreases with increase in level of education.
Food insecurity incidence is relatively low for those engaged in professional
occupation and highest for traders. Food insecurity incidence is highest at
0.48 and lowest at 0.33 for the traders and unemployed respectively. Food
insecurity incidence increases with increase in household size. This ranges
between 0.27 and 1.00 for those households made up of 1-4 and greater than
12 members respectively. There is a decline in food insecurity incidence as
income increases from 0.41 for the low-income group to 0.20 for the high-
income group. On the basis of dependence ratio, food insecurity incidence
increases with increase in dependency ratio. This increases from 0.30 for
households with no dependence to 0.50 for households with greater than 1
dependency ratio.
The nutritive value of the food consumed brought into focus by Vyas
(2000)33 who opined that food supply acquires a meaning when it connotes
nutritional security. He stressed that recognizing the roles played by the
State, market and civil society and also making them complementary to one
another would ensure food security.
Dilly and Boudreau (2001)34 in security contexts, defined
vulnerability in relation to an outcome such as hunger of famine, A
household security is measured by determining whether or not by fully
exercising the means at its disposal, it has access to enough food during all
seasons throughout most years. The relationship between these options and
different stock factors is what determines as household vulnerability.
64
In an attempt to measure the food insecurity, Phillips and Taylor
(1980)35 defined that a state of food insecurity exists when members of a
household have an inadequate diet for part or all year round or face the
possibility of an inadequate diet in the future. The deviation from the current
status of food is based on the assessment of food insecurity risks (pre-
harvest security, making problems and unemployment), food insecurity
insurance (land reforms, improved production technologies, food aid and
feeding program and household type (subsistence or marketable surplus).
Maxwell (1996)36 developed a methodology for distinguishing and
measuring shot –term food insecurity at the household level. He developed a
technique to measure the coping strategies of the household vulnerability
elements like eating foods that are less preferred, limiting the consumption
quantity, maternal buffering, skipping meals etc., when such households are
faced with insufficient food.
Dresusse (1996)37 believed that food security could be measured
through traditional demand and supply equations. He considered population
growth, percapita food consumption and income elasticity in demand
equation and on supply side, access to land, yield and marketing cost were
specified. With the results he concluded that agricultural research should be
given top priority to achieve food security.
Swaminathan (1996)38 suggested some strategies to achieve food
security maintaining the existing growth in agricultural production to ensure
sustainable availability of food, sustaining productivity and reserve base
over the period but keeping the economic cost at minimum, ensuring
adequacy of household income through promotion of mere social security
measures and providing entitlement to food to vulnerable groups in the
society through productive social security measures.
65
Gerorge (1999)39 while analyzing food security situation in India found
that economic access to food could be achieved through a mix of employment
and income policies for farm sector. He reiterated that the strategy for
reducing poverty and enhanced food security should be based on agriculture
development. Based on the consumption pattern, he indicated that about half
of the rural consumers and about two third of urban consumers had
nutritionally inadequate food consumption levels. In an effort to narrate status
of World Food Economy, Douglas Southgate and Douglas H. Garham
(2007)40 said that the number of people who on an average do not consume
enough dietary energy for normal activity and good health has fallen steadily
since the late 1960s. The two parts of the globe of greatest concern are South
Asia and Sub Saharan Africa. After growing as rapidly as the rest of the
population during the 1970s, the food security in India and neighboring
countries has stabilized. However, progress toward food security continues in
absolute and relative terms. In contrast, there is little positive news from south
of the Sahara, where the number of food insecure people nearly news from
south of the Sahara, where the number of food insecure people nearly doubled
during the last decade of the twentieth century. Consequently, Sub-Saharan
Africa will soon have not just the highest incidence of undernourishment, as it
has since the 1970s, but more food-insecure people than any part of the world,
including south Asia, as well.
At the India Level, between 1972-73 and 1993-94, according to
National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) data, per capita consumption
of cereals declined from 15.3 to 13.4kg per month during the last two
decades. During these two decades ending 1993-94, there occurred a steady
decline in the food share from 73 per cent to 55 per cent at the all-India
level. This seems to confirm Engel’s law, which says that economic
development is accompanied by declining food shares. He feels that a
decline in per capita consumption of food per period may, however be
66
attributable to changed inner composition of food Beunett’s law argues that
consumers gradually switch to a more expensive diet, substituting quality
for quantity. This is confirmed in the Indian context as revealed by the
NSSO data. The public distribution system (PDS) as a social safety net can
be understood by the fact that aggregate availability of food grains per se is
not enough to ensure the ability to acquire food grains. Production does not
automatically guarantee consumption. The mere presence of food in the
economy, or in the market, does not entitle a person to consume it. Even the
ability to buy may not guarantee food security, unless there is an efficient
distribution system says Baskar Majumdar (2004).41
Acharya (1983)42 plains food security means not only availability of
food for direct consumption but has other implication as well. Availability
of food grains will have little relevance if people do not possess purchasing
power to buy them of their consumption. This compulsion costs a
responsibility on the government to devise ways and means by which, in the
first instance, food is available within the country and, in the second, people
have the means to buy it. As Indian agriculture depends on the vagaries of
monsoon, famines and scarcities have a feature of our past Indian
civilization. But such shortages and scarcities have been managed
effectively through a policy mix of ensuring food supply from buffer stocks
and through imports.
Swaminathan (2000)43 has equated food security with livelihood
security at the levels of each household and all members within and involves
ensuring both physical and economic access to balanced diet, safe drinking
water, environment Sanitation, primary education and basic health care. To
give operational content to such a concept of food security, we should
initiate a Hunger Free Area Programme consisting of ensuring sustainable
availability of food, sustaining the productivity of the natural resource base,
67
ensuring adequacy of household income through promotional social
security, providing entitlement of food through protective social security
measures and introduction of a National Food Security Act.
During the past decades, with somewhat satisfactory levels of
national food security influenced by the production performance of Indian
agriculture, attention has been shifted from national food security concerns
to individual and household food security while household food security is
influenced by both physical access and economic access, food security of
individual members of the household is influenced by intra-household
allocation of food. Food security of the people will be ensured not only by
the increased food production at the national level but also from the
increased economic access through increased income levels or from reduced
prices. Economic access to food for the could be achieved through a mix of
employment and income policies for the farm and non-farm sectors and
through a minimum safety net (George, 2002).44
In rural and urban India the declining per capita demand for food
grains was been elaborately discussed by Hanumantha Rao
(2004)45According to national Sample Survey (NSS) data, that per capita
household demand for food grains has been declining Since per capita
income has been declining. Since per capita income has been rising, this
would have led to Some rise in per capita demand for food grains. The
prices of food grains relative to the index of non-food grain prices have
declined over a greater part of the last two decades, which would have also
resulted in some rise in the demand for food grains. But the actual per capita
demand for food grains has been declining. There must be powerful forces
operating in our economic system which are dampening the demand for
food grains. He cited some factors constraining consumption of food grains
among the poor could be the need for increased expenditure on fuel and
68
lights and on miscellaneous goods and services including on conveyance
and medical services which have together received a sharp jump for rural
population between 1970-71 and 1993-94.
According to Debesh Bhowmick (2007)46 the worst form of
deprivation is hunger. But every person has the fundamental right to live in
for satisfying his hunger taking safe and nutritious food. For achieving world
food security and abolish hunger, he suggested some immediate steps. They
are (a) to supply calorie to those people who are consuming below the
specified level of calorie intake, (b) to increase the weight of the children who
are underweight and below 5 years, (c) to supply food to disabled hungry
people, (d) arrange the essential services, such as medical facility, minimum
education, sanitation, safe drinking water free form infections, diseases etc.,
which are the other causes of hunger irrespective of food deprivation,
according to him, the most important causes of food insecurity are mainly low
food grain production, weak and insufficient public distribution system,
natural disaster, drought, flood, earth quakes, epidemics, etc., Besides these,
insecurity of food and malnutrition were enhanced by the unemployment rate.
While analyzing Food Security and Nutrition: Vision 2020,
Radhakrishna and Venkata Reddy (2004)47 said that while India achieved
success in combating transient food insecurity food insecurity as reflected in
the low energy intake and high incidence of malnutrition. The overall
improvement in nutritional in nutritional status has also been very low.
There is a chronic undernourishment in about half of the population,
particularly among the vulnerable groups of children, women and elderly
from the lower half of the expenditure class; curiously the proportion of
consumption expenditure spent on food is slowly going down even in the
households with chronic under-nourishment.
69
Tarrant (1987)48 analyzed the world food crises and informed that one
should not forget that the food crises of the 1960s and 1970 were not
expression of the real world food problem and therefore their solutions will
not be appropriate to it either. These crises were sudden events brought on
by combination of circumstances, a combination that, like the crisis were
sudden events brought on by combination of circumstances, a combination
that, like the crisis itself was short –lived. The real problem that remains is
the long term inability of the world to feed its continuously growing
population at a price that this population can afford to pay. There is
considerable potential to raise food production in the world, but it will be
expensive food. Much of the world population is too poor to purchase food
at current prices.
According to Chisholm (1984)49, the choice to the target consumption
levels is perhaps the most important aspect of a developing country’s food
policy, and it can be viewed under two time frames. First, there is the
problems of chronic and persistent malnutrition that is caused by the low
productive capacity and secular problems of poverty. This constitutes a long
term problem that stems from real income fluctuations that affect the ability
of people to command adequate food through legal means. The basic causes
of real income fluctuations and individuals’ consequent entitlement to food
are production and price fluctuations in both the food and non food sectors.
For the urban population, fluctuations in staple food prices are usually the
major cause of a food security problem. These price fluctuations arise from
year to fluctuations in the domestic or world harvest or and meat, consistent
with dietary changes associated with the economic growth the world over.
The decline in coarse cereal consumption may also be part of this changing
pattern, But the fact that the decreasing production of inferior cereals (in per
capita terms) is of same importance in this context. Her analysis of the
relationship across regions between production and consumption of cereals
70
shows that the relationship has weakened over time and the changes are not
independent of income effects.
Suryanaranyana (2000)50 examines the trends on changing food
consumption pattern in different classes of people. He notes that despite as
modest growth in per capita incomes, cereal consumption per head has
declined; and within the cereal group, consumption has gradually shifted in
favour of superior cereals. Suryanarayana suggests that this type of changes is
dictated is more by the availability of different types of grains than by choice.
However, he finds that the rising unit cost of cereals are produced and
consumed in large measure. This has serious implication for the future because
along with decreasing levels of per capita production of inferior cereals, an
increasing casualisation of labour and hence an increasing dependence on the
market are also observed in these states. Suryanarayana finds that across the
States, the level of food grain productions is not a significant variable in
explaining disparities in rural cereal consumption except in drought years, for
him, this indicates that private trade by itself can take care of Inter-regional
flows in normal and good crop years but public intervention would be needed
in drought years characterized by general conditions of scarcity.
Bhakar and Banafar (2006)51 examined the influence of socio-
economic factors on dietary intake pattern as well as nutritional status in
order to target the groups for prioritising and focusing efforts for
improvement of nutritional status of the rural population.. the study was
conducted in Dharsiwa block of Raipur district in Chhattisgarh State. The
study pertained to the year 2002-2003. The study revealed that the food
basket was dominated by cereals with a negligible portion of protein and
energy being supplied by food of animal origin. Cereals provided more than
75 per cent of proteins, carbohydrates, calories, phosphorus, thiamine and
niacin, though they all were deficient form the recommended dietary
71
allowance. The per capita consumption of fruits in the Sate was found to be
much lower than the all India for both the farm and no-farm households.
Diet diversification increased with increase in the farm size, monthly per
capita expenditure and literacy level. The policies aimend at improving the
nutritional status of rural population include intensifying rural development
programmes and promoting agro-based industries to increase the purchasing
power of rural population. Development of Dairy enterprises needs to be
given priority for raising the income levels, diversify food basket and raising
the nutritional status of the rural population.
Ravi and Ramachandra Reddy (2006)52 attempted to understand the
socioeconomic characteristics and status of poverty and food security among
the tribal households with a special reference to Jenukurba tribe to Heggada
Devanakot (H.D.Kote) in South India, the study is based on primary data
collected from 180 Jenukuruba tribal households, loving in and around that
protected forests covered by the ‘Rajiv Ganhi National Park’ in Karnataka,
South India, the study revealed that these tribals live in object poverty, virtually
devoid of any productive resources and exposure to education. The tribal
households, on an average, earned cash income of Rs. 7,873 per annum, which
was far below the poverty line. They lived on hand to month existence. The
average income spent on food by the tribal households was Rs.3,537 per family
per annum. In terms of calorie intake, food consumption, in general, was
limited to a meager 1,072 kcal per capita per day, which was far below the
minimum consumption needs. In order to make up the calorie deficit the tribals
depend heavily on edible forest products to sustain themselves. The Sen’s
index estimated has a value of 0.47, which in other words, reveals the poverty
gap implying that income of the tribals should be increased by 47 per cent to
entirely alleviate the tribals from poverty line. Thus the government
programmes for tribal resettlement should be enhanced taking a cue from their
existing deficiencies, for greater success of the programmes.
72
Pradeep Hadke and Surendra Jichkar (2006)53 have defined the concept
of food security from various studies and examined the various approaches
advocated in improving food security in developing countries. A direct
relationship exists between food consumption levels and poverty. Families with
the financial resources to escape extreme poverty rarely suffer from chronic
hunger; while poor families not only suffer from chronic hunger, but are also
the segment of the population most at risk during food shortages and famines.
There are many economic approaches advocated to improve food security in
developing countries, viz., westernized view (profit maximization), food justice
(food for all) and food sovereignty. To sum up food security seems to have
improved in India, both at the national and the household levels. India can
legitimately take pride in the fact that in spite of a history of famines and 16 to
18 million people being added to its already huge population, it has developed
the capacity to ensure that no household is again required to face famines,
widespread hunger and starvation, the food, at least of cereals, availability is
thus, quite comfortable, even though poor households may have achieved this
security at a certain social cost, like many children going to work rather than to
schools, A nutritionally balanced diet is still a far cry for millions of poor
families, their present income levels are too low to register their demands on
the agricultural sector and to induce that sector, which still has tremendous
untapped potential. Some policy measures/options are suggested to improve the
total food and nutrition security.
Banumthy and Sundravaradarajan (2006)54 studied the consumption
pattern of vegetables in rural and urban areas by income group and to
identify the factors influencing the demand for vegetables. The results of the
study showed that there. The average monthly household expenditure per
household indicated that the urban families incurred double the amount of
expenditure on vegetables than their rural counterparts. The expenditure
elasticity was also higher in urban households for all vegetable. This would
73
denote the difference in the consumption level of vegetables. Vegetable
consumption varies across income groups in rural and urban areas. The
results indicated that the income elasticity is positive and it is lower than the
price elasticity. Therefore lower prices through enhanced vegetable supplies
brought about by the adoption if cost reducing or production enhancing
technologies’ played a stronger role in increasing vegetable consumption
than induced consumption via enhanced income. Also vegetable
consumption in the study area is for below the recommended level. Efforts
to enhance vegetable supplies coupled with the creation if awareness on the
role of vegetable in supplying micronutrients that are vital to good health
needs to be pursued vigorously. More research is needed to develop new
varieties that add value for the poor and malnourished population.
2.3 Research Gaps
The review of the various studies relating to the public distribution
and food security to various categories reveals that they either focused on
macro perspective of outstanding food security or on some issues related to
the specific category of the weaker sections at the micro level. None of the
studies have taken an integrated view of the concept public distribution
system and poorer sections. Only few studies have been conducted by
researchers about the role of public distribution system in raising the
standard of living of the community in Karnataka. In Mysore district no
such studies have been conducted in particular. In order to fill this research
gap, the present study is undertaken.
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