CHAPTER III

MODERN WORLB & THE PLIGHl' OF MODERN M AN

• Introduction

• M eaning o f Crisis and Difficulties o f Definition

• The Crisis o f M o d e m M an in the Traditionalists ' N o tions

• W itnesses o f Critical Position in the M odem M an’s

Life

• The Aspects o f Crisis

• N ecessity o f Relationship with G O D

• The Place o f M an in the W orld

® The Problem o f Knowledge

• The Root(s) o f Crisis

® The Solutions o f Crisis

I MODERN WORLD &

THE PLIG HT OF MODERN MAN

Introduction

rT*^raditiona!ist and Post-modern thinkers have affirmed that human being, in the

A modern world, has faced serious crises.

According to this idea there are some problems that need clariiiealions:

(a) What is the meaning o f crisis and what are difficulties o f its dciinition?

(b) What are the aspects o f crises that modern man is facing?

(c) What arc the roots of crises?

and finally, what are suggested ways for solving the crises?

Before explaining the problems, mentioned above, there arc some points which one

ajipropriatc to note;

1. Obviously each school o f thought analyzes the worid either from its cosmological

or ontological outlook, and man, both his physical and spiritual aspects, which these

views describe, can be cither in positive or negative forms.

2. Also it is evident that the implication o f each anthropological, philosophical and

theological analysis o f crisis and so on would be entirely different among

traditionalists or post-modern thinkers. Their backgrounds of knowledge, social,

ideological, and sometimes political approaches and so on, inHuence their

understanding of a crisis and its interprctation.s. Obviously there are many points or at

least one point is common among traditionalists, modern or Post-modern thinkers that

puts that brings them together temporarily. But sometimes to find an exact common

Modern World & The Plight o f Modem Man g 2

sense among some scholars o f a school o f thought is not possible, as in the case o f

existentialist philosophers.

3, Our approach in this chapter is not tlie one that wants to study the problem o f ‘crisis

of modem m an’ in order to find a solution. But at this state we want to gain an

introduction to the study o f nature and characteristics o f man w'ithin botli modei'n and

traditional domains. Hence this chapter’s framework would be descriptive.

I

Meaning of Crisis and Difficulties of Definition

ITie primary meaning of crisis that comes to the mind is condition or collection of'

conditions after which we expect some change in the life o f human being. These

changes can be multilateral or partly, deep or shallow, mandatory or selccti\’cly,

individual or sociological in the m an’s lii'e.

The term crisis literally means “a time o f great difliculty or danger or when an

important decision must be made" as the Oxford Dictionary has deiincd. Or "a stage

in sequence o f events at wliich the trend o f all I'uture events esp. for better or Ibi*

worse; a condition o f instability or danger, as in 'social, economic, political, or

international affairs; leading to decisive change; a dramatic emotional or

circumstantial upheaval in a person’s life, as the W ebster’s Unabridged D iciionaiy

has detlned.

Therefore the common sense between all deiinitions is a condition that leads a person

or a society to decisive change, without which the individual or social life would be

impossible. 7'he necessity o f changing is the soul of the concept oi' crisis. Hence,

existence o f some problems is not the main characteristic of crisis, even i f there were

some serious difficulties in the various aspects o f individual or social life, and e\'en if

they w’cre in a very critical position.

Modern World & The Plight o f Modern Man g-

It is not the critiques which are the reason for changing the position o f societies but

also these are, occasionally, the secret o f their survival, especially if tliesc were logical

and reasonable critiques that came sound critics, and were noted by politicians,

licncc, we sec endavours o f some Eastern authors who want to show the West in poor

light by quoting the critical views o f some western thinkers their own societies sucli

an approach is not appropriate. These written do not understand that there arc

fundamental differences between critiques from inside position and reformation from

outside one. hi the same way the third world politicians sometimes fail to recogni/.c

tliis delicatc point and cannot distinguish between reformation and sub\’crsion,

rcfbmiists and subversives, ’ 'ou can easily guess what would hapfien in such

situation.

It is not possible, therefore, to claim that the Western societies have encountered

complicated crises, merely, mainly because o f their outward individual or social

outward problems, even if they (societies) were actually in a critical condition.

Recognition o f the nature o f crisis requires the knowledge of its ft)undations. namely,

its epistemological, ontological and anthropological aspects.

II

The Crisis of M odern M an in the T rad it iona l is ts ’ Notions

Traditional tliinkers emphasize the Divine Principles considering them as eternal,

unchangeable and lasting. The Holy Quran has called it the .siinrial Allah or suitnan

ilahi in Persian.' Rene Guenon’s tamous book, The Crisis o f M odem World, lias been

written in this mould. In fact, this book has been planned on the Hindu doctrine and its

cosmological knowledge. According to Guenon’s analysis which is based on Hindu

doctrine, the age o f inan’s lifetime is divided in four parts; those are the manifestation

oi‘descending o f primitive spirituality. This age tliat present-day human being lives in,

is named as ''Kali Yiigcf or the ‘Dark Age’; and it is the last o f the four o f ages.

Modern W oiid & The Plight o f M odem M an

Hence this age would expire as three other ages came and expired, Tlie analysis o f

modern age as ‘Dark Age’ is based on a cosiiiologicai notion on the one hand, and

cpisteinological one, on the other.*'

But when Guenon wants to define the meaning o f crisis, it gets involved in problem.

Some concepts in his definition are qualitative, and moreover they are not definable,

testable and verifiable, the characteristic o f \foiih coming'' in his dcfurition, I'or

instance.

According to Guenon’s analysis of the crisis o f modern world the definition lia.s

oflered can be divided in three main parts:

1. Coming to cause drastic change,

2. approximately suddenly, and

3. decisive change, mandatory or selectively.^

He claims, based on Hindu doctrine and modern world’s traits, that the modern world

would encounter forth coming with a sea change. But the problem is; what is tlie exact

meaning o f forth coming? An old Arabic adage says; ‘"'All that is ((hie) to occur (Think

oj'il as) it is (to occur) very soon hi the same W'ay some of Quranic verses inform us

abut the occun’cnce o f Resurrection, it is coming. And it is a message that \\'as present

in all divine religions over the ages, and it is a proved truth, because it is a coming

phenomenon; the Holy Quran says; “Closer and closcr to mankind conics their

Reck<ming yet the heed not and they turn away"^

There are two important questions to ask here;

(a) According to the traditionalists’ point of view, has the modern world tn- modern

man fallen in the critical position? If so, what is /arc their witness(es)?

(b) What is/are the main root cause(s) o f crises in human societies'.^

Modem World & The Plight o f Modem Man g 5

T rad i t io n a l is ts , a n s w e r to th e f i rs t q u e s t i o n , is in a f f i rm a t iv e . T h e y sh o w s o m e s in g s o f

crises in th e l i i e o f m o d e r n m a n in o r d e r to e n h a n c e th e i r a r g u m e n t . T h is p o in t is v e ry

im por tan t w e w o u ld d is c u s s its im p l i c a t i o n s in s o m e deta ils .

I l l

Wifncsscs of Critical Position in the M odern M a n ’s Life

F ri th jo f S c h o u n , w h o is o n e o f t l ie m o s t f a m o u s sa g es o f t r ad i t io n a l d o m a i n , as

m e n t io n e d in the last ch a p te r , says:

M odern man collects keys but does not know liow to open a door. A

confirmed sceptic [skeptic], he s truggles am ong concep ts with no

suspicions as to then" in trinsic va lue or their e f f icacy . '

He as ser ts tliat m o d e rn m a n ’s k n o w l e d g e is n o t th o r o u g h d e e p and Me w ri te s ;

He (man) classifies ideas at the surface level o f thought but never

‘realizes’ a single idea in depth . ! te is recompen.sed witii the luxury o f

despair the most paradox ica l fonn o f that commodity. He thinks tluU lie

has made experim ents w h en all he has done is to avoid those im posed

on him, and he has not the intellectual capacity to experiment. His

"experimenting’ is like tha t o f a child whicli lias iiunU itse lf and w ants

fire to be abolished.'’

W e can s a y th a t a c c o r d in g to S c h u o n ’s p o in t o f v ie w th e m o d e r n m a n is, f r o m th e

v ie w p o in t o f cp is lc rn o io g ic a l s tu d i e s , o n th e w a y tha t le ad s h is d e s t in y to a

c o m p l ic a te d p ro b le m . H e h a s c o m e to a s i t u a t io n w 'here h e c a n n o t e n jo y f r o m th in g s

o f w h ic h h e has m a d e w i th h i s o w n h a n d s . R a d h a k r i s h n a n w r i te s ;

Wlicn R o m e fell Atiguslinc cried; “ T h e xvboJc world groaned at the fall ol' R o m e ." “ The

human race is included in the ruin; m y tongue c leaves to the ro o f o f my m outh and sobs choke

my w ords to think that the city is a cap t ive w hich led captive the whole world , "w ro te St.

•lerome from his monastery at Beth lehem . About a m illennium earlier, I h u c y d ic d s spoke in

sad terms o f the downfall o f the A then ian E m pire in the Peloponnesian W ar o f 431 to 404

Modern World & 'llie Plight o f Modem Man gg

l iC . An ancient Egyptian papyrus dat ing iVoni more tlian four thousand years ago con ta ins the

following passages;

R obbers abound . . . . No one p loughs the land. People are saying: “ W c

do not know what will liappen from day to day.” ... Dirt, prevails

everywliere, and no longer does any one w ear clean ra im ent. . . . The

country is spinning roinid and round like a potter’s wheel... ^ilave-

w om en are wearing necklaces o f gold and lapis lazuli. No more do we

liear any one laugh .. . Great men and small agree in saying; “W ould

that 1 had never been b o r n . . . . ’

A c c o rd in g to t r a d i t io n a l i s t s ’ p o in t o f v ie w (lie la c k o f in c a n in g in l i f e is o n e o f the

se r ious p r o b le m s that th e m o d e r n m a n lias b e e n fac ed w ith . In th is reg a rd N a s r w ri te s :

I 'o d a y almost everyone living in (lie urbanized centers o f the Westei'n

world iecls intuitively a lack o f som ething in life. This is due directly

to tlie creation o f an arti tlcial env ironm ent froni whicli nature has been

excluded to the greatest poss ib le extent, i;vcn the religious man in such

circumstanccs has lost the sense o f the spiritual signi ficance ofna tu re .^

In this way technology docs not appear to be an instrument for improving tlie quality

of life but has become a means for enslaving man. l^otli the rnotiern science and

technology laid down the foundation o f unprecedented devclopnicnt, progress and

prosperity, which is the man. is enjoying. But he has lost i'cw precious things wiiicli

are lo replace. Writes Radhakrishnan:

Thanks to technology, n ew form s o f econom ic organization ha\'c com e

into being in which the in d i \ id u a l is losing his scn.se o fu n i t iu e n css and

o f unity with others. O u r society is fast becom ing one o f vast

organizations and d im in ish ing personal relationships. The in tluence o f

tlie family, the village grouji, the local authority, the temple, the cliurcli

or the m osque is waning. T h e people arc restless, volatile, seldom in

repose .. . The great dange r with tlie mass is not right thought or w rong

thought hut the u tter absence o f thought. ''

jVloderri World & Tlie Plight o f Modern Man 3 7

Nafjr elaborated this loss in a different way. He thinks that the problems we are facing

liavc been caused or brought about due to lack o f hamiony between man and God. He

writes:

A ltogether one can say that the p roblem conecn is both the scicncc.s and

the means whereby they are understood, interpreted and applied. T here

arc cri.ses in the dom ains o f both understanding and app lica tion . . .T lia i

the harmony between m an and nature ha.s been destroyed, is a fact

which most people adm it. But not everyone realizes that this

di.sequibbrium is due to the destruction o f ilie harm ony between man

and Ciod."’

The traditionalists thus believe and argue that evidently the equilibrium tfuit should

have existed between man and tlie nature or the environment around hiiri has been

disturbed. This disequilibrium has changed or affected the peace of m an’s life. The

value system and beliefs, spirituality and the meaning of life, scli-confidenee and the

identity o f contemporary man all are being violated. Nasr rightly remembers;

'I'be history o f m odern w orld is w itness to the fact tha t the type o f man

\\'ho negate.s the Sacred or H eaven in the nam e t^f being a purely

earthly creature cannot li\ 'e in equilibrium with the fiarth. it is true that

the remaining traditional peop les o f the world also contribute to the

destruction o f their env ironm ent, but their actioiis a re usually local and

most often the consequence o f m odern inv'cntions and techniques o f

foreign origin, whereas the m odern ized regions o f the globe are almost

totally re.sponsible for the technologies that make the des truc tion o f

nature possible oti a vast scale reach ing as far as the h igher layers o f

the atm osphere .’'

Modern W orld & Tlie Plight o f M odern M an gg

The nature o f human being has been so designed as to pursue a transcendental ii fe and

be in the harmony with what guides man to a spiritual world as some Quranic \ ’erse.s1 2 .

emphasize. Without spirituaUty in life man feels notliingness and vacuum and

finally falls in despair.'"* The causes of growing nihilism in the West is due to a kind

of life that believes that all things are designed in a materialistic framework and arc

limited to this worldly life. Moreover he believes in reason sufficiency which in fact,

is an erroneous notion. These two factors liavc led to tiie ernergcnce o f a complicated

worldview making it different to analyze e.Kplain tfic world. T’he notion o f Nietzsciie

needs to be noted seriously, ft was indeed Nietzsche wlio announced deaili of'

God" and is, therefore, regarded is the foremost thinker of nihilism. Here is liis

unfbrgcltable poem that he composed w'hen fie was twenty:

"To the Unknown Sod"

I would know thee, Unkown,

Thou who grips deep in my soul,

Wandering through my life like a storm,

Thou inconceivable, my kin.

I would know thee, even serve thee."^^

Any body who reads this poem wdll surely enjoy it, specially its lucid sentences ifiat

seem to liave risen from a clean and pure nature tliat invites man to his Origin in order

to bind him to the f^eaven. But there arc some important points in Nietzchc's poem

which require a deeper analysis:

(a) All human beings have a natural tendency towards the transcendental meaning

which the divine religions have define as Celestial Nature or Fitrat al-Allah, in

Quranic parlance. This poem reminds us of assaying of’ the Noble Prophet Mohamad:

“/In iiifaiit is born according to his (true) nature. It is his parents who m ake him a

Jew, a Christian...

fvlodcni W orld & The Flight o f M odem M an

!n the same way the Holy Quran says: “i’o set thy purpose (O Muhamad) for religion

as man by nature upright the nature (framed) o f Allah, in which He hath crcaicd man.

There is no altering (the laws of) A llah 's creation, that is the rif d'K Relii^ion. hut most, /rt men know not.

The pure nature after the birtli o f man is sun-oundec! by so many lactoi's tliat lend to

deviate the tendencies o f his Hca\ eniy nature.

(b) There is a Celestial way that God has bestowed on man: the intellect and wisdom.

In i'aet prophets came to remind man o f his Celestial Nature and ol' tlie 'Truth o f his

Origin.

Therefore, if wisdom reduces itself and descends to tlie level of reason {iis profane

form) man would not recognize tlie tendencies of his pure nature, and thcr! Giul (Who

is evident to the human nature) becomes an "Unknown’ existence! Religion and iti its

following tradition, therefore, d r i\en to tlie margin of life. The eflcct o f this kind of

worldview within the life is disequilibrium in the m an’s nature. Nasr describes |])c

position o f modern man that has leaned back to his reason;

There are tliose indi\ 'iduals wlio take recourse to a new philosi’i[ili\' in

(he current sense to save tlie natural en\ 'ironment, !>ul such

philosophies arc not sufiic ien t ly powerrul to sway th e human

comnuinity on a g lobal scale at his moment o f acute crises. N o r do

they have access to the Sacred, w h ich alone can enable us to rcasscri

the sacred quality o f natu re and the re ib re realize its ultimate mental

landscape clutlercd by so m any ib n n s o f philosophical agnostic ism and

nihilism, but they canno t bring about the change ia the hum an

conditions necessary to r even the physical survival o f hum an beings.

Only religion and ph i lo soph ies rooted in religion and intellection arc

capable o f sucli an undertaking. It might, in fact, be said that, \ \ ’hilc

mmi lived accord ing to traditional teachings, he was not only at peace

with Heaven, but also by virtue o f that peace, he lived in harm ony with

Modern W orld & The Plight o f Modern Man 90

Earth. M odern man, w ho has eclipsed the religious v iew of'tlie order o f

nature and “ghetto ized" relig ion itself, has not only caused the

disappearance ol' n u m erous plaru and animal species and endangered

many otliers, but has near ly eaused-hum ans tlieinselves to becom e an

endangered spec ie s . ' ^

Lhifortunatcly this is the modem m an ’s position that he has attained reason, but he has

lost his transcendent itself and celestial status that God iias bcsloweti on him.

Radhakrishnan explains the position o f man with this statement: “Wc have grown in

know'lcdgc and intelligence hut not in w'isdom and nature.” '*

Bafnernent and perplexity arc the familiar traits o f the modern man, and tliis is the

cause for lack of meaning in his life. He searches the meaning of liic, based on his

rea.son that lies potentially in the embrace o f his intellect but Linlbrlunalely lie has lost

it in the profane and dcsaeralized world. Schoun writes: “His 'e.xiKTinienting' is likeIV

that of a ciiild has burnt itself and wants fire to be abolished.”

According to this situation what will happen when the modern man seeks, based on

his pure reason, to find the way o f his nature’s tcndencie.s? Mis tendenc\’ to word

spirituality is like a single spark that may not be silent, but would be dull or impotent.

The position o f contemporary man regards the searching o f spirituality, two main ami

essential points:

(a) The position oi' modern lile with its gaudy instruments could not turn o tf tlic

tendencies o f human nature. And (b) m an’s reason could not show, duritig tlie three

last centuries, its adequacy and sufficiency in the human life, especially in the position

of m an’s spiritual tendencies, as modern thinkers have confessed.

Nasr e.xplains the position o f modern man in the following passage;

Another religious phetio inenon w'hich i.s important to imderstand a long

with the so called 'n e w re liu ions ' and revival o f ancient religions is (lie

Modern W orld & 'I'he Plight o f Modem Man 9)

tu rn ing o f m any people in the W est to the religions o f the Hast for

gu idance and help. From the beg inn ing o f the twcntietli cen tu ry :nKi

especially since tlie S econd W orld War, m any W esterners wlio liavc

had tlie thirst for spiritual exper ience and religious know ledge but who

have not been able to find w hat they have been seeking in the context

o f the existing religious inst itu tions in the W'csl have turned to E aslen i

religions. Some have turned to Hinduism , others lo Hudtihism and a

num ber to Islam and espec ia l ly lo Sufi teachings witiiin Islam. T’liis

tendency has certain ly gvown during tlie hist few decades and

continues to be strong. S om e o f the religit)us m ovem ents o f i:.astern

origin, which have now sunk the ir root.s in the soil o l ’tlie W est, are o f

an authentic nature w h ile m any are m ere iniilatioii leading tt) tlie

estabii.shment o f dev ious culls s trongly opposed by what survives oi'

traditional religion in the \^'est.

As far as Islam is concerned, it has also altractetl a num ber o f peop le in

both America and Fairope. peop le vvlio have been lo.st in the m aze o f

the confusion o f the n iodern world and have sought a light w hich

would save them i'rom the ir s ta te o f despair and loss o fd irce t ion ." '’

Tlic Aspect of Crisis

Every day the modern man feels lovely and more lonely. He finds himscli 'in a world

with which he docs not seem to be in toucli. The feeiing of lonely and nostalgia arc

the main reason for the feeling o f nothingness and for being void. Loneliness rises

from strangeness. Technology has made a Vv'orld that is entirely diflercni IVom the

man’s nature and he cannot nonnally cope with it. The growing o f psychosomatic

diseases bears testiiriony to the modern m an’s disturbed equilibrium in the world that

he has made with his own liands.

Mcldcrn World & I'he Plight o f Modem Man 9')

The crisis o f environment, ethical crises, serious problems of families’ relationship

and dozens o f other problematic cases have surrounded the modcni m an’s life, and in

this regard all societies o f the world seem to have found their.

In the modern worldview the position o f world has changed from God’s siu,n to being

an accidcntal case, in a Big Bang event for instance, and His creatures becamc tlic

pi'oduct o f evolution, that we ha\ e already mentioned in the iii'sl cha[)(ei'. Before tliat,

in tlie traditional worldview, human being and otlier creatures were tlie signs o f (joti

and they have led man to his Origin and bound liim to the Heaven. After tlie modern

lin)C, lliey are limited in the form o f material existences without any saercd

background and without any hea\'enly purpose, wliich can lead man, to liis perfection.

And belief in God, the message o f Heaven and faith in descending ol' L)i\'ine rules and

Heavenly Books and so on, became meaningless concepts in the modern age. K-Iaa's

mind has given birth to many other childish thoughts as found for tbrraulaied by such

modern thinkers as Auguste Comte (1798-1857) and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

have claimed.

in the best form the faith in God and revelation were individual images that have

issued Irom his need to a father or such other thoughts, in the modern tliinkers' point

ol'view, all o f man’s spiritual tendencies, iherefoi'c, turn lo liis worldly needs. 'Fhe

position o f man and analysis o f his e.xi.stence not only was not better than the position

of the universe and otlier creatures but also it was worse, sometimes. Iknv man>'

researches have been executed to sliow that he was an animal, as we mentioned their

endeavours in the first chapter.

All traditionalists have focused their attention on these important problems saying that

tliese are the main reasons for modern m an’s crises. Nasr writes:

The new consciousness o f m an living amidst the world o f nature was

completed by a new aw areness o f m a n 's position in history. T here

developed at this t im e a h is toric ism representing the seciilarizalion o f

Modem Woi'ld & Tl ie Plig lit o f Modern Man 93

ihc Christian doctrine of the niai'ch of lime and lliat played an

important role in creating a consciousness within the new man of lii,s

position in history considered as the .sccular How of time rather tliaii

his position in the face of eternity. 'I’raditional man, Cliristian or

otherwise, always situates and orients himself vis-a-vis an Origin and a

Center, both of which are Divine. The new humanism changed this

matrix drastically by substituting liislorical tinic ior eternity with

profound consequences ior the future; for it was this very inception of

iiistoricism that was to lead to the idea of indefinite materia! pmgress,

evolution, social Darwinism, “white man’s burden," the negation of

transhistorical realities, and many other developnients tluit liad and

continue to have the most profound consequences for tlie relation

between man and the order of nature.’'

Modern man and to sonic extent the eastern one especially in the folknving the

Western culture, is going to have hi.s worst form o f spiritual position in human history

of life that before that he had not experienced before.

\ /

Necessity of Relationship with G O D

liuman being based on his nature is a worshipping exi.stcnce. Worshiping is the

integral characteristic of m an’s nature. If there were any disturbance in this important

and essential nature, we would witness both disctiuilibrium and a tendency to worship

other objects instead of God.

Radltakrishnan has highliglUed this point in liis book "The Recovery of F a ilh \ lie

writes;

There is no God and there is must be God. Men insist on believing in .‘iometliing ior we eannol

submit to an unknown fear, 'flic spiritual liomelessness ofnuKlern man cannot last long."

Modern World & I'hc Plight o f Modern Man 9 4

He ( ic sc r ib es tha t th e re is n o t o n ly an e s se n t ia l n e e d fo r the m e a n in g o f C3od b u t a l so

tliis b e l i e f m a k e s a fo rm o f l ife . I ’h e r e fb r c , b e l i e f a n d b e h a v io u r h a v e a p r o f o u n d

r e la t io n sh ip He adds:

I lc l ie fand behaviour go together. I f we believe in b lood, race and soil, our world will be tilled

with Belsens and Buchenwalds. I f w e behave like w ild animals, our society will be a ju n g le . If

we believe in universal spirilual vniues, peace and under.slandii)!i will pnnv. A yood tree

biingcth forth good fruit. W e arc todus- concerned with fundarncntal issues and aix* e a g e r to

know the truth in its most exalted and rew ard ing forms."'

T he m o d e r n m a n has d e v e lo p e d a m e a n i n g o f G o d tliat lias no effcctiA'c p r e s e n c e in

lii.s l i fe an d a lso has no in l ' luence o n th e d e s t in y o f h is liie, hi iliis in c a o i i i ” . b e l i e l 'o r

u n b e l i e f in G o d app ro .x im ate ly w o u ld b e e q u a l , b e c a u s e i f m a n b c h 'e \ 'c s lha i G o d is

the O r ig in oi' c re a tu re and H e is tl ie O n n n ’se ie n t an d the O irnn 'po te iu an d ail oi'

c re a tu re s p r o fo u n d ly n ee d f l i in in th e i r e .x is tenec , as th e Idoly Q u ra n a s se r ts ihat,"'^ on

the o n e h a n d , and tha t m a n ’s r e a s o n is n o t e n o u g h to d e s ig n the p r o g ra m o f l i \ ing

based o n h is a sp ec ts o f e x i s t e n c e ( \ i s i b l e a n d in v is ib le ) , on th e o the r . H e n c e , lie h a s to

fo l low H im in all a s p e c ts o j 'h i s b te , n a m e ly in its in d iv id u a l and so c ia l fo rm s , d 'h ese

are th e ru le o f w 'isdom tha! m o d e r n m a n lias re d u c e d it to th e re a so n a n d , t i i c r e ib re ,

eon i 'ined it o n ly to tiie p r o fa n e li le . hi th e s a m e w a y the w'cu'siiip o f G o d lias b ee n

re d u c e d to p s y c h o s o m a t ic n e e d s . T h i s is th e p o s i t io n o f sp i r i tu a l i ty o f m o d e r n m a n

that th e so ca lled h u m a n is m h a s m a d e fo r m o d e r n life. In deed th is m e a n in g o i 'C Jo d is

the p a r t o f d e s a c ra l iz e d w o r ld , to wdiich W'e w i l l tu rn w h i le d i s c u s s in g the

co .sm ologica l as jicct o f t r a d i t io n a l a n d m o d e r n w o r l d v ie w in the nc.xt tw o c i iap le rs .

T h e R e n a i s s a n c e m a n n e e d e d a s p e c ia l f r a m e w o r k o f w'orld to d e s ig n a new m e a n in g

o f m a n wdio b e c o m e s th e m e a s u r e o t ' a i l th in g s . A s w'c will a n a ly z e in th e fo lk n ^ 'in g

pages , h e faced a g rea t co td 'u s io n th a t h a s no p r e c e d e n c e in th is h i s to ry o f h u m a n

th o u g h t . T h e m o d e rn m a n ’s w o r l d \ ' i e w h a s m a d e w it l i a e o l le c l io n o f r e l e \ a n t to

e le m e n ts tha t any c h a n g e w i th in th e o n e o f t h e m is th e r e a s o n o l ' t h c d e s t r o y i n g o f its

Modem W orid & The Plight o f M odern M an

wliole framework. In this way how modern man can respond to his heavenly yearning

!>ased on his pure nature in the profane world? Nasr writes:

f-urthermorc, this m isdirecting o f the yearning o f (he soui for the fiifiiiitc to

the material world, and the c liange o f the direction o f the arrow o)' progress

Ironi that o f the soul journeying o f God to purely material progress, is made

so much more lethal by the absolutization o f icrrestrial niati with its

consequent anthroponioiphisni; n u n and only man is now the m easure o l'a ll

things."^

The modern thought has not stayed in the secular framework rather it has iniiltratcd in

the religious thought also both in the West and, to some extcnl, in the East,

A kind o f reductionism can easily be found among some modern religious thinkers

who want to solve the problem o f contradictions between modern discoveries and

religious concepts."^'

The Place of Man in the W orld

The history of thought witnesses that the concept oi’ man and his place in tlic u oi ld

has always engaged the mind o f man. Socrates (d.39y l ie .) was preoccupied wnli it

when has said “Know thyself. " and so was Protagoras when he remarked that is

the measure o f all things," by (4S07-4U? H.C.), same thing was repeated in tlte

Renaissance by modem thinkers such as Pico Della Mirandola and Giovanni, (1463-

1494), Italian humanist philosopher. Although divine religions have acknowledged

man’s great place in the w'orld modern man changed the meaning o f this great position

of man. He not only denied the place o f man as G od’s caliph but assigned to hiiri an

entirely new meaning tliat has no precedence. Writes Nasr:

fvlociem World & The Piiglit o f Modern Man 9(,

Tlie main thrusi o f the h is to ry oi' liumanity in llie W est lias been to

substitu te the kingdom o f m an for the kingdom o f Ciod. Only now

w hen much ol' Hailh has been despoiled and the rest threatened as

never before, a few have aw akened to the reality that, a lthough man

o nce sought the k ingdom o f G o d seriously, he lived at peace with the

world o f nature or at least did not threaten the very fabric o f the order

o f nature; now that he is li\ ing and striving only for the kingdom o f

man, he is about lo des troy the very order tiiat makes the fabric lii'

human life on Barth poss ib le .” as N asr w ri te s / ' '

With this new position and role in the world, all aspccts of man’.s lit'c h a \e been

affecled from his method o f tliinking to tlic mode oi'drcssing, irom the style o f living

to under.standiiig o f uni\'ersc and creatures. Nasr adds:

As lor the art o f t l ie dress or api)arel. u illi the Rciiaissance the .saecrdolal nature o f ciollii iig,

especially male ahire, is destroyed, replaced by various styles that em phasize pom posi ty ,

luxury, animality , and almost anyth ing o ther than m a n ’s sacerdotal and pontifical nature. It

ends with that casualncss attire vvhicli succeeds lo the extent possible to h ide the nobility i>f

the human body.

The s teady process o f the d isf iguration o f the image o f man ciui also be seen in the w ay in

which m odem man com es to identify his nature with his creations based upon the

forgetfulness o f his original nature. He creates the m achine and tlicn ph ilosophers and

-scicntist.s appear who identify man h im s e lf as a machine." ' ' '

hi this way, therefore, m an’s relationship with world and its quality change to a form

of hcdoni.sm."''* According to the traditionalists’ point o f view the undermining of

man’s position during tlic last tlirce centuries has brought about a gradual degradation

of m an’s personality. I ’lie man who, before the Renaissance, the position ot'being the

besl creatiu'c o f God and was the manifestation of'hi.s Lord on the earth attd he also

Modern W orld & The Plight o f M odern M an g j

had tlic potential of God’s Characteristics eradicated this numinous meanings fi’om his

h’le with his own hands.

All these started happening when man developed this new thinking that he was "//ir

measure o f all things''?^ He judged all things, even God, on his brain’s scale.

Radhakrishan has aptly remarked;

Millions o f p c o p lc w ish to believe, but they carinol, even (hout;li iliese

orphaned children m ake use o f the outer framework o f religions, W’e

are christened, or baptised , marrieti, buried or crenialcd accordinii to

our religitius riles, but all the time we are \'iclini.s o f an involuntary

hypocrisy. W e live in an age whicli i.s numbed and disillusioned. O ur

vahies arc blurred, o u r thought is confuscd and ouraiin.s are waverin!’..

In the liie o f spirit w h ich is tlie vital secret o f all civilization, w hich

intellect m ay foster and de\ 'c lop but cannot create or even kee[i a l i \e ,

we are uprooted. W hen the roots are desiroyed, a tree may ct 'n t inue tc'

live and even seem to n o u r ish for time, but its days are numbered. ’"

l ie repeatedly says that the m odem u ’orld has destroyed o f m an’s sell-resi')cet. He

says:

M odern govenm ients tend to attack and destroy the sel!'-res]iect in hunjaii beings, l . i l l le h \ ’

little they transform human beings into m ere object.s, conscious o f them selves as such ami

forced in the end to despair o f them se lves . I 'h is happens not nterely at the intcllectua! level

but in the very deptlis o f the soul. T iiese are the people w h o have lost their souls, iiimah(uu)

jiiudh as the IJpanishad says,^'^

'Flic Problem of Knowledge

The problem of knowledge o f universe and human being’s existence continuously has

been the most important problem o f philosophicttl seliools o f thought. Its eonipHcated

Mocicj-n World & The Plight o f Modern M an 9g

(iimcnsions and limits, its instruments and possibility has been the main reason behind

the i)irth ot' schools o f thought among philosophers. Obviously to pay a \'ig()r<)us

attention to this important problem one needs a vast and independent opportunity, b u t

here being concerned with the crisis o f mail’s life, we need to focus on the foundaiior!

of m an’s crisis in life. The understandings of m an’s crises in the modern %\'orld,

(iici'cfbrc, depend on the understanding o f this system.

A knowledge system has been made here from various dimensions tliat imply a Ibrm

of ontology cpistemology, and anthropology. All of these three aspects are

[irolbundly linked togetljer, and they are like a melt of conncctcd eliain and any

ciiange in any o f them aflects the other ones.

Man’s untierstanding oi' universe (his ontological system), for instance, aflects the

other aspects of his knowledge system, namely, his understanding ol'tlie iini\ ersc, its

dimensions, accepting or rejecting o f visible or invisible dimensions o f the universe

and so on, (epistemological system); in the same way, his special form of

cpistemological system affects his understanding and special kind o f his interpretation

li'om the meaning of human being’s e.xistence and its aspects, or the meaning of life

and man’s role and his importance or his place among other creatui’es o f the wuiid,

and his end that concerns and connects with m an’s visible or invisible aspects o f liis

existence, and so on (anthropological system); Hence, they have in the \ertical

concerning together.

Modern W orld & The Plight o f M odern M an 9 9

‘iisurcl

I’undamcntal differences betueen llic schools of thouulit irrcspccti\e o f ihcir

cclestial or earthly orighis turn to this very complicated and importars! s\steiii ol'

knowledge. The modern world’s destin}' was separated from the way ol’re\elation and

divine religions by the m odem tliinkcrs’ epistemological system vvliich \.\as

instituled by Rene Descartes (15%-1650) and Imrnanuel Kant (1724-1804),

Now we turn to our main questions about ‘Why' and 'I low". Here a que.stion i.s asked:

\\tiy man is faced witli a critical position in the modern world? In iact. it i s an

aiUltropological question and, llierefore. w’c need to search within the two nuiin ixirts

ol'his knowledge’s system, namely. 'cpistemologicaP and 'ontoiogicaT sxstems. I’or

example, if a question asks “ why man has iallcn within the domain o f 'hedonism '?

(Sec the ibotnotc N o.2y .| We must repl\': Because he ha.s understood the ideal form ut'litc

and the interrelationship between its elements in the special style that "on/v pk'asiin:'

is inirinsically cicsirahle and fha! only di.spkuisure (or pain) is iiuriiisicall}-

lunksinihle."\ihk\] And if a question continually asks again “why tlie \sorki is like

tliis"? In the circumstances, necessarily our reply falls in ihe epistemokigical

framework, and we would reply concisely. Ik’cause lie recognizes the work! and

man's dimensions in this form. But the form and quality of question about ' l l o w ‘

would be entirely different; 'rherefore if the question changes and asks: "H ow man

Modern W orld & The Plight o f M odem M an [ ()(|

Icl! in the critical position in the modern world?” It needs, for instance, to analyze o f

tiic position of the modern man in the particular age, the condition o f liis life and tlic

process o f his thought that all o f them exactly ai'e dependent on the three ileni.s tliat

has already been analyzed above, (in the knowledge System)

According to the anthropological system o f divine religions, man is the manifestation

of God in the domain o f human. Based on this view man has got a colleclion o f great

po.ssibilities that make him such as God (in the domain o f human possibility and liis

limited sphere) and become the measure of all tilings.'^''

Hence, his possibilities grow in the special condition; it is (lie Ibllowing whicli God

has ordered.

llcnce, the appearance o f man's qualities, based on the Message of Allah, depends

upon followiiig G od’s orders. It is, therefore, (he mystery o f elernal life and

everlasting salvation that has the same meaning as tiie thetiphany (lujaiii) o f G d d ’s

Names and Qualities. We turn again to Nasr’s elucidation, lie writes;

Al the centcr o f (his huinarnsrn .stood the l^ronierlieaii vision o f man.

who now cam e to occupy the middle o f (lie s(age as an on toh 'g ically

autonomous being. I f certa in csotcric ism s sucli a.s that o f fslaiii had

accepted the thesis tha t m a n is the m easure o f all things because they

saw in m an the full theo]ihany (tajalli) o f G o d ’s Names anti Qualities,

now man com e to be the m easure o f all th ings as a purely earth ly

beings. The consequence was the rise o f an an thropom orphic

perspccti\ 'c tliat has dom ina ted all aspects ol' W estern thought for the

past ha lf millennium,

Mcnceforth, m a n ’s reason. d i\ 'orced from both revelation and

intellection in the traditional sense o f (he te rm , caine to be the sole

critei’ion o f verification oi' know ledge a long with m a n 's sensory

perceptions. Only m a n ’s t'aeulties determ ined knowledge even i f laith

Model'll W orld & The Plight o f M odern M an ] () [

in God still persis ted to som e extent. 'I'iie p resence o f this faith,

however, could not p reven t the step-by-step desacra liz ing o f

know ledge that charac ter ized E uropean intellectual h is to i^ from the

Renaissance onw ard and that, beg inn ing willi know ledge o f the order

o f nature, was finally to a t fec t even theology i tse lf All modern m odes

o f thoughts are in essence anthroponioriihic in that they arc based

completely on purely hum an faculties.

According to the Hadith (tradition) the meaning o f intellect is the instrunicnt that

binds man to God’s ordei' and its obideance, is the way oi'dcliverancc.'^'^ Imam

says to the one o f his own companions {Ilishani): O Uisliain !hcrc is no deliYeraitce

hut by the follow ing and (ohviotisly) the follow ing i.s based on knowledge and

knowledge depends on learning and learning is dependent on the iutclleet."'^ Tliere

are so many other hadith tliat ha\'c been cjuoted in the main traditional sources in the

meaning o f intellect and its place and role within the dcliveraiicc of man. In the

Hadith sources intellect has defined; "'’Intellect is what that l.ord is woiyhiped hr //,

and the Paradise is obtained/''^ But the meaning o f intcllcct, in the West especially

after the Renaissance, reduccd to a profane one (reason) and reason beeanie tlie

measure o f accepting and rejecting all things and in the same way man became the

measure o f all things but in this profane meaning it becomes the reason o f many

crises.

The epislemological structure o f modern man was established based on reason and the

theory o f its adequacy on the one hanci, and the skepticism on the other, Nasr writes:

The whole Enlightenment conception of reason and rational man is rooted in the profound

tran.sformation of the Jiicaning of man during the Renaissance.

Renaissance rationalism was also ac com pan ied by skepticism that, on the one hand, o p p o se d

tlie l im ited certitudc reached th rough reason and, on the other, com plem ented the c la im o f

rationalism in tlie e.xclusive use o f hum an reason in the quest o f knowledge. S kep tic ism w as

Modern W orld & Tlie Pliglit o f M odem M an |

of course know n not only in Greece an d R o m e but is particularly a Greco-Ronian heritage. It

can mean either that no know ledge is possib le , as held by academ ic skeptics, or that there is

not sufTieient and adequate ev idence to dec ide w hether knowledge is possible o r n o t / "

The result was clear, a fell to the limitation o f profane world in the doiriain ol'

ontology, and to skepticism in the sphere o f epistemology. hi this meaning what

would be the placc of man that religions have assigned to him.

The Root(s) of Crisis

The problem related to the analy.sis o f crises in tiie modern world has tvs'o important

points, and unlcs.s these are properly considered, it would be unsuccessful. ITic)’ are:

(a) I 'he state ol'analysts and their intellectual pre.suppo.sition

(1)) To assign a special level of analysis to a particular function

!t is c\'ident that the state of an analyst determines the destiny o f anah'sis. The

framework of liis thought, a system that he follows, such as religious, political and so

on inlluence his analysis. The insight o f a traditional thinker that docs not ***any at

all, would be different from a post-modern thinker’s analysis about modern world or

modern m an ’s criscs. And more important than tlie first axis is the level o f analysis,

llcnce, to lind a final and fundamental philosophical analysis would be dilTeren! Ii’om

a social one, for instance.

T’herc is another point which is appropriate to note; All analyses whether they were

philosophical or sociological or from the other branches o f scientific inquires have a

method or methods to soh'e the problem, and they can be direct or itidircct.

It is possible that every discipline had various analyses lbi‘ their special goal. There

arc at least two notable ends; Ultimate purpose and medial purpose(s).

Modem W orld & The Plight o f M odem M an | q 3

Tlierefore, some of philosophical analyses that explain the root o f some crises ii) the

contemporary world such as feding o f feith in God or deniytliologizatioti or

dcsacralization and so on, they have turned to the medial purposes. First we quote

some examples from point view o f Nasr and other traditionalists and tlien we would

turn to examples with ultimate one.

1. Nasi' writes about the position o f disequilibrium between modern man and nature;

Despite all the ofTicial clamour about Ihc ever increasing dorniiialiuii

over nature, and the so-called progress which is supp(Ksed lo ho ils

economic concomitant, many realize in their hearts tlial the castles Uiey

are building are on sand and that there is a disequilibrium belwecn man

and nature tliat tln'catens all man’s apparent viclory over nature.'"

2, Or he says about the quality o f relationship between man and God:

The transibnDalion of tlic meaning of the order of nature in both

philosophy and science caimot be fully understood without delving

fully into Renaissance humarusm and the new conccption of man that

appears in stages at that lime and leads within a short period to an

image of man and liis relation to God, of other peoples, and of the

order of nature radically different from what had existed in the

medieval period in the Christian West and also from what e.xists today

in all non-Wcstern civilizations to the extent that they remain faithful

lo their own traditions.'’*

world:

hi another passage Nasr has tried to analyze the desaeralized condition of

The symbolic view o!'things is lor Uic most part forgotten in the Wc.sl

and survives only among peoples of far away regions while the

majority of modern men li\’c in a desaeralized world oi' phenomena

whose only meaning is eitlier their quantitative relationships expressed

in mathematical formulae that satisfy the scieiitilic mind, or their

Modern World & The Plight o f M odem M an [

material usefulness for man cons idered as a two legged animal with no

destiny beyond his earth ly ex is tence. But for man as an immortal being

they bear no direct m essage. O r ratiier it can be said that they still bear

the message but there is no longer the appropriate faculty to dec ipher

it."

Or when h e e x p la in s th e p o s i t io n o f ' b rea th in g space" to o th e r v ie w s in fact lie w a n ts

10 analyze the crit ica l p o s i t io n in tlie sp a c e o f th o u g h t tliat c o n c c r n s w itii m o d e rn

world p o s i t io n . In th is an a ly s i s h e fu r th e r :

Aidiough in a sense the very destruction o f a monolithic , mechanistic conce|)lion o f the world

lias given a certain ‘breathing space ' to o ther views, the popularizali<in o f sc ientific thetrries

and (echnoiogy today has de|)ri\ 'ed m en e\ 'cn m ore o f a dircct contact with iiature and a

religious concei)tion o f the world.

4. R a d h a k r ish n a n , in th e R ec o v e ry o f F a ith h a s a n a ly z e th e n io d e in w o r l d anti

moticrn m a n ’s cr it ica l p o s i t io n . H is a t te n t io n to tlie an a ly s is o f c r is e s tu rn s to tl ie

medial p u r p o s e w h e n h e w ri tes :

' fh c contemporary s ituation is pregnant with great po.ssibilities,

immense dangers o r im m easurab le rewards, !( may be the end or it new

beginning. 'I’he hum an race may end by destroying itself o r this

spiritual vitality m ay rev i\ 'c and a new age may daw n when this earth

will becom e a real hom e for humanity, ' fh e contem porary mind is

vacillating between v ague apocalyptic fears and deep mystical

yearnings.'’’’

Tlie.sc aiid such others analyses help us in understanding various aspects o f one or

more crises. Those arc, in fact the backgrcsund of the ‘ultimate purpose’ anals'sis.

Modern W orld & The Plight o f Modern Man } ()5

According to these analyses there is another point which merits attention: to tin(i tlie

way or ways to solving problcm(s) eacli aspect whicli the analysts have paid attended

an be diffei'cnt among them, although, with no doubt, there is a common sense witliin

llic particular domain, namely, traditional, modern or post-modern, for instance.

But another method which is prevalent among philosophers and traditional thinkers is

based on ilndijig the essential root o f crises. In the last method (that we nairied as

‘medial purpose’) it would be possible to have many lactors in the analysis o f crises,

because there arc many recognized aspects of human being’s e.\istcnce oi' m an’s life

in the domain o f his individual and social Hie, his relationship witli his God oi' otlicr

people or with his environment, h is possible and nalural, tlierefore, to say that

‘medial purpo.ses’ were diverse.

In the anai)'sis o f ‘ultimate purpose' we would have an essential and a main problem

that is the origin o f all aspects o f those crises which appear in tiie various aspects o f

liuman being’s life. Undoubtedly, the position o f analyst would be intfuenced in the

recognition o f the root of crisis, for c.xample his epislemological, ontological or

anthropological notions.

It is evident that some o f these analyses are direct anti some otliers are indirect, 'the

following passage is note- worthy;

A nolher basic elem ent o f the R enaissance concep t ion o f jnan and Ihe

subsecjuenl hum anism that has dom inated the Wes! since then is the

new notion oi' freedom, w hich m ay in fact b e considered as the main

element o f R enaissance and post -R e n a is s a n c e lunnanisn). T h is new

understanding o f Ireedom m eant essentiall}' independence frcm the

sacred world o f m e d ie \ al Christianity and its cosmic o rder and not

IVeedom from the lim ita tions o f tlic ego and the bonds oJ' material

e.'cistcnee as en \ 'isaged by seers and sages in i-!ast and W est over t!ie

ages. Such figures as ( iia tu iozzo M anett i , Marsillio f ic in o , a!?d

(iiovanni i’ico em phas ized the ability o l 'm a n to act independently cif

Mo<ler!) Woi'ld & The Plight o f M odem M an j ()(,

any o ther agent in tlie Universe . 'They exalted m a n ’s freedom to form

and change tlie world as he w illed irrespective o f any cosm ic laws or

even o f the D ivine Will, at least acco rd ing to those who developed this

idea later on tlie bas is o f the R enaissance hunianistic notion o f

freedom. The glorif ica iton o f m a n so empliasized in such treaii.scs as

P ico’s On the D ignity o f M an was d irectly based ui)on wha! such

authors conceived to be tlie innate freedom o f man from all conslniints.

Man now becomes the independent protagonisl in the cosm ic drama

and he, rather tlian “’fortune," is no^f seeji lo control and direct tlie siiip

o f human life. Even the em pliasis upon tlie wonders o f the hum an mind

by sucli a figure as Pico is based on tlie freedom enjoyed by man." '

In lliis case attends lo the particular system o f knowledge, when he u'rites: “This new

understanding of freedom meant essentially independence from the .sacred \\'orl(.i....”

Or when he goes to quote the Renaissance thinkers points of view about “ the Dignity

o f Man”, hi the same way F.Shoun analyzes the modern m an ’s c[iisteinologica!

problem, when he writes: "modern man collects Ivcys but does not know liovv’ to o[ieii

a door..,.” '^

Some other thinkers do not pay their attention to these asjiects but they ha\ e gone to

the analysis o f traditions and modern world based on eosmologieai aspect or

anthropological one.'"^

IX

The Sohntion of Cri.st\s

According to our last discussion and different witnesses wTiorn wc have quoted , it is

simple to find tlie solution o f crises witliin each o f methods, cited above. Tlie first step

is the recognition of tlic eoniinon concept. In the following passage tlie author wants

to find the common sense among various schools o f thought:

Modem World & The Plight o f M odem M an1 0 7

irrespective o f all th e ciitTerences betw een various schools o f thou.uht

in the W est, the central im age o f m an as the earth ly god, co n quero r o!'

nature, and m aker o f his ow n d es tin y and the future o l' civ ilization

continued . If a M ing C onfuciaii scho lar or a Seljuq Persian theologian

w ere presen ted w ith the d iffe ren t im ages o f man from Pico to

M ichclangclo to M on ta igne to D escartcs to D iderot at V olta ire and

then on to the n ine teen th -cen tu ry ph ilo sophers and artists such as

Hegel and W anger, and even inc lud ing N ietzsche witli liis idea o f the

Uhernieiis-cl), they w ould be m uch m ore im pressed with the sin iih irilics

o f these individuals titan w ith the ir dilTercnces. 'fh e y w ould see in all

tliese m odern versions o f the W estern concept o f man a being ver}'

d iffe ren t from jeii o r i/isfi/i in the C onfucian and Islam ic trad itions,

rcspeclively . T hey w ould see a being w ho was no lo jiger orgaivica!i>-

linked to c ither the cosm os o r to G od, to H eaven o r liartli. '’'

In the same way wc can classify the centra! linage among various sciiools o f tiiouglit

in th e W e st.

CENTRAL IMAGE AMONG VARIOUS SCHOOLS OF TH O lK ^irrIN 11-IE WES'f

Cliaracferisfics «f M<idcrri M an Consequences

-Imtige o f man as earthly god -Conquer o f nature -Maker o f Ills own destiny -Maker o f history and civilization

M an was no longer orf>anicis!ly linked to e ither cosmic o r God

Modern World & The Plight o f M odern M an I Qg

Analysis of analysis

According to the analysis, mentioned above, there are some iiTiportant methodological

conclusions that, in fact, reply to these following items:

(a) The state o f man in the modern world

(b) The position o f man in the hiee o f nature

(c) The position o f man in his relationship with his own destiny

(d) The meaning o f life, and in the same way the meaning o f life here after

(c) The domain o f m an’s freedom in both individual and social form

(1) Tlie analysis o f m an’s truth to the linding o f a plan for his ideal li fe

Second step is to find the foundation o f criscs to suggestion a plan to tlie solution of

them. There is noted to environmental crises and its root and tlien the solution o f this

crisis.

Many people point to the practical and c th ica l issues involved in Use environ inen tu l crisis.

Such as tlic unbrid led greed o f p resen t-day society -that have increased by a tiiousanclt'old the

deslruction of' the environm ent, and the}' have sough t so lu tions only iMi the p racu ca l level,

r-ven i f we lim it ourselves to tiie realm ol'/m ixi.s, how ever, one m ust tjue.slion wha! ftower

save external b ru te ibrce can b ring about con tro l ov'er the passionate elem ents w itiiin the soul

o f human beings so that they w ill not dem and so nnich m aterially Ironi the w ork! o f nature.

'I'here might be a few philosophers for w hom such a pciwcr might be reason , but for th e vast

m ajorily o f hum an beings it cannot b u t b e fcH kIoh. 'I’he passions w ith in us ;u'e like a dragon

now unleashed by m odern psycho log ical perspectives for w hich evil lias no m ean ing . Onl}'

the lance o f a St. G eorge, the lance sym bo liz ing the p o w er o f the S pirit, can slay the dragon,

llow tragic is the world in w hich the d ragon lias slain St. Cjeorge, T h e passion thus let loose

Ciinnot but des troy the world.

As we see in this analysis and its suggestion five points are di.sccrnable;

(a) Man and natiire and en\nronmental crisis

(b) Special characteristic o f ntan that is the niain cause o f litis crisis

Moslem World & 'I'lie Plight o f M odern M an 10 9

(c) i-ack of useful solution fi'om some philosoplicrs to the majority o f people

(d) Need ol'man for religion to solve problems

anci finally,'ITie effect or effects o f epistemological crisis in the human being’s life

'riic third and our final example turns to the ultimate way to the solution of

modern m an’s crises:

id botli cas'c.s, aw areness exists that the im age oi'rnari as he has been coi]cci\'ed du ring Iho past

lew ceiiluries in the W est m ust die and the trad itional im age o l'm a n re\'ivecl if the current

crisis u'itliin hotli human s<.Hdety and \'is-a-v is nature is to be solved. O ne can oid>’ add tiiat

tiicre is possild lily o f red isco v erin g the relig ious understanding <d’ llie o rder o f nature

w iltuiul discoverinL! once again tlic ti'aditional im age o f man and the I'lrocess u'herel>)' this

itnaue cam e (o be forgotten by that t\'p e o f m an who has \\'re;iked ha\'oc uiion l-’a rth and. as

the Quran asserts, is veritable “ corrup ter o f die liartli," 'I'he recoveiy o f tlie trad itional

wisdiHU eoncen iin i’ nature can only com e about if w e recall the woi'ds o f M ildegard o f

I'bnuen. that rem arkable niediex’al C hristian m ystic and poel, w lio observed :

( } M a n

Kci'anl lln'self,

I h d u h a s i w i th in l l ivsel j

I l i ' t i w n i lw l-'arlSt.

Notes & References

Modern World & The Plight o f M odem M an 1 j q

Tiiere are sci many verses in the Holy Q uran for instance:

Surawii: (). 35:43; 4 0 :8 5

IV incip lcs:3 :178 ;7 ;lR 2;68 :44 ; 4 7 :7 -9

‘ ,Sc'c: Ouetioii.R, The Crisis o f M odem IVoHd, Ch. 1.

ibid, Cl),3.

Sec: ib id jntroduclion .

l.Yoosof Ali Ivanslatioii.

Schoiii!, I',, Spiritual perspective a n d Him uin Facts, iraiis. by M acledo Mallison, [„ondon,?,p. 12,

'\ ib id .

. Radhakrishana, S., Recoveiy o f Faiths London. 1956. pix 1-2.

' . Nasi, S.Ii,, The Encounter o f M an an d Noiiirc. London, 1986. p. 17.

. Radliakrisliiiaii, S., ibid, p, 16.

Jh id .p .2 0 .

' *. Nasr, S.n. Religion & The O rder o f N ature. O .xford U n iv e rs ity P ress,N ew Y o rk .1 9 9 6 , p.37.

* “ : See (he Holy Quran: 6:79,10:105.

:See liir instance: Q . 12:87,31:13.

. .See: .la.sper.f, K. Reoson and Existcnz, trans b \ ' . \ \ ’. Earle, l.ondon, 1956, p. 35.I.-;

Imani Bokluiri , Mohamad ibn Ism ail, a/ - !^iihih. Beirut, 1978, hadiih No. I551.-Iinani M uslim ihn llajaj,

ill- ::;<ihih, Beirut, 1954, liadith No. 4803,

■Allaina Majlesi, Beliar al-anvar, B eirut, 14(34 ,A.1L . V ol.3 .,P ,28l,V ol.5 , P.296, Vol. 39, P .327. Vol. 58.

1’.687. Vol. 64, p. 133.

-Sliikh !jadoq , al-Faqih, Qoin, Iran, 1413 A.H. 3th ed. V ol.2, p. 49.

-Shikh Hor-e Ameli. I'axael'Ol- Shia , Qom. Iran, 1409 Vol. 15, p. 124,

. Q.3(1:30, Pickthal tran.slation,

. Na.sr, S .n . , Religion & TheOordcr o f Nature, p .27).1 "

. Radliakri.shnan, S . , ibid, p.3.

. .Schoiin, F. ibid,2(1

. Nasr, S .n . A voiinv Muslims G uide to the M odern world, Chicago, 1993, p. 145,21 ■

. Na.sr, S.11., Religion d The O rder o f Nature, pp. 172-3,

Riidhakrishnan,S., Recovery o f Failh , P. 41.

Modern W orld & Tlie Plight o f Modern M an 1 1 [

■"5Ibid, pp. 8-9.

■s I' , “0 iriarikiiid yc are the poor in your relation to Allah. And He is the Absolute, the Owner oflV|,se;'53;i5,

■ '. N:isr, S,I(., Religion & The Order o f Naiure, P. 211.

. Set’; Cupiu, Don , 'fhe sea of Failh, British Broadcasting Corporation, 1984, preface. icL'm alwul analysis of desacralization from the universe, sec: Nasr,S.M.,A'floH’/tY/gt' 77ie Saavcl

Cb.f idem: C'ienouin, Rcnc, The Crisix o f Modern World, Ch. 1.

, Nasr, S .H ., Religion & The Order o f Nanire. P. 184.•'N

.Ihid.

. "ctliical hedoni.sm aninus that only pleasure is inlrinsically desirable and that only displeasure (or pain) ininiisically undesirable. More fully slated, it is the thesis that only pleasant slates o f mind arc dcsiralile in iheniselves; states o f mind are undesirable in themselves; that only unpleasant states o f mind are undesirable iti (lieiiiselve.s; and that one state of alfairs is more desirable in itself than the another state o f affairs if and only if it contain.s more (in some sense) pleasant states of mind than the other (ihc quantity o f value in a slate ol atfairs being measured by the quantity of pleasuie in it). Paul Edwards, The Encvelopedia o f Philosopltw \ ‘ol. pp.432-5._A(i

, Na.s!' also asserts these points and writes: "I'he history o f the modern world during the pas! few centuries IS characterized by a giadual disfiguration o f the image o f man. Conceived among Greek I’latiuiists as the iiiuhropos bearing within himself the divine nous, man was clearly depicted in Q iiistianin as the ihcoinorphie being bearing the imprint o f God and being in his spiritual reality the image Dei. I ’hrougli the rise oi huiiianisni the face o f man was declared as independent o f the face of God. culminating in the nirieteenlh century in the famous Niet/.schean declaration of "the death of God.” But the face o f man is a rellection o f the I'ace of God or whal the Quran calls wajh .41/fih. I'o eradicate l iis Face is also to defacc man and to announce liis death, to which the present century bears witness. In fact, from Ihc poini of % ie\v ol'the nadiiional understanding o f the meaning of the unlhropos, the last half millenniuni marks the gradual disiiguralion of the image o f man, resulting finally in the death o f that humanistic conception o f hunianiiy so highly prai.scd by dei'enders o f the modern man and his e.xploitations. Nasr, S.IL, Religion & The Order o f .W'lture, p .lX .l .’1

. .About the present -day condition o f man see: Nasr,S.fl, hiani and The plii’hl of .\fodent Man, ft)NGMAN Group LTD, London, p.4-8.

' ' . Radhakrishnan, S., Reeoverv a f Failh, pp. Mt-7.'si

ibid.p.17.34 . \ ■

. As we quoted Irtmi Nasr in the previous diaptcr where he says; “Likewise Rumi follows Ibn ’.'\rahi inbelieving that the existence of eveiything is identical W'iili the relation of that particular being to Being it.selfthat existents are notliitig but die relation they possess to the Absolute. 'I'his fundamental nretaphysicaldoetrine whose intricacies and implications were later developed by .such theosophers as Mulla Jjadrit i.>;summarized in deceivingly simple couplet by Rumi wherein he states, referring to the relation between beingand Being ItselfO-U ---- a b \j ijj--- --- 1 1 o j CouA tJ-- l_Sj yj yJl---

'Ilu'sf ts a fiiifSeyotuf ctfl dl'scription and'comparison.

Modem World & The Plight o f M odem M an 112

qktwecn tfie Lord o f matures and tfieir inner Being.

X;isr,S.H.Islaoi'c Spirituality, Cambridge, 1987,p. 139.

In this meaning the Holy Quran says: Lo VVc offered the trust unto the heavens and the earth and hills, but

!hc\- shrank from bearing it and were alraid o f it. And man a.ssumed it. Lo he hath proved a !)-rant and

i;,ol.j33:72] Ptickthal translation.Idem; there is an important hadith (tradition) which says: ' ‘Surely Allah says in soine of Mis BooLs (to the ines.saigers (prophets)) 0 son o f Adam. I am (perpetual) alive and I never die, follow me in which 1 ordered voii; (if so,) I put you (in the position) that become (perpetual) alive and never dies. 0 son of Adam 1 say to a iliitic “Be” and it is, follow me in which I ordered you 1 put you (in the position) that (if) you sa\' lo a thing i:)e"and it is. [Mohadeth Noori,IL, (d: 1320 A.ll.) Mostadrak al-Va.sael, Qom (li'an), 1408 A-H. P.25S.

h'iixf, SJf, Religion &Tlte OorderafNiiaiiiiv, p. 177,

. Concerning the place of intellect (‘w//)and its relation to llie sharVab .see: Nasr,S.H. Islamic IJfe and Thouo/il, first published in USA by Stat University o f New York, 1981, p,26.

■ . Kokiini, M„ 0^oo!-J Kafi, Tehran, 4* ed. 1365 A.M. Solar, Vol. 1, p, 17,

^. Kolaini, M„ O^aol. Kafi, Vol. Lp . i l .

idem: Alkuiifi majiesi, Beiiar ul Anvai\ Vol.6.p. 116: idem: ibid. Vol.3 3 ,1M7Q.4jj

. Na.sr.S.H. Religion & The Order ofNnature. p. 1 71.

, Nasr, S.H, The encounter o f Man and Nature, p. 18.

■P. Nasi; S.M, Religion & the Order o f Nature, p. 104.

. Nasr, S.H. The Encounter of Man and Namre, p.37., idem sec; Nasr, S.H, Knowledge and The Sacred, Ch.l.

. Nasr, S.H, ibid. p,32,

. Radhakri.shnan, S, ibid, p,3.4<)

. .Nasr,S.H,/i?e//!;K);i ct Order of Naliire.pATi.,) 7

. Schoun, F., SpiriHud Perspectives and Human Facis, p, 12, See foolnote Na.,S; idem, in this tramcworksee; Nasr, S.H. The EneounicrMim andNawre, Ch, 111.4S

, .See: Ciiienon, Rene, the Miiliipule xuiie ot Being, New 'I'ork, 1984, pp,75-82, idem. Burkhardt, Mirror o f the Jntelleel, published by Ouin'i' Essentia, England, 1987, pp, 13-25. Idem, Nasr,

S.H., An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, London, 1964, pp. 53-7, Idem,ibid, pp.236-263.4<)

. Na.sr, S.H, . Religion & The Order o f Nature, p. 178..Sll

,lbid.p.272.

■ Ibid, p. 185..51

" n

'lf

J kTRADITfONAL EPiSTEMOLOGY &

ITS AMHROPOLOGfCAL CONSEQUENCES

MOBERN EPISTEMOLOGY & rrS ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES

CHAPTER I

I ’RA'OmONAL EPiSTlilViOLOGY

AND iTS ANl’ilROPOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES

® Introduction

• Definition

• Main Purpose of Traditional Epistemology and its ElTects

® Conclusion

c l i A r r E R 111

MODERN EPISTEMOLOGY

AND ITS ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES

• The Process of Desacraiization in the West

• Mathematics as the Essential Measure o f the Renaissance Scientists and its Consequences

• The Scientists’ Understanding of the World and the standing o f Man

TRADITIONAL EP.ISTEMOLOGY

AND ITS ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES

Cs-ci5oj. u5Lt

U— ^d^Luj j^Ua jl

‘W fm t is tfie xviscfotn? 7'o f{itow the secret o f Iru ifi,

To Burn tfic cfou6t a n d conjecture if! tfiougfit,

To separate tfie in-ward (Satin)from tfie o u tw a rd (zafnr),

(So tfiat) to [igfit tfie fCame o f tfie fqiowfed^e o f the 'KingJ

In troduction

In the following pages an attempt will be made to illustrate the situation o f skepticism

in the traditional epistemology with emphasis on the Quran’s viewpoint. In this

regard, every conscious scientific movement inevitably starts from the doubt, and it

had powerful effects on the destiny o f scientific movements. 'I'he main problem in

discussing the doubt is to either remain or pass. Doubt is, tlierefore, an inevitable

necessary and, of course, very dangerous gangway for thinkers. Nobody denies the

necessity o f passing the stage o f doubt inasnruch as aclueving a form o f certainty is

the stipulation o f satisfaction in the scientiiic efforts on the one hand, and certainty

itself is the stipulation o f continuity o f religious actions on the other.

The Holy Quran as a scripture has paid a critical attention to the problem o f doubt but

not in the mould o f a pure epistemologieal text.

116Tradilional & Modem Epistemology &...

Thus two questions arise in considering the problem o f doubt or skepticism, namely:

[. Which kinds o f skepticism are considered by the Quranic verses?

(1. What is /are the root(s) or cause(s) o f skepticism?

There are three kinds o f doubt from the Quran’s viewpoint: (a) doubt about God as

the Lord o f creatures, (b) doubt about the prophethood o f Messengers and, (c) doubt

about the Resurrection and its related problems.

Understanding o f these three points lielps researchers and believers to liave a clear

scheme from the epistemological structure o f the Quran.

First, we shall illustrate the first one comprehensively inasmuch as it is the most

important concept in the whole o f the Quran and as a pivotal cssence in the Quranic

epistemological system.

Also we shall try to illustrate this point that on the one hand the Quran has not paid a

critical attention to corroborate the Essence of God, and on the other hand how the

Quran has resolved the background o f any doubt (about God) in the light o f concept

o f ‘‘Lord” (rah).

Some parts of the aspects o f rah (in the Quran) relate to the epistemological concepts,

and some others relate to the two parts which wc described in the previous chapters

namely: cosmology and anthropology.

hi the two chapters o f this part we would try to show the main structure o f traditional

and modern theory o f knowledge, and then wc will compare their consequences to

use in the next chapters.

As we described in the second chapter o fp a it I, we mean by the temi tradiiiou all

Divine Principles in its vast meaning albeit here our emphasis would be on the

Quranic verses.

Hence, there are some important questions which ought to be properly noted:

117Traditional & Modern Episteinology & ...

What is the definition o f episteinology?

What is the main purpose o f traditional epistemology?

What are the epistemological effects o f God as the “Lord” in the Quran?

What are the obstacles o f knowledge in the traditional epistemology?

What ai'e the sources and ways o f knowledge in the mould o f Divine M essages?

IDefinition

1, “Epistemology” is literally a compound with two Greek words: “ epistem(e) that

means knowledge and "logos" that means theoiy. So that, epistemology m eans

“theory o f knowledge” and it is “a branch o f philosophy that investigates the origin,

nature, methods and limits o f human knowledge"^ The term episiernolog}’ was used

for the tirst time by J.F. Feirier (1854) in the Institutes o f M etaphysics}

Some o f these who have discussed the history o f epistemology’ m aintain that the

important and central questions which are discussed in the epistemological issues are;

What converts mere tn ie be lie f into knoM’ledgel'"'^

Epistemologists have comprehensively debated the central problem o f theoiy o f

knowledge.

We can know a fact only if we have a Inie belief about it. However,

since only some tme beliefs are knowledge (consider, for example, a

lucky guess), the central question asked by epistemologists is ‘Wliat

converts mere true belief into knowledge?’ There are many, and often

conflicting, answers to this question. The primary traditional answer

has been that our trae beliefs must be based upon sufficiently good

reasons in order to be certifiable as knowledge. Foundationalists have

held that the structure of reasons is such that our reasons ultimately rest

upon basic reasons that have no further reasons supporting them.^

1 1 8

Traditional & Modern Epistemology & ...

Russell in the theory o f knowledge (1913) claims that epistemology is difficult to

define, because knowledge itse lf has no satisfectory definition:

Theory of Imowledge, or epistemology, is more difficult to define. To

being with, no definition can be satisfactoiy which introduces the

world “knowledge”, both because this world is highly ambiguous, and

because every one of its possible meanings can only be made clear

after much epistemological discussion. Then again, difficulties arise as

regards the relations of epistemology to psychology and to logic

respectively. It is obvious that much of epistemology is included in

psychology. The analysis of experience, the distinctions between

sensation, imagination, memory, attention, etc., the nature of belief or

judgment, in short all the analytic portion of the subject, in so far as it

does not introduces the distinction between truth and felsehood, must, 1

think , be regarded as strictly part of psychology. On the other hand,

the di.stinction between truth and falsehood, which is plainly relevant to

the theory of knowledge, would seem to belong to logic, though this is

open to some degree of doubt,

Hence, based on Russell’s description “the central problem o f epistem ology is the

problem o f distinguishing between true and false beliefe, and o f finding, in as many

regions as possible, criteiia o f true belief within those regions. This problem takes us,

through the analysis o f belief and its presuppositions into psychology and the

enumeration o f cognitive relations, while it takes us into logic through the distinction

o f truth and falsehood, which is irrelevant in a merely psychological discussion of

belief W e may define epistemology in teiTOS o f this problem as: The analysis o f true

and fa lse belie f and their presuppositions, together with the search fo r criteria o f true

belief But practically this definition is somewhat wide, since it will include parts o f

U 9Traditional & Modern Episteniology .

psychology and logic whose importance is not mainly epistemological; and or for this

reason, the definition m ust not be interpreted quite strictly.”^

From various definitions, mentioned above, it becomes clear that epistemolog}’ or

theory o f knowledge is the knowledge o f justified beliefs,

2. Here one new question arises: How we can divide epistemological issues into the

traditional, in its special meaning, and modern one? It became clear that theories o f

knowledge discuss the justified beliefs, which relate with paradigms and the systems

of thinking. These paradigms m ake some presuppositions with which these important

differentiations between knowledge systems originate. With accepting or denying o f

any Celestial systems or even with accepting or denying o f any form o f limitations

and functions of reason, without doubt, we will have various forms o f epistemological

systems. This very important point, mentioned above, is the m ain reason o f

understanding or misunderstanding behind the viewpoints of thinkers who want to

elaborate their idea in the various paradigms,* Because this point is vety important

and useful to understand the various schools’ paradigms, we are trying to exemplify.

J. Hick, in his introduction o f the Fifth Dimension, claims that we m ove in a realm

that there is not any certain knowledge.'^ With this epistemological presupposition we

must have a pluralistic stand about religion, as he writes in the Philosophy o f Religion

“We should have to speak, instead o f the variant feelings being m ore or less

satisfying or valuable: as Santayana said, religions are not tru e o r false b u t be tte r

or w orse.”

Sometimes we see some others who refuse such as these ideas with sim ple and

sometime wobbly reasons. In fact, they have stood in a dogmatic paradigm and want

to understand and to criticize another paradigm ’ point o f view, irrespective o f any

attention to their presuppositions. They (the dogmatists) ask: is it possible to be said

that religions with many claims were not true or false? We think that they did not pay

an appropriate attention to the pluralists’ epistemological presuppositions. Yes, if

120Traditional & Modem Epistcmology

dogmatists want to have reasonable challenges with piuralists’ thinkers, they should

discuss with them the possibility or impossibility o f achieving certain knowledge in

the realm o f religious beliefs.

Hence, we should know that the epistemological foundations o f an idea are necessary

for considering, or either accepting or rejecting.

In the tlnal point, traditional epistemology, in this chapter, implies a knowledge

system which considers the sacred texts, Celestial knowledge and their sources that

have assumed a special fonn o f thinking and perception. Obviously, an understanding

o f the religious paradigms is directly concerned with this system.

II

M ain Purpose of T rad itio n a l Epistcnioiogy and its Effects

Now let us illustrate our second problem that we have already mentioned, i.e. the

main purpose which the Revelatoiy systems pursue? !t is clear that tlie puipose of

knowledge clarifies the way(s) and the way(s) clarifies(y) instruments.

In this section we shall discuss the ibllowing concepts;

the relationship between purpose and instrument o f knowledge

The knowledge o f God is the knowledge o f His Qualities and Names, as the

Quran has described.

- The meaning o f the sacred and its etl^cts on the traditional epistem ology and

its relationship with skepticism

- The foundation o f every epistemological systems

- The applied results o f epistemological concepts in the traditional context

It is evident that the essential puq^ose o f a Revelatory system is the knowledge o f

God as the Origin o f creation. This knowledge and its necessity are not an imposition

or an unpleasant thing that human being are forced to accept but it is based on the

celestial nature {al-filmh) according to which God has created people. The Quranic

verses emphasize such knowledge, as the Quran states:

So se t thou thy fa c e to the religion being upright the nature in which

Alhih has m ade mankind:: no change ( there is) in the w ork (w rought)

by Allah that ix the true R eligion: but m ost am ong mankind kn ow

not.O 0:30)

121Traditional &i Modem Epistemology & ...

1. To set face to some thing, in fact, is to specify the path o f moving in the life, and it

depends on a special form of knowledge. This fonrt of knowledge is not separated

from the Celestial nature o f man.

In the same way the Religion (al~Din) is not but a method o f life, which God has

given to human beings to achieve their proper welfare. So based on the Quranic

verses, man has no puipose but to seek his welt^re: the welfare here and in the

herealfer. In this way God has given him a proper instrument.''

2. When setting face toward Good is natural (i.e based on his filrah ) for human

beings, theretbre, the identity o f God is an innate knowledge ibr him.

As the Quran states:

When thy L ord drew fo rth from the Children o f Adam -fro m their h>ins

- their descendants, an d m ade them testify concerning them selves,

(saying): "Am I not y o u r L ord (who cherishes and sustains you)?"-

They said: "Yea! We do testify!" (This), le s t y e should say on th e D a y

o f Judgment: "Of this vt-ii w ere never m indful (7:172)

This idea which has been attested by the Quran has made a special form of

knowledge system that has influenced the method o f Muslim thinkers who have

discussed about the theoty o f knowledge. Also, the Quran has a special approach to

the problem of skepticism.

122Traditional & Modern Epistemology

3. Knowledge o f God is not m erely a theoretical and mental problem, but it has

precisely been propounded in the wliole o f the Quran that it has an influential vestige

in the human life.

4. Knowledge o f God is, in fact, the knowledge o f His most beautiful Names and

people should call Him by them. The epistemological system o f Quran is based on the

knowledge o f God as a Transcendent Essence which is not entirely available through

the coiporeal reason. Everywhere the Quran asks people to know their Lord by His

Names and Qualities (Sefal).

The Holy Quran states:

The mas! beautiful names belong to Allah: so call on him by them; but

shun such men as distort His names: for what they do, they will soon

be requited. f'7:180)

In further says:

Allahl there is no god but He! To Him belong the most Beautiful

Names. (20:8)

In this regard Nasr has an important view about differences that various religions

have about the Word o f God. He explains;

The Quran, which is the verbatim word of God for Muslims, to be

compared to Christ himself in Christianity, reveals not only the

Supreme Name of God as Allah, but also mentions other “beautiful

Names” of God, considered by traditional sources to be ninety-nine in

number, Names revealing different aspects of the Divinity. The Quran

slates, “To God belong the most beautiful Names (alasma’ al-husna).

Call on Him thereby” (7:180), These Names are divided into those of

Perfection (Kamal), Majesty (Jaial), and Beauty (Jamal), the first

relating to the essential oneness of God Himself beyond all

polarization and the last two to the masculine and feminine dimensions

of reality in divines (in the Divine Order). The Names of Majesty

include the Just, the Majestic, the Reckoner, the Giver of Death, the

Victorious, and the Al! Powerful, and those of Beauty, the All

Merciful, the Forgiver, the Gentle, the Generous, the Beautiful, and

Love. For Muslims the wliole universe consists of the reflection in

various combinations of the Divine Names, and human life is lived

amid the polarizations and tensions as well as harmony of the cosmic

and human qualities derived from these Names. God at once judges us

according to His Justice and forgives us according to His Mercy. He is

far beyond our reach, yet resides at the center of the heart of the

fiiithful. He punishes the wicked, but also loves His creatures and

forgives them,'^

Also there are some beautiful and important instances from the Geeta that would be

appropriate to note here:

BRAHMAN is the oblation; BRAHMAN is the Clarified butter, etc.,

constituting the offerings; by Brahman is the oblation poured into the

fire of BRAHMAN; BRAHMAN verily shall be reached by liim who

always see BRAHMAN in all actions.'^

This space between earth and the heavens and all the quarters is filled

by You alone; having seen this, Your wonderful and terrible form, the

three worlds are trembling with fear, 0 great -Souled Being.''*

You are the Father of this world, moving and unmoving. You are to be

adored by this world. You are the greatest GURU, (for) there exists

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non who is equal to You; how can there be then another, superior to

You in the three worlds, 0 Being of unequalled power?

For I am the Abode of BRAHAMAN, the Immortal and the

Immutable, of everlasting DHARMA and of Absolute Bliss."’

Hence, based on the points cited above som e important inferences can be down;

a) Contrary to some epistemological schools in the West some important parts o f

knowledge about God are possible and available. And God has called people to know

these and know Him. And this knowledge leads men to worship Him. Although, there

are differences between various schools and sects in the forms o f worship, and in the

limitation and quality of their knowledge o f God, but all o f these religions, schools

and their believer followers have accepted that the knowing God is a possibility.

In the same way, the Quranic verses as well as the texts o f other scriptures do not

seem to be answering the views which have denied the truth o f Reality, and the

existence o f God. Then skeptical discussions have a special fonn and place in the

Quranic verses that we will discuss in the ensuing pages.

b) One important part o f epistemological discussion is about the instruments o f

knowledge. In the same way, the Quran has discussed the instruments o f knowledge.

In fact, God has called people to know Him and also has guided them to the way (s)

and has bestowed on them the instruments for m aking this great effort.

This scared effort, in the way o f knowing and understanding the m ost important

Essence o f world, has given a great m eaning to the mankind’s life. And it is possible

in two ways that obviously are not separate from each other: (a) the way o f outward

prophet which has come with the M essage o f revelation, and (b) the way o f inward

prophet or the intellect.

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The meaning o t sacred text and the W ord o f God among believers o f various religions

is different. For instance, the Holy Quran is the Word o f Allah Wlio reveled to His

prophet Mohammad. In this case N asr writes;

The Word of God in Islam is the Quran; in Christianity it is Christ.

The vehicle of the Divine Message in Christianity is the Virgin Mary;

in Islam it is the soul o f the Prophet. The Blessed Prophet must be

unlettered for the same reason that the Virgin Mary must be virgin. The

human vehicle of a Divine Message snust be pure and untainted. The

Divine Word can only be written on the pure and “untouched” tablet of

human receptivity. If this word be in the fonn of flesh, the purity is

symbolized by the virginity of the mother who gives birth to the Word,

and if it be in tiie form of a book, this purily is symbolized by the

unlettered nature of the person who is chosen to announce this Word

among meii.'^

But it is entirely different from the perception the Westerners hold about a scriptural

text. In this meaning Nasr and W .Chittick have important ideas:

It is difficult for Westerners to understand the meaning of a sacred

language and the function it performs in certain religions because in

Christianity there is no sacred language.'*

And W.Chittic says;

The scriptures that are given to prophets are brought by one specific

angel to whom God has entrusted prophecy: Gabriel. Again, we should

not take ourselves too literally when we say that it is Gabriel’s function

to deliver scriptures. We need to understand scripture in a broad sense.

Scripture is the speech or word o f God revealed to human beings with

the goal of guiding them to happiness. Hence, a scripture does not have

to be a book in the usual meaning of the tenn; the words of God,

whatever fomi they take, can be called scripture.

Since God’s message does not necessarily take the form of a book, it

may take the form of a human being. This is one way we can

understand the Koranic verses that describe Gabriel’s relationship with

Jesus. The Koran refers to Jesus, alone among all the prophets and

messengers, as God’s “word,” so he is comparable to a scripture.'’

The concept o f sacred has a special meaning in the Islamic contents. In fact, a sacred

person as prophet (or Imam according to the Shi’as), and also a sacred text like the

Holy Quran are protected from any fault. Hence, they are out o f any critique, because

all o f their claims, teachings, discussions, analyses and their justifications are actually

from God, therefore, these are always rightful. Hence, when a M uslim reads the

Quran he finds satisfaction and his heart becomes certain, as the Quran states:

Those who believe, and whose hearts find satisfaction in the

remembrance o f Allah; fo r without doubt in the remembrance o f Allah

do heart find satisfaction. (13:28)

Because, a sacred person or text speaks things based on the truth. The Holy Quran

States:

This Our Record speaks about you with truth (45:29)

Also the Quran says about the Prophet o f Islam:

Nor does he say (ought) o f (his own) Desire, It is no less

than Inspiration sent down to him. (53:3, 4)

These important points about sacredness o f both the holy texts and the Prophet have

been stated in theological texts.^°

If a society neglects the location and the place o f sacred affairs such as scriptures and

prophets, the satisfaction and certain knowledge would be neglected and people

would sink into the marsh o f open doubt as the m odem societies have done, and if

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unsacred things or people become like scared things as happened in some religious

societies, the spirit o f enquiry among people would die.

From the epistemological outlook to find satisfaction about a form or forms o f reality

relates with the structure o f perennial philosophy or traditional orders which m odem

philosophy as well as m odem epistemology are devoid of. Modem man is sinking

into the backwater o f doubt, because the lack o f true spirituality which is obtained

from the sacred contexts is his great problem. Nowadays the crisis o f kno.wledge

seriously threatens the philosophical schools, and new discussions do not add in these

schools but a worse doubt. Although, we will discuss about the destiny o f skepticism

in the West in the next chapter there is a need to achieve factual knowledge in order

to achieve the truth or at least a part o f it. Bartek writes:

There is too much tactual knowledge to grasp even a speck

of the whole, This makes for an excessive diversity that

lacks in coherent unity. With no coherency in the parts, there

will be no coherent truth in the whole. Without coherent

truth there is only a relative truth. Relative truth makes for

contradiction from different viewpoints, perceptions, and

perspectives. Contradictions deny a common definition and

meaning of tmth, morality, justice, and beauty. They also

deny common standards, values, principles, and virtues.

Uncommon values lead to personal and social conflict and

confusion, to the blocking of learning in education, to tlie

disintegration of social unity. To have common standards

and values, that a global theory of knowledge requires,

concrete factual knowledge should be unified by abstract

concepts that are unified by abstruse principles that are

unified by symbolic stmctures. Such principles ultimately

derive from an ultimate unity and structure. This ultimate

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unity is the keystone that holds the whole systematic

structure of knowledge together.^'

c) From the points mentioned above, which are clear to the theologians, unlike the

materialists and naturalists, the world is divided into two parts (seen and unseen),

because their epistemological systems are entirely different from each others. There

are at least, two points which are appropriate to note:

First the ways o f knowledge, and second the instruments o f knowledge. If a question

is asked: Why the ways and instruments o f knowledge are different between theistic

and atheistic points o f view? W e can say, because our knowledge about the truth o f

human being on the one hand, and our knowledge about the world on the other are

different. If so, our ways and instruments would be different.

Here, some important problems arise: All parts o f knowledge are dependent on the

epistemology and it is a basic concept in our knowledge, but with this question and

that answers i f another question is asked: What is our first step to know the world?

This question itself implies this important question that it should be solved before

that: Who am I? And what is/are the dimension(s) o f my existence? In this regard

Amoli writes: “In the same way, it is regarded that the epistemology and its stages are

accompanying and attendant to the knowledge o f S e lf and its stages, and (also) it is

gathered from this problem that as the fonn and quality o f human outlook abut the

world depend on the form o f human knowledge, method o f his view and his outlook

to the problem o f knowledge, the fonn and quality o f m an’s epistemology (therefore),

the quality o f human epistemology is also attendant with his knowledge to the Self

and it is rooted in the quality o f his knowledge o f the Self.”

He a d d s :

... others nicely have explained that everybody’s cosmology depends

on his epistemology,....but what is received now (from previous

discussions) is that eveiy body’s epistemology is rooted in Ivis

knowledge of his Self; it means every body who knows him Se/f in

each forms laiows the “knowledge” appropriate with that,.... because

epistemology is the inner attribute of a laiower of the “knowledge”

then it conduces to the knowledge of essence o f knower, namely,

because knowledge is our inner attribute (so)until we do not know

nicely ourselves we do not understand nicely the (essence oi)

knowledge.^^

Hence, based on these points mentioned above, we can say that why some

philosophers have adopted the rationalism or empiricism. And they claim that there is

interaction between soul and body. Russell writes:

He (Descartes) regarded the bodies of men and animal as

machines; animals he regarded as automata, governed

entirely by the laws of physics, and devoid of feeling of

consciousness. Men are different: they have a soul, which

resides in the pineal glatid. There the soul comes in contact

with the ‘vital spirits’, and tlirough this contact there is

interaction between soul and body. The total quantity of

motion in the uni\'erse is constant, and therefore the sou!

cannot affect it; but it can alter the direction of motion of the

vital spirits, and hence, indirectly, of other parts o f the

body. '*

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In the following pages we shall illustrate the meaning o f each instrument o f

knowledge.

5, Every form o f epistemological systems has special effects in the hum an beings’

lifestyle. O f course, it is possible that a majority o f people does not know what the

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theory o f knowledge is, and what philosophical rules are, but everybody has a form o f

epistemological system in his life without knowing its philosophical underpinning.

But what relates to our present discussion and its consequence, nam ely the purpose o f

knowledge, is the applied results o f epistemological concepts that practically people

live, based on their epistemological systems, knowingly or unknowingly. The Quran

has a critical view o f the people’s origin o f knowledge. The Quran states:

They know but the outer (things) in the life o f this world: but o f the

Hearqfter they are heedless. (30:7)

Allama Tabatabie elaborates;

there is no difference between ignorance and knowledge, which

limited in the realm of material affairs, namely in fact, there is no

differences between who his knowledge limited only in the material

domain with who he is an ignorant.^''

The Quran invites people to have a critical reflection in their own minds and what

their God has created:

Do they not reflect in their own minds? Not but in truth and for a term

appointed, did Allah create the heavens and the earth, and all between

them: Yet are there truly many among men who deny the meeting with

their Lord (at the Resurrection). (30:8)

As we see in this later verse there is an important relationship between the lack o f

reflection and denying o f the Resurrection, because in the reflection (thinking about

the world) man goes beyond the corporeal world that it is a special form o f

knowledge and it needs to a special instrument to achieve this form o f knowledge.

W e can understand, therefore, why som e philosophers thought that the relationship

between m an and his Lord is not but a “good play”!

.. .And from the monsters, as the play unfolded itself, Man was bom,

with the power of thought, the knowledge of good and evil, and the

cruel thirst or worship. And Man saw that all is passing in this mad,

monstrous world, that all is struggling to snatch, at any cost, a few

brief moments of life before Death’s inexorable decree, And Man said:

“Three is a hidden purpose, could we but fathom it, and the purpose is

good; for we must reverence something and in the visible world there

is nothing worthy of reverence.” And Man stood aside from the

stmggle, resolving that God intended harmony to come out o f chaos by

human efforts. And when he followed the instincts which God had

transmitted to him from his ancestry of beasts of prey, he called it Sin,

and asked God to forgive him. But he doubted whether he could be

justly for given, until he invented a divine Plan by which God’s wrath

was to have been appeased. And seeing the present was bad, he made it

yet worse, that thereby tlie future might be better. And he gave God

thanks for the strength that enabled him to forgo even the joys that

were possible. And God smiled; and when he saw that Man had

become perfect in renunciation and worship, he sent another sun

through the sky, which crashed into Man’s sun; and all returned again

to nebula.

“Yes,” he murmured, “it was a good play; ! will have it perfonned

again.^^’

In the history o f knowledge o f m an we can find various theories and different schools

that have discussed about man and the w orld’s truth. The variety in theories justifies

the variety in lifestyles. In the final analysis about the purpose o f knowledge and its

importance it would be appropriate to say that thinking about the purpose o f

knowledge is, in fact, thinking about the method o f life.

6. The need for a confident source o f knowledge is very important. On the one hand

our knowledge about the truth o f m an and the universe is very important and

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influential in the realm of life and analysis o f its aspect for having a proper plan to

achieving the salvation, and on the other hand our knowledge about ourselves and the

universe, especially its insensible aspects, is very finite. The shore o f the sea o f our

knowledge is lim ited to our ability about instruments o f knowledge. And every proper

schedule for m an’s transcendental growth in the path o f life m ust be based on his

truth and real aspects o f m an’s existence. W e need, therefore, another source o f

knowledge out o f the corporeal world and beyond the m an’s sensual limitation. In the

same way, the Quran explains these two kinds o f the limitation about m an’s

knowledge, both about him self and the unseen aspect o f the world:

They ask the concerning the Spirit. Say: "The Spirit is o ff the command

o f my Lord: o f knowledge it is only a little that is communicated to you.

(O men!) (17:85)

And about the unseen aspect o f world the Quran states;

With Him are the keys o f the unseen, the treasures that none knowcth

but He. He knoweth whatever there is on the earth and in the sea. Not

a leaf doth fall but with His knowledge: there is not a grain in the

darkness (or depths) o f the earth, nor anything fresh or dry (green or

withered), hut is (inscribed) in a Record clear (to those who can read).

(6:59)

In the Quranic verses the realm o f existence is greater than that o f the human beings

think, especially when man adequate to his knowledge in the realm o f sensible nature.

For instance, the Quran clarifies the naturalists’ point o f view about the m eaning o f

life and death when it says:

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And they say: "What is there but our life in this world? We shall die

and we live, and nothing but time can destroy i4S. "But o f that they have

no knowledge: they merely conjecture. (45; 24)

With these ideas about life, death, and the tm th o f m an the truth o f life is not bu t froth

and meaninglessness. For such people the life and death become a painful and

agonizing thing. All desires, purposes, wishes, struggles are not but a false and a

myth. All writings and discourses would be full o f desperation, hopelessness and

despondency. The following passage is the complaint o f a naturalist about life and

m an’s destiny after his long efforts and sufferings. How agonizing it is.

The Hfe of Man is a long march through the niglit, surrouncied by

invisible foes, tortured by weariness and pain, towards a goal that few

can hope to reach, and where none may tarry long. One by one, as they

march, our comrades vanish from our sight, seized by the silent orders

o f omnipotent Death. Very brief is the time in which we can help them,

in which their happiness or misery is decided. Be if ours to shed

sunshine on their path, to lighten their sorrows by the balm of

sympathy, to give them the pure joy of a never-tiring affection,

strengthen failing courage , to instill faith in hours of despair. Let us

not weight in grudging scales their merits and demerits, but let us think

only of Iheir need - o f the sorrows, the difficulties , pediaps their

blindnesses , that that make the misery o f their lives; let us remember

that they are fellow - suffers in the same darkness, actors in the same

tragedy with ourselves. And so, when their day is over, when their

good and their evil have become etemal immortality o f the past, be it

ours to fee! that , where they suffrered, where they failed, no deed of

ours was the cause; but wherever a spark of the divine fire kindled in

tlieir hearts, we were ready with encouragement, with sympathy, with

brave words in which high courage glowed.

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Brief and powerless is Man’s life; on him and all his race the

slow, sure doom falls pitiless and dark. Blind to good and

evil reckless of destruction, omnipotent matter rolls on its

relentless way; for Man , condemned today to lose his

dearest, it remains only to cherish, ere yet the blow fells, the

lofty thoughts that ennoble his little day; disdaining the

coward terrors of the slave o f Fate, to worship at the shrine

that his own hands have built; undismayed by the empire of

chance, to preserve a mind free from the wanton tyranny that

rules tolerate, for a moment , his knowledge and his

condemnation, to sustain alone, a weary but unyielding Atlas

, the world that his own ideals have fashioned despite the

trampling march of unconscious power.^’

It is proper to compare this idea, just mentioned above, with the verses that invite

man to blessings o f God and to hopefulness in this life and in the Hereafter. The

Quran states;

The Satan threatens you with poverty and bids you to conduct

unseemly. Allah promiseth you His forgiveness and bounties. And

Allah careth for all and He knoweth all things. (2:26)

And again it says;

Be ye foremost (in seeking) Forgiveness from yo iv Lord, and a Garden

(of Bliss), the width whereof is as the width o f heaven and earth,

prepared for those who believe in Allah and His messengers: that is

the Grace o f Allah, which He bestows on whom he pleases: and Allah

is the Lord o f Grace abounding. (57:21)

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Conclusion

In the preceding pages we attempted to illustrate how the purpose o f one

epistemological system gives us a special meaning o f life. And we tried to illustrate

that if the purpose o f a theory o f knowledge system had been the cognition o f God,

the structure and the path o f this system also would have been different from the

others.

These are the final conclusions:

1. Contrary to some epistemological systems, traditional epistemology claims that

knowledge o f God is possible and an available cognition to mankind. But there are

some limitations, which give human beings a form o f knowledge about God. The

cognition o f God is possible by reason, intuition and Revelation. And each o f the

ways needs to a special instrument. So, each o f them and their knowledge have

special consequences and effects.

2. God has bestowed on the mankind the instrument o f knowledge and invited them

to try to know their Lord and His favors.

3. In fact, in the epistemological system o f the Quran knowledge itself m ust be a

transcendental concept: To know God as a unique Lord Wlio created the world and

He has bestowed on people their existence and what they need to move from their

potential talents to their proper prefect. Knowing God as only a creator o f world is

necessary, but it is not enough to achieve the meaning o f faith.

In the henotheistic fonns o f worship like Hinduism, contrary to polytheistic ones,

there is God but He only created the world and gods, and now gods administer the

world and, therefore, people worship gods and have forgotten the worship o f God.

W e read in the Geeta:

Verify, You Yourself know Yourself by Yourself O PUR VSOTTAMA

(Superem PURUSHA), O Source o f being. O Lord o f beings, O God o f

gods, O Ruler o f the world. fX: 15) **

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The Special kind o f knowledge o f God is the cause o f special meaning o f God, and

this makes the meaning and forms o f worship. Undoubtedly, worship in the Quranic

verses and in Islamic tradition means not only some special form of practices like

daily prayer or fasting or the ceremony o f Hadj (in Mecca) and so on, but worship, in

its Quranic implication, also covers all o f human beings’ mental and physical

treatments, which people do specially, if they do them with two conditions; (a) good

intention and, (b) good action. In other word, a believer’s actions are worship if they

are performed with the two conditions mentioned above.

From the Quranic viewpoint human being is responsible for his knowledge as well as

actions. He must, therefore, attend to the sources o fh is knowledge. The Quran states;

And pursue not that o f which thou hast no knowledge; for ever)’ act o f

hearing, or o f seeing or o f (feeling in) the heart will he enquired into

(on the Day o f Reckoning). (17:36)

If so, the human beings must not follow every source o f knowledge without knowing.

Because some o f them do not increase but conjecture, and the conjecture does not

lead people to the true way, as the Quran states:

But most o f them follow nothing but conjecture: truly

conjecture can be o f no avail against truth. Verily Allah is

well aware o f all that they do. (10:36)

In fact, doubt and conjecture are the obstacles on the way o f faith. W ith this short

introduction it is clear that the Quran, as a Heavenly Message, has no purpose but

guidance, then all parts o f Quranic verses even scientific ones, such as verses that

explain mountains, animals, heaven and the stars have been only discussed for the

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purpose o f guidance and to pursue what relates to the human beings’ perfection.

Hence, the problem o f doubt has been discussed in this category. Epistemoiogical

discussions, therefore, in the Quran are quite different from the pure epistemoiogical

contexts. The implication o f epistemoiogical concepts in the Quran com pletely relates

with the knowledge o f God, prophets and the Resurrection and what relates to them to

take people to their proper perfection. Therefore, w do not find in the Quran a

response to such a question: what is the nature of doubt, for instance. In the sam e

way, the Quran does not pay any attention to such matters as to corroborate the

essence o f Allah as it is found in philosophical books wherein it is an important

concept common both philosophers and theologians, because the existence o f Allah,

in the Quranic verses, is supposedly evident. This implication is very important from

the epistemoiogical point o f view and needs elaboration.

IllThe Holy Q u ran and the C ognition o f G od as the “L o rd ” o f Beings and its

Epistem oiogical Effects

The Quran says about Allah:

Their messengers said: "Is there a doubt about Allah, The Creator o f

the heavens and the earth? It is He Who invites you, in order that He

may forgive you your sins and give you respite for a term appointed!"

They said: "Ah! ye are no more than human, like ourselves! Ye wish to

turn us away from the (gods) our fathers used to worship: then bring

us some clear authority. "(14:10)

Fafer exactly means not only a creator as Yoosof Ali has translated it. Allama

Tabatabaie writes: Fa(er means, in the Arabic, “to cleave” and Allah has cleaved the

non-existence and has brought beings out (into the- realm o f being), and their

existence entirely and continuously depends upon His will. I f He will not keep them

in the realm o f existence they will back to the realm of non-existence, then the

creatures are continuously, dependent on His w ill..

In my opinion the translation o f Shakir is more correct and thoroughgoing than the

Yoosof A li’s translation. Shakir translated fa ter as Maker.

Their apostles said: Is there doubt about Allah, the Maker o f the

heavens and the earth? He invites you to forgive you your faults...

(Shakir translation.)

As Allama Tabatabaie writes in his famous commentary (aij\4izaii) the concept of

“independenf’ is latent in the essence o f all creations and with an attention to this

characteristic is corroborated their continuous need o f their Lord. There is no need for

m ore philosophical proofs to corroborate that, but it only needs to attend to the

structure of creatures. The nature o f creatures is “need” and without an Absolute

Existence there would be no creatures. The meaning o f the term “need” in this

ongoing discussion is different from its current meaning in the English. The exact

meaning o f “need” is absolute dependence in all aspects o f existences on Allah as the

Quran states:

O ye men! It is ye that have need o f Allah: but Allah is the One Free o f

all wants, worthy o f all praise. (35:15)

Now, i f the Essence o f God is not doubtable, which kinds o f doubt are notable? In the

henotheistic religions belief in the Existence o f God is accepted, but in these systems

gods replaced God in the concept o f “Lord” (rab). The worship and to declare o f need

completely relates with the implication o f “Lord,” and any form o f doubt in this

implication or replacing the concept o f raS to the other existence(s) would be tlie

cause o f serious confusions in the subtle meaning o f God as God. In fact, the Quran

wants to say that if you recognize God only as a creature but not Lord, indeed you do

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not recognize God as God in its subtle meaning. The concept o f “Lord,” therefore, is

one o f the most important concepts in the Quran and there are a lot o f verses that

explain this pivotal concept.

IV

Designation an Episteiiiological and L ifestyle S tru c tu re in the L ig h t o f th e

CoHcept o f “L o rd ” in the Q u ra a lc Verses

The Quran scrutinizes the tem i “Lord” or (rab), because this pivotal concept is

attainable from various aspects namely: epistemological, cosmological, and

anthropological. In the following pages I shall try to illustrate these important aspects

in the Quran’s viewpoint. The tenn rab is used 980 times in the Quran some o f which

have no direct relation with what w e want to explain.^^

The term rab literally means proprietor and possessor. Allah has been called rab

because He breeds creatures and momentarily trains them in all aspects o f their

existence.^'

The Quranic verses have made a circle namely, epistemological, cosmological and

anthropological with the concept o f “Lord.” Further, we think the circle o f this

collection has never been separated from each other. Now, we turn to the concept o f

“Lord” as a pivotal concept in the Quranic verses considering it as a key concept in

the Quran’s theory o f knowledge.

The Holy Quran has made a knowledge system in which the human beings recognize

themselves as the creatures o f “Lord”. Obviously, in these verses both foundations

and effects, or principles and consequences are not separated from each other. The

following verses explain the implication, mentioned above:

1. In the surah o f Y oosof (Joseph) when Y oosof was in the prison asked from his two

companions who did not believe in God as their Lord. He asked them:

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O my two companions o f the prison! (I ask you): are many lords

differing among themselves better, or the One Allah, Supreme and

Irresistible? (12:39)

2. In the story o f Moses and Pharaoh when the magicians knew and detected the truth

of his (M oses’) claim they confessed their fault and believed in their “Lx)rd” . The

Quran states:

So the magicians were thrown down to prostration: they said, "We

believe in the Lord o f Aaron and Moses. (20:70)

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3. The Sings in the regions o f the earth and heaven and all things between them from

the farthest distance to our own soul are manifestation o f the Lord W ho is the

Cherisher o f the creatures.

In fact, they (all creatures and our own soul) are the ways o f our knowledge to

understand Allah as the “Lord.” The Quran states:

Soon will We show them our Signs in the (furthest) regions (o f the

earth), and in their own souls, until it becomes manifest to them that

this is the Truth. Is it not enough that thy Lord doth witness all things?

(41:53)

In the rest o f this surah in the next verse the Quran explains the bad result o f lack o f

this important attention, the Quran states:

Ah indeed! Are they in doubt concerning the Meeting with their Lord?

Ah indeed! It is He that doth encompass all things! (41:54)

4. Roboobyah or Lordness is w ithin our existence and when we ponder over our own

existence we see Him. There is an exquisite example to exemplify this very important

concept. Supposing a mirror can understand and talk, and we have stayed in front o f

it, then we ask it to watch yourself and explain what do you see? It obviously says; I32see nothing but you.

How the modern man has lost the Truth and has fallen into the well o f neglect despite

these very clear signs. God is near to us, nearer than ourselves, if we, like the m inor,

look at ourselves. Obviously, we will see Him. He says in His words to the human

beings; “... fo r We are nearer to him than (his) jugu lar ve/«"(50;16). And the Quran

says watch to yourself there is nothing but your Lord.

When thy Lord drew forth from the Children o f Adam - from their loins

- their descendants, and made them testify concerning themselves,

(saying): "Am I not your Lord (who cherishes and sustains you)?"-

They said: "Yea! We do testify!" (This), lest ye should say on the Day

o f Judgment: "Of this we were never mindful. (7:172)

This is our great covenant o f our Maker who must be known as the Lord, the Quran

states;

How it is with you that you believe not in Allah? - and the Messenger

invites you to believe in your Lord, and has indeed taken your

Covenant, ifye are men o f Faith. (57:8)

5. Unbelief and denying o f the “Lord” have put man in a dangerous position. In this

position man denies the Resurrection and renewing o f the dead creature. In fact, to

know God as the “Lord” is the important stipulation o f understanding o f the real

meaning and possibility o f Resurrection. It is evident that the concept o f Resurrection

has powerful effect on m an’s behaviour, his treatments, and in the ethical system of

human beings. The Quran states:

I f thou dost marvel (at their want o f faith), strange is their saying:

"When we are (actually) dust, shall we indeed then he in a creation

renewed?" They are those who deny their Lord! They are those round

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whose mcJcs will be yokes (o f servitude): they will be Companions o f

the Fire, to dwell therein (for aye)! (13:5)

6. In the Quran’s theory o f knowledge this point is a pivotal and key concept: All

beauties have risen from Him, and go back to Him; the Quran states: ’’'‘Praise be to

Allah, the Cherisher and Sustainer o f the Wrold" (1 ;2); and in another situation the

Quran says; “J'o Allah we belong, and to Him is our return. ”(2; 156)

111 the superlative stage o f the path o f perfection there is naught but God. And man

attains abode from which be sees naught but God. The Sufi tradition is full o f this

implication which is named intuition.

Ciuil 4a U Idi 4j 4j iuij

M an attains aSodefrom wfiicfi 6e sees naugfit But (fod,

L o o ^ w fia t fieigfits tfie station o f man fias reacfied. [translaied by S.H.Nasr]

7, The Quran teaches people to know that they need to their “Lord.” The Quran says:

O ye men! It is ye that have need o f Allah: but Allah is the One Free o f

all wants, worthy o f all praise. (35:15)

This knowledge has an effective role in the human beings’ lifestyle. This kind o f

knowledge makes people dependant only on their “Lx)rd” Who is their Protector and

this thought delivers them from other kinds o f in their life that (these dependencies)

are the reasons o f m an’s objection. This is the real meaning o f m an’s freedom which

has been made in the traditional theory o f knowledge. The result o f this freedom,

based on the Quranic teachings, is finding the true path o f life and it is evident that

the style o f life here makes the style o f the life hereafter, because the kind o f life in

the lifehereatter is the manifestation o f this corporeal world. From this

epistemological ~ practical point tiie place o f relationship between knowledge and

action becomes much clear. The Quran states:

Allah is the Protector o f those who have faith: from the depths o f

darkness He will lead them forth into light. O f those who reject faith

the patrons are the evil ones: from light they will lead them forth into

the depths o f darkness. They will be companions o f the fire, to dwell

therein (Forever). (2:257)

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8. The knowledge system o f Quran, based on the concept o f “Lord,” has made a

moderate and reasonable lifestyle in which people achieve their proper perfection.

This is why the Quran is full o f glad tidings and warnings. This collection has been

made, based on m an’s nature, because had there been only one o f them, it would have

created imbalance in the lives o f people. The anomalous growth o f crimes and sins in

human societies on the one hand, and a great part o f their discouragements from

deliverance on the other, has arisen from disequilibrium in religious and social rules.

That either these rules have been perverted with the corporeal reason o f man or have

been made by that reason, without knowing the real needs o f man and the structure o f

his nature. In the light of implication o f “Lord” people have a reasonable expectation

from their Lord to forgive them in their inadvertences on the one hand, and are really

afraid o f Him in their faults and cardinal sins on the other. The following two verses

further clarify the matter under discussion:

Say: "0 my Servants who have transgressed against their souls'

Despair not o f the Mercy o f Allah: for Allah forgives all sins: fo r He is

Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (39:53)

And,

And anyone who has done an atom's weight o f evil, shall see it. (99:8)

Or in the following verse the Quran has mixed the two kinds o f

meanings mentioned above;

Who forgiveth sin, accepleth repentance, is severe in punishment, and

is All- Bountiful. There is no god but He: to Him is the final goal.(40:3)

There are three more points which need consideration, namely: cosmological,

anthropological and ethical points in the light o f the concept o f “Lord” W e will

discuss these implications in the next chapter.

T he Im plication of Prophethcoc! and th e Know ledge System o f the Q u ra n

Now, we turn to the next part o f our response to the various kinds o f doubt in the

Quran as we have already cited, namely: “doubt about the prophethood.”

As we have already mentioned, the subject o f doubt in the Quran has been

emphasized in three fonns; (a) about God as the Lord, (b) about prophets and the

possibility o f prophethood, and (c) about the Resuixection and its possibility.

Some verses in the Quran emphasize that the prophets had been rejected over the

ages. The Quran states;

Rejected were the messengers before thee: with patience and constancy

they bore their rejection and their wrongs, until Our aid did reach

them: there is none that can alter the words (and decrees) o f Allah.

Already hast thou received some account o f those messengers. (6:34)

Some other verses explain that the prophets had not been rejected but based on

human corporal criteria, the Quran states;

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And they say: "What soti o f a messenger is this, who eats food, and

walks through the streets? U'7n’ has not an angel been sentdowm to him

to give admonition with him? (25:7)

Some others elaborate the lack o f people’s knowledge about the nature o f

prophethood. The Quran says;^'’

They say: "Why is not an angel sent down to him?" I f we did send

down an angel, the matter would he settled at once, and no respite

would be granted them. (6:8)

In these verses the Quran states that unbelievers compared the prophets and the nature

o f prophethood w'ith their own condition.

Some others illustrate that people who did not understand the implication o f

prophethood had expected that revelation had been sent to them as were the prophets.

The Quran states:^^

Or lest ye should say: "If the Book had only been sent down to us, we

should have followed its guidance better than they. " Now then hath

eonie unto you a clear (sign) from your Lord, ~ and a guide and a

mercy: then who could do more wrong than one who rejecteth Allah's

signs, and turneth away therefrom? ...(6:157).

T he Problem of Resurrection and the knowledge System of Q u ran

The last kind o f doubt and rejection in the Quran relates to the subject o f

Resurrection.

The problem o f Resurrection is one o f the most important subjects in the Quran and

more than 25% o f the Quranic verses have been allocated to highlight discuss one or

another aspect o f it.

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This great part o f verses explains that the concept o f life Hereafter has im portant roles

in the man’s outlook and his lifestyle. Psychological, social and ethical effects are

some aspects o f the effects o f believing or unbelieving to the life Hereafter.

According to our main idea that is the study o f doubt in the Quran as a traditional

text, we want to find the m ethodology o f Quran about the aspects skepticism among

people. In the final analyses we shall try to illustrate the root(s) and foundations(s) o f

doubt or rejection o f Resurrection, as mentioned in a number o f verses.

The following verses about Resurrection and the problem o f doubt are appropriate to

note:

1. We certainly gave the Book to Moses, but differences arose therein: had it not been

that a word had gone forth before from thy Lord, the matter would have been decided

between them, but they are in suspicious doubt concerning it. (11,110)

2. (Further, We sent a long line o fprophets fo r your instruction). We sent Noah to his

people: He said, "O my people! worship Allah! Ye have no other god but Him. Will ye

not fea r (H irn fr '(23:33)

3. So We inspired him (with this message): "Construct the Ark within Our sight and

under Our guidance: then when comes Our Command, and the founta ins o f the earth

gush forth, take thou on board pairs o f every species, male and fem ale, and thy

fam ily- except those o f them against whom the Word has already gone fo rth : A nd

address Me not in favour o f the wrong-doers; fo r they shall be drow ned (in the

Flood). (23:37)

4. Still less can their knowledge comprehend the Hereafter: Nay, they are in doubt

and uneertaint)’ thereanent; nay, they are blind thereunto! (27:66)

5. A nd they say: "What is there but our life in this world? We shall die and we live,

and nothing but time can destroy us. ” But o f that they have no knowledge: they

merely conjecture: (45:24)

6. "And when it was said that the prom ise o f Allah was true, and that the Hour- there

was no doubt about its (coming), ye used to W e know not what is the hour: we

only think it is an idea, and we have no firm assurance. ” (45:32)

7. But they wonder that there has come to them a Warner from am ong themselves. So

the Unbelievers say: "This is a wonderful thing! (50:2)

8. "What! When M'e die and become dust, (shall we live again?) That is a (sort of)

return fa r (from our understanding). ” (50;3)

According to the verses mentioned above, the following points are notable:

1. For understanding the implication o f Resurrection one needs the special fonn o f

knowledge that is not available only through the corporeal means. Yes, it is possible

that human beings, based on their reasons, may grasp the necessity o f occurrence o f

Resurrection but not its qualities.

2. Naturalism has been one o f the important problems that hinder a real analysis o f

the world and the implication o f the Resurrection. This trouble itself is rooted in the

lack o f knowledge about the unseen dimensions o f man and the world. This problem

had grown, specially, after the Renaissance when man wanted to desacralize all

aspects o f his existence and the world. After that situation m odem sciences came into

being with the characteristic o f denying every kind o f existence but only m aterialistic

ones. In this context Nasr writes:

It must be remembered that, in the West, man first rebelled against

Heaven with the humanism of the Renaissance; only later did the

modem sciences come to being. The humanistic anthropology of the

Renai-ssance was a necessary background for the scientific revolution

of the seventeenth century and the creation of a science which,

although in one sense non-human, is in another sense the most

anthropomorphic form of knowledge possible, for it makes human

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reason and the empirical data based upon the human sense the sole

criteria for the validity of all knowledge.^*

3. To make man a criterion for all things has been a m ajor source o f trouble for m an

over the ages. According to this idea man is the measure o f all things. Russell writes

about this implication: “This is interpreted as m eaning that each m an is the m easure

of all things and that, when men differ, there is no objective truth in virtue o f which

one is right and the other wrong.” ^

When man became the m easure o f all things how he could understand the implication

of the Resurrection even if he has accepted the revelation. In this last fonn he will

interpret the heavenly verses, based on the seen dimension o f world and his being.

When the Quran discusses this idea basing on what the unbelievers said; ^"IVhat is

there but our life in this world? We shall die and we hire and nothing but time can

destroy us ....”(45:24), it in fact, wanted to say that the above m entioned, states they

had no knowledge but doubt and conjecture. W ith this result the Quran says that the

qualities o f human knowledge depend on his corporeal instruments about the

dimensions o f world and its being, both seen and unseen ones. But as the Quran

states; “Tndy conjecture can be o f no avail against Tnith" (10:36) Toosi (d. 460

A.H, (1081)) (his commentary is one o f the important commentaries in Islam ic world)

writes: “Conjecture would be o f no avail i f there was either religion or rational

reason.”^ And it is clear that unbelievers have no reason to deny the possibility o f

occurrence o f Resurrection.

3. Lacking o f a multilateral knowledge about the essence o f universe sometim es has

compelled m en to incorrectly judge about the unseen dimension o f the world. This

partial knowledge leads him to reject the unseen dimension o f the world. This

judgment, therefore, makes a special worldview and a special lifestyle for him.

Obviously, to find some substantial proofs for the occurrence o f life Hereafter is

possible for human reason as some philosophical contexts have done, but it is evident

that they are not enough to respond to human beings’ needs in the realm o f faith. On

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the Other hand, the concepts which relate with the reahti o f life Hereafter are veiy

influential in the m an’s lifestyle. Hence, there should be a certain and sure source to

report the qualities o f the life Hereafter to lead people to an moderate, m oral and

reasonable life. This certain source is called, in the traditional knowledge, Revelation.

V

The Obstacles o f Knowledge an d T rad itio n a l Epistem ology

In the previous pages we illustrated the method of Quran about three fornis o f doubts

(i.e. doubt about God and specially abut the concept o f “Lord” , doubt about the

prophets and prophethood, and doubt about the occurrence o f Resurrection.) Now, let

us consider the obstacles o f knowledge in the light o f Quran and tradition {Hadith).

This important part o f theory o f knowledge, from the viewpoint o f scriptures texts,

will help us to know the obstacles o f certain knowledge, and there is, obviously, a

reply to this vital question; W hy some people can not understand the im plication and

the purpose o f Celestial Message? Or in other words, which obstacles exist in the way

o f understanding and accepting the context o f Revelation? For instance the Quran

states that it (the Quran) is the only source for guidance to those who fear Allah.^'^ln

feet, the Quran emphasizes that understanding and accepting o f the Celestial Message

depend on the virtue o f the listener a reciever. The knowledge system o f Quran

elaborates that the sensual and corporeal knowledge are necessary for understanding

the Message o f God but not enough. And sometimes this kind o f knowledge

(revelatory knowledge) is nothing but the causes o f loss.

We send down (.stage by stage) in the Quran that which is a heating

and a mercy to those who believe: to the unjust it causes nothing but

loss after loss. (17:82)

Hence, achieving the spirit o f Celestial Knowledge has a stipulation that without

knowing that spirit every research in the concept o f traditional theory o f knowledge

would he partial and incomplete.

In the exact meaning the m ain structure o f knowledge in the Quran is based on the

concept o f Virtue (i.e. fear o f Allah), and it is the key concept in the whole o f Islamic

tradition. In the Quranic verses fear o f Allah is the cause o f achieving true knowledge

because knowledge is a Divine Success. The Quran states

0 ye who believe! I f ye fear Allah, He will grant you a criterion (to

judge between right and wrong), remove from you (all) evil (that may

afflict) you, and forgive you: for Allah is the Lord o f grace unbounded.

(8:29)

Allama Tabatabaie writes:

... the Criterion {forqan) in the idea [is the ability of] separating the

right thought from tlie wrong one, an all of them are the consequence

and fruit of tree of fear [of Allah].'*®

One of the most important implications in the traditional texts which we have

discussed about knowledge and its obstacles is a famous tradition (Hadith) that

emphasizes this very important and pivotal concept

The main cause o f all wrongs is love ofprofane world.'*'

Before any other explanation two points about the concept, "‘love o f world" which is

found in the Islamic tradition, are proper to note:

1. Love o f the world in this hadith is not the love o f the creatures. B ut “world” in this

tradition means a special kind o f relationship between man and the world. In this

relationship man becomes a captive and slave o f the profane world. So, the world in

this tradition is, in fact, a kind o f relationship between man and the world. The

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creatures and even the instruments o f life that have been made by man are im portant

part of life.

2. According to many verses o f the Quran the unbelievers love the profane world in

the meaning o f prefening this fleeting life over the life Hereafter which is eternal. In

the traditional texts the fleeting life is nothing but a mere instrument for human

beings to achieve their perfection. The Quran states:

As to there, they love the fleeting life, and put away behind them a Day

(That will be) hard. (76-27)

Or the Quran says:

Nothing is the life o f this world but play and amusement. But best is the

Home in the Hereafter. For those who are righteous. Will ye not then

understand? (6:32)

These verses and traditions {Hadiths) state that dependence on the fleeting world is

the cause of many wrongs in the way o f knowledge.'*^

After the consideration o f above two points, it is clear from the viewpoint o f the

Quran and Hadith that the m ain obstacle o f knowledge is what prevents the

transcendence o f m an’s soul, because knowledge is the presence o f God bestowed on

the human beings, and without His Grace the real knowledge and its essence would

not be available. Therefore, it is evident that nobody can achieve the essence o f

knowledge if he moves in the opposite path o f the Source o f knowledge. According to

the Quran’s viewpoint, other kinds o f knowledge that are not based on the intellect or

intuition or what Allah has given to His prophets are nothing but conjecture. The

Quran States:

But they have no knowledge therein. They follow nothing but

conjecture; atxd conjecture avails nothing against Truth. Therefore

shun those who turn away from Out Message and desire nothing but

the life o f this world. That is as fa r as knowledge will reach them.

Verily thy Lord kmweth best those who stray from His Path, and H e

knoweth best those who receive guidance. (53:28-30)

To believe in the adequacy and sufficiency o f corporal senses in order to achieve all

kinds o f knowledge is the main cause o f what the Quran has explained as

“conjecture.” The existence o f compHcated aspects o f world and o f m an on the one

hand, and the limitation o f m an ’s senses on the other, are the reasons behind the

inability o f man to achieve the real knowledge. But the important point is that the

modem man has denied the unseen aspects o f world and the human being, based on

his corporal senses, or at least he has claimed that he can not grasp any knowledge

about the unseen aspect o f the universe and man.

VI

T he Divine M essage as a Source o f Knowledge and W ays o f K now ledge

The Quran emphasizes that Allah is the Source o f knowledge for m ankind. This

important implication influences all the aspects o f traditional knowledge as a vital

concept. Allah is the Origin o f knowledge and He grants o f wisdom to w hom He

wants.

Ne granteth wisdom to whom He pleaseth; and he to whom wisdom is

granted receiveth indeed a benefit overflowing; but none will grasp the

Message hut men o f understanding. (2:269)

Therefore, God is the most important Source o f knowledge and if so, the knowledge

itself and its perception are His blessings to the mankind. This grant is no t given to

anybody but to the believers who merit it through their hard works.

God gave to Adam the Knowledge o f the universe and all creatures, and this want His

grace.

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There are many verses that imply this concept. For instance, the Quran states;

And He taught Adam the names o f all things; then He placed them

before the angels, and said: "Tell me the names o f these i f ye are

right.” (2:31)

Obviously, the tmth o f “names” in this verse is not related with our purpose but

irrespective o f differences between the scriptures there are similar verses among

them.'^^

Accepting God as the Source o f knowledge in the scriptures conveys a special

meaning o f knowledge, and it has many results and consequences. In this structure

the ways o f knowledge are thoroughly different from what the m odem man

understands in the mould o f modern epistemological system, (i.e., in its sources,

ways, and consequences.)

In the Light o f this implication that I have already mentioned, there are four ways, all

based on Quranic verses, to grasp knowledge o f the world, both the seen and the

unseen:

(a) The way o f senses: One o f the ways to grasp knowledge from nature that all

epistemological systems have accepted is the sensual way. In Q uran’s theory o f

knowledge the way o f senses is recognized but it differs from other epistemological

systems wherein senses only take the horizontal order on nature, and it is not enough

for understanding the purpose o f creation. The main purpose o f Divine knowledge

systems and especially Islamic one is the recognition o f God in the situation o f

Creature and the Lord. Indeed, these implications themselves are m erely significant

introductions to the concept o f absolute submission before the Lord to help people

achieve to their proper human perfection. This implication, as discussed in the

pervious pages, is called "'vertical knowledge". Therefore, all kinds o f knowledge

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which have been stated by the traditional texts especially by the Quranic verses, that

have been taken either by sense organs or others, require this important puipose

(absolute siin'ender to Allah). So, we can not find in the Quranic verses any kind o f

knowledge which has been taken by sense organs in its pure form without referring to

the horizontal knowledge i.e., the knowledge o f Allah.

(b) The way of wisdom: It is evident that the way o f wisdom is the way o f

intelligentsia. This way needs a critical attention to the Divine concepts and, o f

course, a very dangerous way for thinkers. Some thinkers had gone to this way but

their incorrect introductions led them to the precipice o f conjecture and doubt, and

they found themselves, after a long effort, in the m iddle o f nowhere. But on the other

hand we can not refuse the importance o f this significant way to understand the

purpose o f creation. In the traditional texts the wisdom has been called inward

prophet," Wisdom is also the criterion o f sensual discoveries on the one hand, and is

a vital introduction to the next way i.e., the way o f intuition, on the other. Some

verses o f the Quran ends with words that emphasize the way o f wisdom, for instance:

''(Here) indeed are Signs fo r a people that are w ise." (2:164), or “0 ye that are

w ise.” (2:197), or “and none will grasp the Message except men o f

understanding.'X3:l), or "''perchance they may reflect. "(7:176), or ‘‘‘'verily in this is a

Sign fo r those who give thought.'" (16:69).

(c) The way o f intuition (H eart): The way o f intuition to grasp knowledge from the

universe is the way o f people who they see the truth, instead o f ju st understanding it.

In fact, (Sufis) see what the philosophers know ”. Especially in the Sufi

tradition, direct apprehension o f God is the m ost important purpose, and “it can only

be possible with the help o f intuition”. In the same way Sufis desire to apprehend all

parts o f knowledge and the universe through their m ystic experiences.'*'*

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In the Quran the heart has been considered as the source o f knowledge and in the

same way we can find this implication in the Sufi tradition. The Quran states:

Verily in this is a Message fo r any that has a heart and understanding

or who gives ear and earnestly witnesses (the truth). (50:37)

Shah ValHullah considers qalb (heart) as the source o f knowledge T.Husain writes:

Reason and intuition have been recognized as tlie sources of

knowledge by many philosophers in the East and West but Shah

Valliuallh considers heart (galb) also as the source of knowledge. It

means, to him, there are four sources of knowledge, namely (1) the

soul, ruh, (2) the heart (galb), (3) the reason (aqf), and (4) the hidden

power (.v/rr),"*

And (d) the w ay of Revelation: In the traditional theory o f knowledge revelation is

the most important way to grasp knowledge o f the universe especially its unseen

aspect. In some parts of traditional knowledge the way o f revelation is an exclusive

way to grasp knowledge, when a believer wants to know the qualities o f the unseen

world. The knowledge o f this way exclusively comes through the Divine prophets.

The Quran states:

It is not fitting for a man that Allah should speak to him except by

inspiration, or from behind a veil, or by the sending o f a messenger to

reveal, with Allah's permission, what Allah wills: for He is Most High,

Most Wise. (42:51)

Each way o f knowledge has a special instrument and if one o f them is destroyed, its

proper knowledge will be destroyed. In the same way, some parts o f knowledge are

not available, such as the knowledge which comes from the way o f heart; it may

come only through the way o f virtue and fear o f God. Because heart is like a mirror,

which reflects the manifestation o f Truth, and i f this mirror was not clear, it would

not reflect the face o f Truth. In the Quranic verses sins and faults are like the rust

which destroys the ability o f this important instrument o f knowledge (heart). And

heart becomes bright when there is no sign o f sins and faults especially cardinal ones;

and this would be possible w ith the fear o f God. The Quran, therefore, puts em phasis

on the source and quality o f knowledge which comes through sense organs to the

heart and has been understood by heart'*^ The Quran emphasizes that people have a

great responsibility about their knowledge and what they follow. In the following

verse the Quran states the importance o f the implication mentioned above:

And pursue not that o f which thou hast no knowledge; for eveiy act of

hearing, or o f seeing or o f (feeling in) the heart will be enquired i.

(on the Day o f Reckoning). (17:36)

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into

V II

T he Knowledge System of Quran in the M ould o f a n Epistem ologka!-

Cosmological System

One o f the m ost important problems in the epistemological systems is the quality o f

facing the nature and the universe. In this sense the main problem is: W hich

relationship exists between knowing m an’s aspects and the world? Finding a

reasonable response to the above problem one needs to make a critical analysis o f the

theories o f knowledge, which relate to the knowledge about the real m eaning o f

human being and its aspects o f existence.

In fact, there is a mutual and reciprocal relationship between the quality o f knowledge

to the aspects o f m an’s existence on the one hand, and the identifiable aspects o f

world on the other. In other words, i f a knowledge system knows human being in the

mould o f a natural animal who only has coursed the path o f evolution w ith his

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corpora! body, and not with his celestial spirit, the identifiable aspects o f world will

be mere corporeal too. In the same way, if a celestial aspect has been accepted by the

human being and he has been seen in the mould o f a spiritual life, he would have a

celestial dignity in the world. So, based on this implication, the aspects o f world

would be entirely different from the previous supposition.

Attainment o f this point, therefore, is very important in order to find out the

significant background o f these two different epistemological-ontoiogical systems.

Here, in fact, the epistemological system has made a cosmological system, and if we

turn and look at the first chapter’s contents we can clearly understand why some o f

the Renaissance sciendsts directed their efforts at showing the sim ilarities between

man and the ape. In fact, their efforts had been based on a special epistemological

system on the one hand, and made a special kind o f cosmological system on the other.

This is why the Quran urges to elaborate an exact meaning o f existence o f human

being’s both celestial and corporeal aspects in their special forms that are appropriate

and in tune with its epistemological-cosmoiogical-anthropological system. There is a

substantial relationship between three dimensions o f the theory o f knowledge i.e.,

knowledge itself, knowledge o f the being and the truth o f man. The relationship

between knowledge' and 'being ' in the traditional episternology has m ade a special

form o f realization from 'knowledge' and '‘be ing’ In this form knowledge, contrai7 to

what modern epistemological systems realize, is the path o f understanding o f ‘being,'

because it has separated from being and is inseparable o f ‘b e ing ’. R. Guenon in The

Multiple State o f Being writes:

We must insist particularly, whenever occasion arises, upon this

realization of the being through knowledge, because it is altogether

foreign to modem Western conceptions, which refuse to go beyond

theoretical knowledge, or more exactly a small part of it, and which

artificiaily oppose “knowledge” and “being” as if they were not the

two inseparable sides of one and the same reality. There can be not

true metaphysics for anyone who does not reaiiy understand that the

being is realized through knowledge, and can be realized only in that

fashion. Pure metaphysical doctrine does not need to trouble itself in

the least with all the “theories of knowledge”, which modem

philosophy elaborates so laboriously/^

Basing on the above concepts there miglit be drown some important inferences;

(a) If ^knowledge' is part o f "being,"’ therefore, it will have the quality o f ‘‘being ’

(b) ^Knowledge' is not only one o f the stages o f human perfection, but also is

very perfect that men have to achieve for their proper perfection through that.

Or, you can say every body’s perfection depends on his degree o f knowledge

(concerning with his being). But this kind o f perfection is attainable by the

“Intellect which is ultimately d iv ine .. .and severed from its supernatural roots,

as Schoun elaborates.”"*

(c) Understanding o f knowledge system helps in understanding o f he cosmic one

and the vice versa,

(d) If the substance o f '’knowledge ’ is being, therefore, the Absolute Knowledge

will be Absolute Being and the vice versa.

This significant concept, mentioned above, relates with the seen and unseen aspects

o f the world. Understanding o f this important implication also relates w'ith the human

beings’ welfare.

This concept (welfare) implies both temporal and spiritual dimensions o f m an’s life.

In the temporal form it relates with the lifestyle ands delivers m an from the nihilism

which cause dehumanization and reduces the real meaning o f humanity, and in the

spiritual form the real welfare is the transcendental stage o f life whose perfect fonn

manifests in the life Hereafter that has been called Paradise in the scriptures.

In the next chapter we will discuss the concept o f man in the mould o f m odern and

traditional viewpoints.

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Traditional & Modem Epistemology &...

The last point in the mould o f traditional knowledge system is the quality of

realization o f God. As I have already mentioned in the ways o f knowledge, in the

traditional systems realization o f God is Divine dispensation and G od’s favor to

human beings. This implication has various dimensions:

(a) Realization o f God is not possible but only with the refinement and sublimation

o f the spirit. It means the cleaning o f soul from the rust so that God manifest

Himself in the m irror o f m an’s being. O f course, this seeing is not possible but

with the eyes o f heart, as Imam Ali has said.

(b) Realization o f God is not possible but only with the help and guidance o f God; i f

so, as Sohoun says, we can know God only “by God,” He writes:

The whole debate regarding the capacity or incapacity of the iiuinan

mind to know God resolves itself thus: our intelligence can know God

only “by God,” and therefore it is God who knows Himself in us.

Reason can participate instrumentally and provisionally in this

knowledge insofar as it remains united to God. It can participate in

Revelation on the one hand, and in Intellection on the other, the first

relating to God “above us" and the second to God “within us.” If by the

“liuraan mind” one understands reason divorced from Intellection or

from Revelation -the latter being in principal, necessary to actualize

the former-it goes without saying that this mind is capable neither of

illuminating us nor, a fortiori, of saving us.'**

159Traditional & Modern Epistemology &...

I M odern Epistemology &

Its Anthropological consequences

fn the previous chapter we attempted briefly to show how the scientists and

philosophers of modern time from the commencement o f the Renaissance have

tried to explain a mechanical world whose need for God is limited to the creation,

and, after that the world is automatically working like a clock/''^* In this chapter I

would like to make a very brief commentary on the transition o f epistemology in the

commencement o f the modern period and show its anthropological consequences.

These attempts, nonetheless, w'ere made by people with religious background and a

majority of thinkers in this period seriously believed in God. Burtt writes: "Galileo

never thought o f denying religious answer about the universe— but it was enough to

save science her opportunity for further stupendous victories in the mathematical

interpretation o f the world; it forbade man to gratify his animistic w'eaknesses at the

expense o f the rigorous mathematical character o f reality, and it plunged modem

metaphysics into the most curious embracements.”^' But, their movement and the

quality of explanation from the world were the main reasons for the vise o f both

humanism and secularism in the next few centuries. Secularism and humanism,

irrespective o f some o f the atheistic schools o f humanism, how'ever, did not deny the

existence o f God, classic liumanism for instance. But the consequences and the

conclusions of their attempts were the cause o f desacralization o f all aspects of

human society. And these sorts o f scientific attempts and philosophical approaches

were in the process o f making a new forni o f man who was entirely dissim ilar and

distinct from the standard man we have discussed as vicegerent.

To find out the quality o f the process o f desacralization and the birth o f m odem man

with a special ontology, epistemology and a special W eltanschauung needs an

independent opportunity and it actually depends on a through research in the history

of modem thought as well as the history o f the Greek mythology and the process o f

the progress of philosophy and science in the Middle Ages.

On the other hand it is true to say that the movement of modem fime and specially the

Renaissance period was moving fi'om the ontology to the methodology and setting up

a new fonn of thinking and based on this, it was making new Weltanschauung for

making a new form o f world and life styles or creating the paradise on the earth

instead o f what religions have promised in the heaven.

Methodologically, as Burtt declares, “the world-view of any age can be discovered in

various ways one o f the best is to note the recurrent problems o f its philosophers.”' "

In the same way to find the process o f a thought system relates to understanding the

problems and the method(s) o f thinkers in a specific age. As far as to the purpose o f

this essay relates, if a question is asked: “what are the problems whose correct

treatment, it has generally been taken for granted, constitute the main business o f

metaphysical thinkers?” Replying to these sorts o f questions thus detennines the

quality o f transfomiation o f those ages. Burtt declares that the essential problem o f

the modem time is the problem o f epistemology. He writes; “Well, the most

conspicuous of these is the so-called problem o f knowledge; the main cun'ent o f

speculative inquiry from Descartes onward has been pemiitted by the conviction the

investigation into the nature and possibility of knowledge fonns a necessaiy

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Traditional & iVIodcni Episteinology

preliminaiy to the successful attack upon other ultimate issues.”'*’ This answer

declares that after the Renaissance the method o f thinking was going to change on the

one hand, and the subject o f philosophical and scientific studies was changing from

ontology to the epistemology and, it was going to mould the new situation o f m an in

the universe which was proper to the situation o f modem man who wanted to be “the

measure o f things.”

This important transition became the origin o f the evolution o f m odern tim e and the

reason behind the appearance and birth o f m odem man with special characteristics,

Weltanschauung, and finally, with a special form o f morality, which put him in the

place o f God in a sense. Modern man has claimed that he can make all that people,

based on their nature, wish. This change made the human being, as one who has no

responsibility towards his environment and other creatures, even towards fellow

human beings and thus he has become as a dangerous existence in the world. The

next transition in the West showed that the effects o f the birth o f m odern man were

more dangers than what the thinkers had thought about.

The shift o f the Renaissance man from the ontological studies to the epistemological

ones was a methodic transition, on which other also subjects depended as well as a

special understanding o f man was also destined to emerge. Understanding o f man as

the center o f the world has made a special relationship between him and others, and

designated new form of creatures, even a new form o f his relationship with God. The

following passage includes some important points:

A central place of epistemology in the modem philosophy is no

accidents; it is the most natural corollary of something still more

pervasive and significant, a conception of man himself, and especially of

his relation to the world around him. Knowledge was not a problem for

the rubbing philosopliy of Middle Ages; That the whole world which

man’s mind seeks to understand is intelligible to it was explicitly taken

lor grated.”'’

162Traditional & Modern Epistemology &...

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Traditional & Modern Episteinology &...

In fact the new scheme of the epistemological system was going to m ake a new form

of man who had a new idea, a new situation, and a new Weltanschauung which, based

upon them, created a new fomi o f relationship in which man has becom e “the

measure of all things”. Being a nieasure did not remain in epistemology only but also

it made a new ethical system and extended its shadow over all aspects o f m an’s life.

The first consequent effect o f that was m an’s serious alienation in the world and

feeling o f loneliness over powered him leading him to aim lessness or

meaninglessness in life. One o f the most famous representatives o f such ideas is

Russell. He writes;

Such, in outline, but even more purposeless, more void of meaning, is

the world which Science presents for our belief. Amid such a world, if

anywhere, our ideals hencefoi-ward must fmd a home. That Man is the

product of causes which had no prevision of the end they were

achieving; that his origin, his growth, his hopes and fears, his loves and

his beliels, are but the outcome of accidental collocations of atoms:

that no fire, no heroism, no intensity of thought and feeling, can

preserve an individual life beyond the grave; that all the labours of the

ages, all the devotion, all the inspiration, all the noonday brightness of

human genius, are destined to e.xtinction in the vast death of the solar

system, and that the whole temple of Man's achievement must

inevitably be buried beneath the debris of a universe in ruins ~ all these

things, if not quite beyond dispute, are yet so nearly certain, that no

philosophy which rejects them can hope to stand. Only within the

scaffolding of these truths, only on the fimi foundation of unyielding

despair, can the soul’s habitation henceforth be safely built.

Now, we briefly will discuss this process in the Renaissance as well as in the m odem

time.

1. The foundation o f m odern science started when the Renaissance m an denied

the standing o f sainthood. There are two significant points which may be

noted here. As we have ah'cady mentioned, the Renaissance scientists had two

backgrounds which influenced the view of the scientists’ position against the

sacred knowledge. (a)The position o f Church and saints in the M iddle Ages

and

(b) the mentality o f Church teachers, people and scientists about religious

concepts, specially about the standing o f God and the kind o f His relationship

with cosmos. Regarding these two above points the letter o f Kepleri (1571-1630)

is worth-quoting here:

Indeed I reply in a single word to the sentiments ol' the sense on this

question about nature, in theology, to be sure, a force of authorities is to

be weighed, in philosophy, however, that of causes. Therefore, a saint is

Lacnatius, who denied the rotundity, of the earth; a saint is Augustine,

wlio, admitting the rotundity, yet denied the antipodes, worthy of

sainthood is the dutiful performance of modems who, admitting the

ineagerness of the earth, yet deny its motion. But truth is tnore saintly for

me, who demonstrate by philosophy, without violating my due respect

for the doctors of churches, that the earth is both round and inhabited at

the antipodes, and of the most despicable size, and finally is moved

among the stars.^*

Galilie’s letter to the Grand Duchess also is helpful, as we have already quoted;

“Methinks that in the discussion o f natural problems, we ought not to being

at the authority o f places o f scripture, but at sensible experim ents and

necessary demonstrations. For, from the Divine word, the sacred scripture

and nature did both alike proceed...” ’’

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Traditional & Modern Epistcmology &...

These views clearly show that the process o f movement o f the

epistemological system in the West wan guided in the direction o f new

forms by which the modern man step by step, separated his destiny from the

sacred texts, although the originators o f this movement them selves were

believers. The structure o f modern epistemology has m ade the m odem

world, and modern world has made a desacralized society. On tlie other

hand modernism has trust to the abilities o f reason, and denied every kind o f

tradition and the whole religious heritage on the other. The corollary o f two

points mentioned above was skepticism. To study the stages o f skepticism in

the West needs a vast opportunity which is beyond the puipose o f this brief

commentary.

165T rad i t ion a l & M o d e r n E p i s t e i n o l o g y

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Iraditional & Modern Episteniology &...

Nasr, S .I i, Religion & The Order o f Nature, Oxford University Press, New York, 1996, p .80,

^ . See: Webster’s Unabridged Dictionaiy.■’ . See: The Dictionary o f Philosophy, ed. D.D. Runes, London: Peter Owen: Vision Press, 1942, p. 94.

Routledge Encyclopedia o f Philosophy, CD ROM .Version 1.0, London: under the tenii of “Epistemology”

. Ibid.*. Russell, B,, Theoiy o f knowledge, Routledge, New York.Reprinted 1999,2002, p. 46. .Ibid.

* . Accepting o f the existence o f various paradigms does not mean the recognition or refusing o f their presupposition. It is evident that accepting o f their existence is an outward and real thing and recognition or refusing o f them is a mental and inward thing, which concerns with our judgment about one or some idea.

Hick, J., The fifth Dimension, An Exploration o f the Spiritual Realm, One world Publications, 1999.

See its Introduction.

. Hick, ,L, Philosophy o f Religion, Prentice- Hail, Inc., Second printing, the US, 1964, p.97.

" , Sec; Allama M.H. Tabatbaie, al-Mizam, tras. to Farsi by M.B. Mosavi, Qom, Iran, Daftare-

eniesharat Islami, 1363 A.H. Solar, Vol. 16, p. 266.

'■ . Nasr, S.H., The Heart o f Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity, Harper Collins Press, New York,

2002, pp. 4-5.

Holy Geeta, Coinmentai-y by: Swami Chinmayananda, Mombai, India, 2001, P-263. IV,No,24.

. Ibid, p.707, XI, No.20.

. Ibid,p.739,XI,No.43.

. lbid,p.917,XIV,No.27.

Nasr, S.H. Ideals and Realities o f Islam, The Islamic Texts society, Cambridge, 2001. p .32.

. Nasr, S.H., ibid, p 33.

. S.Murata & W.C.Chittick, The Vision o f Islam, The Foumiation o f Muslim Faith and Practice.

L.B.Tauris publishers,Londonl996,p.85.

. See; Allama Tabatabaie, al-Mizan, op-cit., under the mentioned verses.

167T rad i t iona l & M o d e r n E p i s t e m o l o g y & . . .

. Bartek, E J. A Globa! Theory o f Knowledge for the Future, Article in tlie part o f theoiy o f

knowledge, see: Articles in the internet under the term “epistemology”.

■’ , Javadi Atnolia, A., Shenakht Shenasi dar Quran, Markaz-e Modiriat-e Hozeye ehnieh, Qoni, I['aii,1370A.H,Solar,p. 422.

“ . Ibid.pp, 422-3,

, Russell, B., History o f Western Philosophy, Roulledge, Taylor & Francis group, London and New

York, Reprinted 2003, p. 545.

. Allama Tabatabie, M.H., ibid, op, cif. Vol. 16. p.37.

. Russell, B., Mysticism and Logic, Routledge, London and New York, 1996, p.p. 9-10.

. Ibid, pp. 18-19.

For more information about the commentary o f verses that 1 have mentioned in the te.xt see: The

Holy Geeta, Commentary by; Swami Chinmayananda, Mombai, op-cit., p.632.

. Allama Tabatabaic, M.H, a/- Mizan, op- cit., Vol. 12, p. 34.

Exactly three verses in the Quran, namely: in the 5:44, 63 and 4:23 have been used the temi of

“rabbis” (rahanioon) that is common in the root with rah, and in the other verses, namely in the other

977 verses that the Quran has used them it has related with the meaning o f “Lord”, This tenn has been

used in 93 suras and 86S verses,

. See: Majma’ al- Bahrain, under the word ofreilxiha.

This thoi'oughgoing example has used by Ayatollah A. Javadi Amoli in the Shenakht Shenasi dar

op-cit, p. 341,

” , See: the Quran 6:45; 10:10; 37: 182; 39:75; 40:65,

,In the other verses o f Quran this implication is emphasized as:They say: "Why is not a sign sent dowii to him fi'oin his Lord?" Say: "The Unseen is only for Allah (to know), then wait ye: I too will wait with you,"(Q. 10:20)

“Perchance thou mayest (feel the inclination) to give up a pai1 o f what is revealed unto thee, and thy heart feeleth sfj-aightened lest they say, "Why is not a treasure sent down unto him, or why does not an angel come down with him?” But thou art there only to wani! It is Allah that aixangeth all affairs!” (Q ,ll:12),

. The Quran says: "Such as fear not the meeting with Us (for Judgment) say: "Why are not the angels sent down to us, or (why) do irc’ not see our Lord?" Indeed they have an arrogant conceit o f themselves, and mighty is the insolence o f their impiety!" (25:21),

1 6 8

Traditional & Modern Epistemology &...

. Nasr, S.H., Islam and the Plight o f Modern Man, Longman, London and New York, 1975, p. 14.

” . Russell, B., History o f Western Philosophy, Routledge, London and New York, 2003, p. 94. Idem

see: ibid, ps. 163, 165, 166, and 170-1.

. Toosi, Abou j a ’far, al-Tebyan, op-cit, Vol. 5, p. 376.

. "Thix is the Book; in it is guidance sure, without doubt, to those who fear Allah ”.(2:2)

. Ailama Tabatabaie, al_Mizan ft tafsir al-Quran, op-cit. Vol. 9, p. 71,

.Majlesi, M.B., (A Hadith coliection in 110 volumes) Behar al-Anvur, al-Vafa inslitution,Beirut,1404 A.H.,Vol.l4, p.298.Also see: Kolaini ,M., al-Kaf,dar alkotob Islamieh, Iran Tehran,, forth edition,1365 A.H solar,Vol.2,p. 130.

. See: Amoli, A. 3., Shenakhi Shenasi dur Quran, op-cit., p. 442.

. “And the man gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl o f the air, and to ev a y beast o f the field: but for Adam there was not fomul a help meet fo r him." See: Old Testament, Book One, ch.Il, No.21.

"Knowing that, you shall not, 0 Pandava, again get deluded like this: and by that, you shall see all beings in your Self, and also A/f.” The Holy Geeta, IV,35.'J'lje njan who is full o f faith, who is devoted to it, and who ha.s subdued the sense, obtains (this) ‘knowledge’: and having obtained ‘knowledge’, ere long he goes to the Supreme Peace Bhagvad- Geeta, IV,39..Wites Swami Chnmayannanda in his commentai'y to the Geeta: “The qualities that are necessary for an individual to be assured of the Knowledge-Divine arc being enumerated here as vividly as form the leaf o f Sinence text-book,” The Holy Geeta, Commentai^ by: Swami Chnmayaimanda, op-cit.. p. 287.

. See: Husain,T,, The Sufi Epistemology o f Shah Valiallah, in The Journal o f Objective Studies, Vol.14, N0S.I& 2,January& ,Iuly2002,New Delhi, p.59.

. See: Shah Valiullah, Altaf al-Quds, trans.by: Ansari,Rasiiid Alimad,(Maktaba Burhan.Delhi,pp.4- 18. Quoted from: Husain, T., The Sufi Epistemology o f Shah Valiallah in The Journal o f Objective Studies, op-cit., p .61.

. In the Quranic verses the intention firom heart is not the famous organ which situated in the chest, but it is the truth of human beings tliat is the main instrument o f understanding which relates with the Self. And tliis truth has responsibility in front of God and in the Day o f Reckoning would be questioned. Amoli writes: “The heart that it has been mentioned in the Divine Verses is, in fact, the particular tiuth o f man and the question [in the Resurrection] would be from his truth o f humanity, becau.se the all truth o f man is his heart.” Amoli, A. J., Shenakht Shenasi dar Quran, op-cit., p. 165.

. Guenon, R., The Multiple State o f Being, trans. by; J. Godwin, Larson Publication, Inc., New

York,1984, pp.118-119.

169Traditional & Modem Epistcmology &...

"'I Frithjof Schoun tries to show the importance o f Intellect in the traditional knowledge system. And he elaborates that Intellect is an insepai'able from the Revelation. He writes in the importance o f Intellect; “It is logical that those who rely exclusively upon Revelation and not upon Intellection should be inclined to discredit intelligence, hence the notion o f “intelligence in itself, inspired by the Intellect which is ultimately divine. For the sin o f the philosophers consists, not in relying upon intelligence as such, but in relying upon their own intelligence, hence upon intelligence severed from its supernatural roots.” Schoun, F., 7'he Transcendent Unity o f Religions, USA, 1984, p .15.

Ibid,p.l53..See; Boyle Robert, The Works o f the Houncmihle Robert Boyle, ed.by Thomas Birch, 6 \ ’ols.

London, vol.V,p.l63. Quoted here from Burtt, Edwin, Arthur, op,cit.

. Burtt, Edwin, Arthur, The Metaphysical Foiindation o f Modern Science, Dover publication, Inc.New York, 2003, p. 102.

.Ibid.p.15.” .Ibid.’\ lb id , p. 16.‘ ' . Russell, B., Mysticism and Logic .including A Free Man's Worship, Routledge (Tylor &Francis group), London And New York, 2004,p. 10.'’.Kepleri,.!., Asronomi Opera Omnia,ed.Ch.Frisch,8 vols, Frankfurt and Erangen, 1858. vol 3.p. 156,

Qouting from Burtt,op.eit,p.66.■''^.Galileo, Galilei, Letter to the Grand Duchess, Cristina, 1615. (In Saiusbui7 v o l . l ) see; Burtt, Op,cit., p. 83.

I '" ' "f:'

4:IINDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

TRADITIONAL ONTOLOGY &ITS ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES

M,()DERN ONTOLOGY &ITS ANTHROPOiOCICAL CONSEQUENCES

CHAPTER I

T R A D I T I O N A L O N T O L O G Y & I T S

ANTHROPOLOGICAL C O S E Q U E N C E S

« Introduction

« Various Definitions and Views

• Review O f Literature on Tradition and Traditionalism

• The Concept o f Tradition in the Middle Ages

® The Renaissance And Tradition

® Islamic Heritage

• Conclusion

• Situation o f ‘ Tradition’’ in the Quran

CHAPTER II

MODERN ONTOLOGY & ITS ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONSEQUENCES

TRADITIONAL ONTOLOGY

AND ITS A N T H R O P O L O G IC A L C O N SEQ U EN SES

This is true and important to claim that the main asset o f every time is the

ultimate and final imagination of people from the tmth o f universe, and this

imagination is the basis o f all kinds of reflection and ideas. The significance o f this

point is clear to thinkers, but others, may be, still need clarifications. There are some

points which help to clarity this significant point:

a) Basing on all kinds of traditions which have been used by traditionalists in its

especial meaning, and as we described it in the first chapter o f part one, the structure

o f universe and creation o f man are firmly related with each other. So that, every

kind o f our imagination o f the universe will make the fundamental perception o f man

and its truth.

b) Every kind of people’s impression o f man and its truth or, in other words, its

aspects o f being, delemiines its real needs and so, the source(s) which he should refer

to that or those sources.

c) This is obviously clear that the source(s) pinpoint(s) the way o f life and its

real meaning, not only in the global fomi, but also in all significant parts o f it.

d) Mcaningfulness or meaninglessness o f the life, or in other word, the soul of

life, therefore, finniy depends on these points, that 1 have mentioned above. The

problem of realization o f the universe and people’s imaginafion o f it, in our opinion,

is the most important, or at least one o f the most important, points in the way of

perfection that all spatial and temporal, philosophical and mystical schools have

strongly debated about.

1 7 3

e) This essential and significant part o f every body’s world-view depends upon

epistemological systems.

That’s why the traditional and modern world-view are different in their essentia!

principles and fundamental approaches, and also, in their commentaries on the place

of man and its destiny, its aspects o f being and the meaning and methods o f li fe, and

finally the meaning o f welfare. And that’s why both the modern and traditional

world-views are incompatible with each other, and therefore it is impossible to be

traditional with a modern notion. They can ’t stand each other in any realm o f tiieir

viewpoints. Essentially, their nature is incompatible and inconsistent with each other.

So that, their destination and methods, their kinds o f interpretations and suggestions

to the form o f life and finally, their results and consequences arc entirely different.

Every effort o f finding a way or ways o f solving their challenges arises from

misunderstanding o f the perception o f the meaning o f tradition and m odem thoughts

and their realms. Basically, the world, from the standpoint of modern world-view, is

not but the product o f the Big bang, that is, the world is an unknown and accidental

phenomenon in the realm o f existence and, in the same way the human being is only

the product o f evolution. Existent things thus have no celestial destiny and any

spiritual aspect.

Contrary to this temporal idea, on the other hand, traditional world-view recognizes

the universe in the mould o f a great purposive creation. And in the same way man as

a special creation in the universe has a very notable relationship with the stages o f

world, or he is the manifestation o f the celestial fomi o f universe. The existence o f

man thus has stages like the universe; from uncreated to bodily, and from spiritual to

coiporeal one.

Traditional thinkers believe that modernization like Western societies, is not an

avoidable project, and in the same way, to deny traditions is not a reasonable way of

progress in this world. And nations tliat have great traditions should not follow the

Traditional & Modem Ontology...

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path o f the tragedy which has robbed the Western man o f his identity as a result o f

which he feels and felt in the well o f to be lost in the dark room o f secularization and

desacralization facing various unsolvable crises.

Our purpose in the following chapter is to show the foundation, principles and effects

of two different, modern and traditional, world-views which each o f heavily

influenced human being’s thoughts over the ages.

Some aspects o f this chapter also help us to have a basic knowledge o f any analysis o f

human being’s essence that is our century’s lost. Understanding o f the foundation and

principles of modem and traditional ontology, therefore, is necessary for taking up a

true position and having an exhaustive commentary o f both traditional and modern

cpistemological and anthropological view: cpistcmological view as an introductory

subject and anthropological as its (ontology) result or consequence.

Methodologically, there is another subject which is a subordinate result o f ontological

or any fundamental comparative studies. Taking a true position about either

traditional or modern viewpoint is not possible but by understanding their

foundations, principles, approaches, methods, results and con.sequences.

Methodologically to differentiate and distinguish between external and essential

differences in a special idea or world-view such as modern and traditional ones

depends on the fundamental points that we have mentioned above, i.e.

cpistemological, ontological and anthropological points o f view, A mere attention to

external differences or even similarity and likeness is one o f the most significant

methodological confusions that sometime are shown in the comparative studies. And

the way of solving these sorts of confusions depend on understanding those

characteristics that we have already noted, i.e. foundations, principles, approaches

methods, results and consequences of two or more ideas which we want to compare.

Traditional & Modern Ontology...

175

Four questions thus arise in considering the ontological concepts in the realm of

traditional and modern studies, namely;

1) Essentially, what are discrepancies between traditional and m odem points o f view

about the structure o f the world?

2) What is the state o f God in the traditional point o f view, and thus, what is the

effect o f that kind of thinking in the viewpoint o f a traditional man in the w ay of

commentary world and the state o f man?

3) Basing on the meaning o f existence and existent what is the relationship between

the many and the One?

4) Wliat is the state of possible things in the universe and its practical effects in the

thoughts o f traditional man?

Before coming to our main debate methodologically, it is significant and necessary to

explain differences between Islam and Christianity in that exists realm o f

traditionalism.

We mean these two important religions do not have the same position on the subject

o f ontology and, therefore, their consequences are different.

The ontological concepts o f Islam have been explained in the Quran and the

Hadilh. That’s why the M uslim thinkers and gnostics have veiy va.st and original

sources to gi'asp the Islamic tradition’s point o f view about ontology and other related

concepts.

On contrary to Christianity, the Muslim philosophers and gnostics have referred their

ontological contents to the Quran and the Hadith, and the Christian thinkers have

gone towards astrological hypotheses and interpretations. Although, there are some

verses in the Old-Testament which lead to the quality o f creation but the majority o f

Christian commentaries, as I have already mentioned, have “non-scripture” contents.

That’s why the destiny o f Christian ontology became very different from the Islamic

one. And that’s why Muslim philosophers and gnostics d idn’t need sources other

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176

than the pure Islamic texts, i.e. the Quran and the Hadith, and have used them only in

their texts.

Without doubt, ontological concepts and their characteristics in the Quran lead

Muslim thinkers to have a sjsecial form o f analysis o f the cosmos and its relationship

with its Creator. O f course during the Medieval ages Aristotelian thinkers like Abu

A!i Sina(Ave Sina), an Iranian philosopher, had an impoilant influence in the

Augustinian thinkers’ point o f view.

Traditional & Modem Ontology...

Etymologically, both concepts “ontology” and “cosmology” have common as well as

different realms which will be used in the subsequent paragraphs. Before taking up

these subjects it would be proper to pay our attention to their definitions. According

to W ebster’s Dictionary cosmology is;

the branch o f philosophy dealing with the origin and general

structure o f the nniversc, with its parts, elements, and laws, am i

esp. with such o f its characteristics as space, time, causality, and

freedom.

-the branch o f astronomy that deals with the general structure

and evolution o f the universe.

And ontology is defined as:

-the branch o f metaphysics that studies the nature o f existence or

being as such.

Ibn ‘Arab! has some instructive points about the term cosmos which clarify the realm of

cosmological studies. He states:

The “cosm os” consists o f every th ing o ther than God. It is n one o ther

177

than the possible things, whether or not they exist. . . . Possibility is

their necessary property in the state of their nonexistence as well as

their existence. It is intrinsic (dhati) to them, since prcponderation

(tarjih) is necessaiy for them. Hence [tlirough the possible things] the

Preponderator is Icnown, and that's why the cosmos is named cosmos"

{iilam)- from “mark” ('alama) -since it is a proof of the Preponderator.

(Ill 443.5),

Cosmology, therefore, is the study o f possible things whether they do or do not they

exist. But non-existence here asciibes to “a thing known by God but not found in the

created world is called “nonexistent” (ma ’dimi), not in an absolute sense, since it possesses a

certain mode of existence within God’s knowledge, but in the sense that it has not been

brought into spiritual, imaginal, or corporeal existence.” '

And ontology is defined as;

“ tlie branch o f metaphysics that studies the nature o f existence or

being as such.

Some others explain that “the main task o f ontology is to elaborate a

conceptual framework that can deal with all domains oi'being

(material and spiritual, real as well as ideal) and then solve

problems appearing at the point o f contact between different

domains of being."'

IIT rad itiona l O ntology

In what follows, attention will be drawn to certain discrepancies and differences

between traditional and m odem ontology, and these will be judged by meaiis o f the

criteria provided by cosmology in the traditional sense o f this temi i.e. cosmology.

Cosmology, as we know from the Greek word Cosmos means ‘order’, o f the world.

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178

Some thinkers^ say that this meaning reflects an important concept by which

“cosmology” is the science o f the world inasmuch as this reflects its unique case,

“Being.” In this regard some im portant questions arise regarding the traditional point

o f view; what is the structure o f the universe and then what are its both

epistemological and anthropological effects and consequences? hi this regard what

would be the world-view o f the traditional man? In any case, are there either

fundamental discrepancies or notable differences between traditional and modern

ideas? Explanation o f the world, based on traditional viewpoint, basically needs an

understanding o f these two important points: (a) the reilection o f the “uncreated in the

created necessarily presents itself under diverse aspects” or in the other word the

manifestation o f Being in the universe necessarily is in the fonn o f variety and (b) it

must be considered that “all genuine cosmology is attached to the divine revelation'*.”

Based on these two points it is easy to understand why the destiny o f cosmological

studies in the Christian domain became different from the Islamic one.

As Burckhardt in the '''Mirror o f the Iiilellecr shows that there was a heterogeneous

cosmology in the Christian studies which, on the one hand, refers to the Biblical

account o f creation, and on the other, it bases itself on the heritage o f the Greek

cosm ologists...”'”’ But the destiny o f the Islamic cosmology is totally different from

the Christian one. The Quran and the Hadith are two important and essential

heritages which the Muslim philosophers and gnostics continually use them to

explain the cosmos. Mulla ^adra (d. A.H 1050) and Ibn al- ’Arab! (A.M. 560-

638/A.D. 1165-1240) were two famous sages who explained the philosophical

cosmology based on the Quran and the Hadith. In the Islamic world Ibn 'A rab! had a

deeper influence over its intellectual life. Now, based on these two thinkers’ points o f

view we try to have a scheme o f universe structure in the Islamic cosmology.

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179

Universe as the O u tw ard R adiance o f Being

From the Islamic sources “everything (that exists) will perish except His face. To

Him belongs the command and to Him will ye (all) be brought back.” (The Quran,

28:86). The structure o f existence, therefore, explains itself in the mould o f absolute

dependence. So that, “ever>thing other than the One Being that is, the whole cosmos

in ail its spatial and temporal extension - is nonexistent in itself, though it may be

considered to exist through the Being.” ’

In this meaning Ibn al-ArabT takes a special position which it became the foundation

o f the school of the Oneness o f Being (wahdal al-wujud). In the same way w'hen

there is no relationship between God and non-existence and He Who is the Absolute

“eveiy thing other than God” apart fi-oni God is the admixture o f non-existence.” So

that, some significant points thus arise considering the relationship between

existences and Being, I mean by the term “existence” all things which exist, and the

term “Being” refers merely to God only.

This relationship between God and “other than God” in the traditional cosmology is

explained in the mould o f absolute dependence. And there are some important results

and consequences both in epistemologicai and anthropological concepts.

The concept o f “dependence” which arises from traditional cosmology and

understanding of the place o f what is called “other than God” leads Muslim

philosophers to a especial point o f view about cosmos, and in our field, we Ibcused

on huinan being. There is no other point than this that the creation in its essence has

no independent existence. The Muslim philosophers have tried to explain by far the

most significant concept through the cosmological subject. According to this all

aspects o f the cosmos, and especially the man find their traditional meanings in the

mould o f “dependence.” This point has shown strictly in the philosophical schools o f

Ibn al-ArabT and Mulla $adra whom I have already mentioned. There are two key

concepts, namely, “Being” and “existence” . Ibn al-ArabT and other philosophers who

ibllowed his school, tried to elaborate a very complicated fonn of cosmology in

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which they designate a plan o f Absoluteness to show that there is nothing in its

special meaning, “other than God” but is ascribed to the pure Existence.. Every thing

“other than God”, as I have already m entioned, has been mixed with non-existence.

But some important and very complicated questions thus arise regarding the

relationship between “many” and the One. Because in the tbeoiy o f the Oneness o f

Being the existence o f what they have been called ‘other than God” do not deny.

Chittick describes the problem in the following words; In the context o f philosophical

terminology, the basic issue can be phrased in the simple question; “!f God is M>ujud,

are the things also wuiudT'^ So that, i f there are “many” on the one hand and they are

the reality o f the cosmos and, there is Absoluteness o f the Being on the other, the

question arises; what is place o f limited existences against the Unlimited and

Absolute existence? And specifically, what is the place o f “many” in the realm o f

Absoluteness o f Being?

The Muslim philosophers, distinguish between ‘essence” or quiddity (mahiyya) and

existence o f things. In fact, philosophers tried to distinguish between the quality o f

existence o f creature or what they say “other than God” and the existence of the

Being. They tried to explain that the existence o f the Being is neither sim ilar to

anything in the cosmos nor anj' thing in the cosmos is similar to It.

There are many important and notable instances. The following paragraph from Ibn

al-ArabT significantly explains this important concept:

The Unity of the Esscncc in Itself has no known quiddity. Hence we

cannot ascribe properties to It, since It is not similar to anything in the

cosmos, nor is anything in the cosmos simikir to It. Therefore no

intelligent person undertakes to speak about His Essence, unless on the

basis of a report received from Him, And even when we bring the re­

port, we arc ignorant o f the relationship of that property to Him, since

we are ignorant of Him. Hence, we have faith in it just as He lias uttered

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it and knows it, since, according to both the Law and reason, proofs can

be offered only to negate similarity.®

Since the Being of the Real pcnneatcs the cosmos, no one denies Him. Mistakes arise

from seeking to know His quiddity, and this leads to the disagreements concerning

Him which have becomc manifest in the eosmos.

Like this concept by which philosophers particularly Ibn al-ArabT and later Mulla

$adra explained the quality o f relationsliip between the Being and “other than God"

and made a proposal to describe their cosmological system has been exceedingly

explained in mentioned various verses o f the Quran. To clarify this point i.e., the

existence o f related verses o f the cosmological conccpts in the Quran by far the most

significant to ours understanding o f the process o f Islamic thought in its various

courses and branches especially in pliilosophical and mystical studies on the one hand

and, it is very necessary to ours understanding o f roots in the main Islamic sources

especially in the Quran and the Ilaadith.

Both the Quran and the Hadith have important points which the Muslim philosophers

and gnostics employ to make their own proposal. The Quran has not used the

philosophical terms because its addresses are Mankind (m s). This tenii {nils) in the

Quran is including all kind o f people living in the society, both educated and illiterate.

The Quran states:

“ H ere is a plain sta tem ent to m en (/?dv) a guidance and instruction to

those who fear A llah .” (3 :1 3 8 ) .

And that’s why the Quran does not use specific terms which we use in an especial

sort ol' philosophical as well as other scientific terms. Using that kind o f terms are

not the pui'posc of the Quran for the guidance and instruction o f mankind. Although

the terms ‘Existence’ ‘The Being’ 'Existent’ are signiticantly important to explan

philosophical concepts but have not been used in the Quranic verses. But it does not

mean that there are not philosophical no scientific concepts in the Quranic verses.

The Quran and the Hadith are always the main sources o f Muslim philosophers. Ibn

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al-Arabr and Mulla §adra employ them to explain their ideas. To say that the Quran is

not a philosophical or scientific book, on one hand, is true and, on the other, is false,

hi fact at the first sight the verses o f Qiiran appear to be very simple but when v/e

think over them deeply we find in them the m ost complicated concepts whicli are

exceedingly difficult to analyze. T hat’s why the Quran has not become, and will

never be out-dated with the passage o f time. Existence o f various layers meaning in

of the verses has made the Quran a simple, and also a complicated book. Using

symbolic language and iiaving notable and deep concepts have, in the Quran, their

proper addressees who are some times philosophers, gnostics, scientists, veiy

intelligent thinkers and some times simple-minded people. The Quran must have

proper documents for all o f them because tliey are nas. The various layers o f meaning

in verses o f the Quran have responded to this necessary and complicated need o f iicl.s

over the ages.

Chittick in his important book about Ibn al-Arabl’s school, explains that the term.

wiijilcl' is not mentioned in the Quran. He writes;

Ibn ai-‘ArabT took over m ost o f tlie vocabulary connected to the

discussion o f wiijitd from the M usHm philosophers. T lie term wujiid is

not m entioned in tlie K oran , and the iden tification betw een it and G od

or tlie N ecessa iy B eing {wajib al wujiicf) seem s to have been m ade

originally in ph ilosoph ica l texts, not in tlie sources oi’tlie tradition o r by

the theologians and Sufis. H ence an understand ing o f the ph ilosoph ica l

background o f this tem iin o lo g y can lielp tow ard the percep tion o f Ibn

a l-‘A rabi’s ro le in syn thesiz ing the schoo ls o f Islam ic though t,"

The viewpoint of Chittick is entirely true, but there are some verses in which the idea

of distinction between God and “other than God” has been clearly mentioned. But

without doubt, such verses, some o f which I will present below, need commentary

and interpretation to explain their philosophical extent or their link with other

branches of knowledge.

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Cosmologically, the following verses concern with the viewpoint that we have

already mentioned;

O ye men! It is ye that have need o f Allah: but A llah is the O ne Free o f all

wants, worthy o f all praise. (35 :15)

T hey w ill say, "(They belong) to Allah," Say: "W ill ye not then be filled w itli

awe?"(23:87)

Say: “Who is the Lord and Siistainer of the heavens and the earth?"

Say; “(It is) Allah.” Say: “Do ye then take (for worship) protectors

other than Him, such as ha\’C no power either for good or for harm to

themselves?” Say; ‘"Are the blind equal with those who see? Or the

depths of darkness equal with hght?” Or do they assign to Allah

partners who liave created (anything) as He has created, so that the

creation seemed to them similar? Say; “Allah is the Creator o f all

things: Me is the One, the Supretme and In'esistible.” (13;,16)

t k is Allah, the Creator, the E volver, the B cstow er o f Forms (or C olours), To

Him belong the M ost B eautillil Nam es: whate\'er is in the heavens and on

earth, doth declare H is Praises and Glory; and H e is the E,waited in M ight, the

W ise, (59:24)

In this respect the Hadith collections are also replete with hadiths about this concept,

i.e., cosmology and, there arc a lot o f discourses and Hadiths in which the concept of

wujud is explicitly are used by Imams o f the Shi 'a sect such as Imam Ali and Imam

§adiq whose viewpoints arc w'ell known all over the Islamic w orld.’*

The concept o f “dependence”, therefore, is the central axis o f traditional cosmology.

What is designated by the Muslim philosophers and others in the domain o f tradition

is to bind the man to its root in the mould o f a plan which includes at least three

aspects which we have continuously tried to explain i.e,, epistemology, ontology and

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184

anthropology in their especial m eaning and their relationship. In the same way, the

Islamic philosophers and gnostics like Mulla $adra and Ibn ‘Arab! have tried to plan

the scheme o f this important and key concept. To convey the meaning of dependence

Ibn ‘Arab! explains the relationship between the Necessary Being and the possible

things to show that the absolute dependence, is by far the most significatit concept in

the scheme of existents {niM’juda l) and particularly the place o f man in the universe.

In the light o f this kind o f relationship the understanding o f the meaning o f perfection

and, particularly the perfection o f man would be clarified.

Ibn ‘ArabT and, in the same way, otiier Islamic philosophers describe the concept o f

preponderance (iarjih) to explain the need o f existent things and their link with their

Origin, i.e., the Necessary Being.

In this regard Ibn ‘ArabT has some instructive points;

If the possible thing were an existent which could not be qualified by

nonexistencc, then it would be the Real. If it were a nonexistence

which could nor be qualified by existence, then it would be impos­

sible.

(HI 275:5)'^

God gave preponderance to the existence of the possible things over

their nonexistence because they sought this preponderance by their

veiy essences. Henee, this was a kind of submission, (inqiyad) of the

Real to this seeking on Ihe part of possibility, and also a gratuitous

kindness (imtiiiciii). For God is Independent of the worlds. But He

described Himself by saying that He loved to be known by the

possible things, since He was not known, and one of the

characteristics of the lover is to submit himself to his beloved. But in

reality. He only submitted to Himself. The possible thing is a veil over

this divhte seeking. {Ill 217.7)'“’

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■fradidonal & Modern Ontology...

Understanding o f m an’s own possibility is the way in which m an find the meaning o f

his Lord.

Two conclusions thus arise regarding the concept o f possibility and the relationship

between possible things and the Necessary Being.

a) There is no proof other than our own possibility.

Depending on the concept o f “possibility” and the realization o f the existence o f the

Necessary Being, therefore, is the perception o f the “S e lf” The saying o f the Delphic

oracle; “Know thyself.” or that o f the Prophet o f Islam “He who knoweth himself

knoweth his Lord” are comments considered to be the most significant mould by

which the structure o f the universe is to be realized.[iranslation of Hadidi is b y NasrJ

Ibn ‘Ai'abT employs the term “Traveler” to describe the concept, mentioned above. He

writes;

Tlic "traveler" is he who travels with his reflection in .searcli of the

.signs and proofs of the existence of his Maker In his traveling

he linds no proof for that other than his own possibility. The meaning

ofliis possibility is that existence is brought into relationship with him

and the whole cosmos, and they receive it; or nonexistence is brought

into relationship with them, and they receive it. The two things arc

equal for him, so in respect of his own essence the relationship of

existence to him cannot be preferred over the relationship of

nonexistence. So he is poor toward the existence of a Preponderator

who will give preponderance to one of the two descriptions over the

other.

When the traveler reaches this waystalion, passes by this watering

place, aitd uncovers the existence of his Preponderator, he begins a

second journey into the knowledge of that which should be known

about this Maker who has brought iiim into existence. He uncovers tlie

1 8 6

proof that He alone possesses attributes of incomparability, that is,

that He is incomparable with tlie poverty that belongs to the possible

thing. He understands that this Preponderator is the Necessary Being

through Itself for whom, is pennitted nothing that is permissible for

the possible thing.

Then he passes in his journey to an other waystation, and he uncovers

the fact that this Necessary Being through Itself cannot possibly

become nonexistent__a!-Fiiiuhal al-makkiyya. Ch. 190,11 382.27

b) The second conclusion is; i f the understanding o f the “S e lf’ is the way o f

understanding o f God, the perception o f G od’s attitude and the stages o f the universe

are also the way of the essence f man. That’s because the man is the manifestation o f

God in the world. And that’s why only m an has got the status o f God’s vicegerency

on the earth. And that is the position which heavens and earth refused to accept as the

Quran states:

W e did in d eed o ffe r th e T ru st to th e H e a v e n s and t lie B arth a n d th e

M ounta ins; bu t th ey r e fu se d to u n d erta k e it, b e in g a fra id th ereo f: but

m an un d ertook it;- H e w a s in d e e d un just a n d fo o lish ; ( 3 3 :7 2 )

in the final analysis, the understanding o f m an’s traits in the mould o f the possible

things helps in the realization o f God and the vice versa.

Some other leading gnostics have explained this as the most important concept in the

mould o f belief.

Nasati '■‘ in explaining who finds and see (with the eye o f heart {qalb) the truth o f

universe says: know that the people who see the truth o f universe profess (iqrav) with

their tongue (lisan) and attest and certify {ta^diq) the existence and Oneness o f

Transcendent God by heart {qalb). And this existence and Oneness that they profess

by lisan and attest by qalb is fi'om the way o f finding and intuition.

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He adds: 0 , gnostics! This group and clan (fayefe) are the ones who have passed all

the hurdles and veils (hijab) and they who overreached to observe (mushahidah) o f

God and arrived at the stage o f obseivation and intuition; so that, what they knew

by... {Urn al-yaqin) knew by....(g)'/7 al-yaqin) and observed that their existence

tlioroughiy belongs to God not to others. They are the Unitarians (ahl-e~ vahdat) who

do not see and know but God.

As we mentioned above, the existence o f man is the locus o f manifestation o f the

whole o f universe, hi fact, based on traditional cosmology in Islam he is the distillate

and essence o f the universe. In the same way, Nasafi explains that what is existent

here and in the hereafter, also, is in the existence o f man. The man thus is the copy o f

the world, both here and in the hereafter.'^

The structure o f the world has been described in the mould o f four basic qualities

which are attributed to the Ultimate Reality. The Quran introduces God as the First

{awal), the Late (ak/n'r), the Inward (halin) and the Outward (zahir). These concepts

have explicitly been employed by the Quran.

He is tiie First and the Last, the Evident and the Hidden; and He has full

knowledge of all things,(57:3)

In the final analysis, therefore, we have to reply the first question that we have

already mentioned, i.e. what is the structure o f cosmos from the traditional point of

view? Based on previous explanations, traditional cosmology thus makes a plan from

the cosmos based on “absolute dependence” o f cosmos on God. This plan follows the

following subsequent steps:

a) What exists and wliat can be existent is divided into two categories: the

Necessaiy Being {wajib a/-wujtld) and possible things {mumkin al-wujud). Then

possible things themselves are divided into two categories. What the W ill o f the

Traditional & Modem Ontology...

Necessary Being has brought into the realm o f existence which are possible things

(contingents) which after coming into the realm o f existence are called (wajid

alwujtid belqir) that means their necessity is from their cause. A nd which still has not

come into the realm o f existence because their causes are not existent that are called

(mumtani’ belqir) . The possible things, contraiy to the Necessaiy Being, in their

essence are absolutely dependent on their causes, and this quality is inseparable from

their essence for ever, so thtit they arc dependent existents on the Necessaiy Being for

ever but not the vice versa,

b) Existent things, in the mental analysis, are divided into two parts: their

existence and quiddity {mahyyah). The essence or quiddity itself is not suitable

{moqtazi) for the existence and always need a cau.se to bring them into the realm o f

existence. There is only one kind o f existence that has no quiddity or his quiddity is

the same as his existence {mahiyyatohoo innayatoh). This special existence Who is

the unique, and in the language o f religion, is the same God.

c) The existence in itself is independent, so that to have any cause for absolute

cxistcncc is a meaningless concept.

d) Existence in itself is unlimited and absolute, and what traditional philosophere

name as possible things or “other than God” arc but not separate or independent o f

the Absolute Existence. In fact they are not but the manifestation o f It.

e) That’s why the Quran qualifies the Qualities o f Allah: the First, the Late, the

Outward and tlie Inward.

f) The conclusion is that the structure o f cosmos in the traditional cosmology has

a unique quality. The essence o f world is not but dependence which has come from

Him and will go back to Him. The Quran states:

, .to Allah w e belong , and to Him is our return.’’ (2:156).

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] 8 9

The concept o f God in the traditional viewpoint is the central and by far the most

significant problem. All other concepts in the traditional points o f view and

particularly the Islamic concepts revolve around the concept o f ‘God” . The analysis

o f this concept is so far the most essential and fundamental one and necessary to our

understanding or, in other words, the m eaningfulness o f religious statements. On the

other hand, this concept relates to the understanding o f traditional cosmology and

finally, the way of understanding o f the place of man as G od’s vicegerent

(khalTfa/ollah) on the earth and the truth o f essence o f man, distinguish between the

dignity o f man in the humanistic schools and the traditional ones.

One question thus arises regarding the place o f God in the world, namely, “ What is

the place o f God in the ontology o f traditional viewpoint?”

This significant question might be answered from various aspects. There are, at least,

two main places we propose to be considered: (a) philosophical and, (b) religious. In

the first consideration especially in the school o f the Oneness o f Being {wahdai

wujild) the problem is the quality o f relationship between the One and the many

which is one o f the most complicated problems in the philosophical and mystical

discussions. There is, in our opinion, an important difference between philosophical

and what religions discuss about God, Philosophy, with its great status, can never

introduce God as a kind and beautiful existence Whom people can love, worship, and

have a special affinity with Him. God in the religions has two sorts o f qualities: the

qualities o f Majesty e-Jalal) and the qualities o f beauty (Sifat~e Jamal), and

these scries o f qualities have comprehensively explained in the Quran. And Islam

emphasizes on these .fifat for understanding Allah and His relationship with men and

finally the way of m an’s perfection. And, with these two sorts o f qualities, man

always finds two different senses by which the way o f perfection is passes. Attention

to these qualities, therefore, gives people two different senses, on the one hand man

feels a fear (from His Majesty) and, on the other he feels a deep trust faith in to his

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190

lord. These two sorts o f verses m ake peoples equilibriuin. The educative system o f

Quran, therefore, is based on gravitation on the one hand and, rejection on the other,

hi this regard, following verses deserve to be noted:

And those w ho dispense their charity witlii their hearts full o f fear, becau.se they w ill retuni to

their Lord;- (23:60)

Who forgiveth sin, accepteth repentance, is strict in punishment, and hatii

a long reach (in al! thing.s). there is no god but He; to Him is the final

goal. (40:3)

When My servants ask thee concerning Me, I am indeed close (to them):

1 listen to the prayer of every suppliant when he callelii on Me: Let theiri

also, with a will. Listen to My call, and believe in Me; I'hat tliey may

walk in tlie right way. (2; 1S6)

Tell My servants that I am indeed the Ofl-forgiviiig, Most Merciful;

(1 5 :4 9 )

Say; "O my Sei*vants who have transgressed against their souls! Despair

not of the Mercy of Allali: for Allah forgives all sins: for He is Oft-

Forgiving, Most Merciful. (39:53)

Then those who reject Faith in the Signs of Allah will suffer the se\-erest

penalty, and Allah is Exalted in Might, Lord of Retribulion. (3:4)

Say: "O people of the Book! Do ye disapprove of us for no other reason

tiian that wc believe in Allah, and the revelation that hath come to us and

that whicli came belbre (us), and (perhaps) that most of you are

rebclhous and disobedient?" (5:95)

Never think that Allah would fail his messengers in His promise; for

Allah is Exalted in power, - the Lord of Retribution. (14: 47)

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They are only a small part o f the verses through which the educative system o f the

Quran progresses increases the faith o f people and makes a special kind o f

relationship between man and his Lord that philosophical schools can never make

such a deep and beautiful relationship.

Izutsu believes that the first and the most significant reciprocity accmcs from the

essential relationship between Allah and man. He states that from the Q uran’s point

of view Allah not only is the highest existence, but also He is merely existent W ho it

is proper to naine as existence with Which nothing in the universe can have a

contract. He claims that, cosmologically, from the Quran’s view point the structure o f

the world is a God -centric world. God (in this world-view) is the center of the world

and, what is called under the name of “other than God” including human beings and

others arc His creatures, and evei-ything, thereibre, in the chain o f infinite stages of

the existence of all of them are lower than Him. This point, we think, is one o f the

most important differences between modem and traditional ontology by which the

modern man has changed his own position to an existent which is not in the state o f

submission. Izulsu adds a point which it is proper to note: He states that nothing can

be a contrast of God but man. He claims that there is an aspect through which, we can

say, man can be in the position of a contrast of God, That’s because man is an

especial creature of God. And the Quran has paid a focuse attention to the situation o f

man as God. And man and his nature, treatment, psychology, duties, and his destiny

are the central preoccupation and obsessions o f the Quranic notion as the problem o f

God. Basing on Izutsu’s point o f view the problem of man and his salvation is the

most important puipose o f the Quran and if it was not, there was no message from the

Heaven.

Izutsu also explains that there is an ontological relationship between God as the

Ultimate head-spring of man’s existence and man as the vicegerent o f the universe;

1 9 2

that he has his existence from God. This relationship is named by Izutsu in the mould

of relationship between God and m an as a Creator- creature relationship.''^

The second characteristic o f God in the traditional cosmology is the characters o f

His Kingdom. Understanding o f G od’s Kingdom depends on the concept o f His

independence o f the world. There are key points in the Quranic verses which

philosophers and gnostics have focused onwith the help Quranic verses. G od’s

independence would be meaningless without understanding the absolute dependence

which we have already mentioned and explained in our pervious answer to the

problem o f structure o f the universe and the place of creature in it. The following

verses are quite proper for our consideration.

Thy Lord is sclf-sufftcient, full of Mercy; if it were His will. He coiiid

destroy you, and in your place appoint whom He will as your

succesaors, even as He raised you up from the po.sterity of other people.

(6; 133)

They say: "Allah hath begotten a son!" - Glory be to Him! He is self-

sufficient! His arc all things in the heavens and on earth! No warrant

have yc for this! say ye about Allah what ye know not? (10:68)

To Him belongs all that is in the heavens and on earth: for \ ’erily

Allah,- He is free of all wants. Worthy o f all Praise.(22:64)

O ye men! It is ye that have need of Allah: but Allah is the One Free of

ali want.s, worthy of all praise.(35:15)

Behold, ye are those invited to spend (of your substance) in the Way of

Allalr. But among you are some that are niggardly. But any who are

niggardly are so at the expense of their own souls. But Allah is free of

all wants, and it is ye that are needy. If ye turn back (irom the Patli), He

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will substitute in your stead another people; then they would not be like

you! (47:38)

Such persons as are covetous and commend covetousness to men. And

if any turn back (from Allah's Way), verily Allah is Free of all Needs,

Worthy of all Praise, (57:24)

There was indeed in them an excellent example for you to follow,- for

those whose hope is in Allah and in the Last Day. But if any turn away,

truly Allah is I'ree of all Wants, Worthy of all Praise. (60:6)

The e.xistencc o f cveiy thing “other than God” is dependence on God and “without

God’s bestowal of existence (ijad), the immutable entities can gain no taste” or

existential knowledge of fheir own realities.” ”

Ibn al-‘Arabi explains the concept o f “G od’s Independence” in the following words.

The fact that "God is independent of the worlds" means that He is

Independent of the existence of the cosmos, not of its immutability. For

through the stale of its immutability tlie cosmos provides God sufficiency

and independence from its existence, since it fulfills the right (haqq) of

the Divinity [to have a divine thrall] through its possibility [and need for

a Preponderator]. , . . But the possible things . . . desire to taste (dhawq)

the state of existence, just as they tasted the state of nonexistcnce. They

ask the Necessary Being with the longue of their inmiutability lo bring

their entities into existence, so that their knowledge may become tasting.

I lence He brings them into existence for themselves, not for Himself, (Ili

306.19 f

The concept of dependence o f existents on the one hand and independence o f God on

the otlier has made a notable concept in the philosophical and Quranic cosmology

which the philosophers and gnostics have taken note o f From this relationship

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between God and “other than God” or the Necessary Being and possible things the

quality of kingdom is ascribed to God. That’s because “God’s Kingdom is nothing

other than the possible things, which are our own entities. So w e are His Kingdom.

As ibn ‘Arab! describes, tiie name Kingdom is ascribed to God when we obsei've the

possible things. Other names and attributes have been ascribed to God in His

manifestation in the realm o f existents. Without that Pure Being, as such, no name,

hnam AH states; “The ultimate stage o f the Unity (twhid) is negation of qualities from

Him.”

Nicholson, in his analysis o f Pure Being, and the place o f God divides the placc of

God into two categorizes: Before and after he enters the realm o f manifestation. He

says:

Pure Being, as such, has neither name nor attribute; only when, it

gradually descends from its absoluteness and enters the realm of

manifestation, do names and attributes appear imprinted on it. The sum

of these attributes is tlie universe, which is “phenomenal’’ only in the

sense that it shows reality under the funn of externality. Although, from

this standpoint, the distinction of essence and attribute must be

admitted, the two are ultimately one, like water and ice. The so-called

phenomenal world-the world of attributes-is. no illusion: it really e.xist.s

as the' self-revelation or other self of the Absolute. In denying any real

difference between essence and attribute, Jill makes Being identical

with Thought. The world expresses God’s idea of Himself, or as Ibnu '1-

‘ArabT puts it, “wc ourselves arc the attributes by whicli we describe

God; our e.\istence is merely an objectification of His existence. God is

necessary to us in order that wc may e.xist, while we are necessaiy to

Him in order tluit He may be manifested to Him,seir.” ‘’"’

The Hindu tradition has also emphasized this or similar point. We read in Geeta:

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Traditional & Modem Ontology.,.

Brahman is Imperishable, the supreme; His essential nature is called

Self- Knowledge, the creative force that course beings to spring forth

into manifestation is called ‘ Work. '*

In another contcxt we read:

Arjuna said:

You are the Suprem e B R A H M M A N , the Suprem e Abode, the Supreme Purity,

Eternal, D ivine P U R U SH A , the G od o f all gods Unborn, Omnipresent,'^

Those sorts o f comments are simply available in all traditional texts, in

which God has the highest position in the existence.

Cosmologically, the problem o f relationship between many and the One is one o f the

most complicated problems tiirough which philosophers and gnostics explain their

own scheme o f the cosmos. The problem, therefore, is the quality o f relationship

between the Absolute Being that has impregnated everywhere and His existence is

not limited on one hand and, there are the realities o f existing things which have their

own existence from Him, but their reality is not a hallucination and phantom.

Propounding this problem, ontologically, is important because it appears the true,

virtual and veritable place o f existents. Anthropologically, to understand and analyisc

this problem is also significant. There are some points by which three important

subjects would be clear, i.e., (a) the place o f God as the creator o f the world, (b) the

place o f creatures especially man and, (c) their relationship. To clarify the quality o f

relationship between them is showing the way o f perfection, which all the temporal

and celestial schools try, based on their own understanding of man and his perfection

to explain that,. Ibn ‘ArabT. as Chittick explains, has employed some terms such as

‘av'«’ which means “eye” and in this technical sense translated as '■'entity.” The

concept o f “’eye” in this technical sense has no Quranic basis.

196

I bn ‘ArabT tries to employ this tenti to show discrepancies between the Entity

of the Real that means G od’s Being o r G od’s Essence (ayn al~haqq) and “ among the

entities” {ft 7- ‘ayan). The last tenn from Ibn ‘A rabi’s viewpoint refers to the existent

things of the cosmos.

As was indicated in the discussion of “relationships” in Chapter 2, the

Shaykb frequently employs the term “entilies” lo distinguish existen!

things from relationships. In this sense he speaks of the Entity of the

Real ('ayn a l-h a q q ), meaning God’s Being or Essence. He also em­

ploys the expression “among the entities" (fi'l-ayaii) to refer to the

existent things of the cosmos. This meaning of the term gives rise to

the expression “entitled existence” (a l-w iijilc ia l- ‘aynT), which refers lo

anything that exists in itself, whetlier God on the one hand or the

existent possible things on the other. Enlified existence is contrasted

with “mental existence" (a!-wujud al-dhi/mJ), i.e., the existence of a

thing as a concept in the mind, whether or not it is found in the

cosmos.

When the Shaykh uses the term "Entity of God," he normally means

the Essencc of God. When he speaks of the "One Entity" (al-'ayn al-

wcihida) he usually has in view Being inasmuch as all existence is but

Its radiance and the things are Its properties and effects.'^’

As I previously mentioned, Ibn a!-'Arab! diflerenliatcs between two kinds o f non-

existents {ma ’dum) : a) ma 'durn in its absolute sense which is nothing but the analysis

o f mind from the concept o f existence (wuf ild). The quality of perception o f this kind

o f ma ’dum is very complicated sense and out o f the scope o f this chapter, (b) But

sometimes something is existent (mujud) in the knowledge of God but is not found in

the created world. In lact this kind o f rna'dum “possesses a certain mode o f existence

within G od’s knowledge, but in the sense that it has not been brought into spiritual,

imaginal or corporeal existence.

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According to Ibn al-‘A rabrs point o f view, the problem of relationship between the

one and many is explained in the mould o f these two concepts m entioned above i.e.,

with wiijud in its absolute sense and the existent which has been called "'other tlian

God.” So, Ibn ‘Arab! has tried by the sense o f “they are He/not He,’' to show this

complicated problem. Also with this idea, other aspects o f the problem are also

solved, the concept o f “effusion” (fayd) for instance, is one o f the m ost important

concepts in the Islamic ontology which is clearly explained by this idea, namely,

“they are He/not He.” This concept (fayd) finds its meaning in the m ould o f two

concepts which complement with each other, namely; “absolute dependence” and

“Absolute Independence” . The term o f fa y d itself including the concept by which tfie

reality o f existent things have been shown in the mould o f absolute dependence. In

this meaning the existent things arc not but the outward radiance (fafalif) o f their

Sourcc, and have not any thing by themselves. In other words they are nothing but the

imagination o f their own Source. And without His fa yd they are not but nothing

{ma 'dilin). This concept is one o f the most important and key concepts in the Quran

as well as Islamic worship contexts {ad'ye plural o f doa). The Quran explains this

idea in the mould o f the concept o f absolute poverty (a lfaqr). The Quran states: “O

ye men! It is ye that have need o f Allah. But Allah is the One Free o f all wants,

worthy o f all praise.” (35:15)

So that, with this commentary o f existent things and their places a traditional man

sees evciy thing as the sign o f the Source, and when he wants to see the world, sees

not but his Lord’s manifestations. Writes Ibn al-‘Arabi’;

The cosmos is perceived (nnidrak) by God in the .state of its

nonexistence. So it is nonexistent in entity, perceived by God. He sees

it, then brings it into existence througli the influence exercised upon it

by the divine power. Hence the cflusion ffej/dj of entified existence

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falls only upon the objects of God’s sight (ru'ya) in the state of their

nonexistence. Some thinkers consider the fact that sight is connected

to the cosmos in the state of its nonexistence, that it is a true sight in

which there is no doubt, that [the object of sight] is what is called the

cosmos, and that the Real is never qualified by first not seeing the

cosmos, then seeing it; on the contrary, He never ceases seeing it. He

who holds tluit the cosmos is eternal does so from this perspective. But

he who considers the existence of the cosmos in relation to its own

entity and the feet that it ' did not possess this state when the Real saw

it maintains that the cosmos is temporally originated.^*'

In the same way Nasafi (whom 1 already have introduced him in preceding pages)

writes:

There is no existence but the One and it is the Existence o f

Transcendent God, and not only there is nothing other than God,

but also it is impossible to be some one else other tlian God and

or any (fonn) o f existence other than God. They (monist

thinkcns) say that although, there is no existence other than the

One, but this Existence has an explicit and implicit or an outward

and inward (manifestation). The inward aspect o f the One is a

Light, and this Light is the soul o f the universe and the universe is

impregnated o f this Light; the effective, nature and the action o f

existent tilings are from that Light, but o f course, the universe in

itself is the same Light.

The concept of the ‘Light’ is the most signiilcant concept in the philosophical and

gnostic schools. This concept is the key concept in the transcendent theology (al-

Hikmcit al- Moiaalie). With the concept o f Light, Mulla §adrii also, explained the

idea o f special kind o f existentialism by wltich he meant the view o f ‘p>Tamid o f

existence’. Nasfi in the explanation o f this Light writes: “If you knowth that the

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inward aspect o f the universe is the same Light, you will knowth that the outward o f

the universe is the manifestation o f this Light.”

Gnostics have also explained the way and method o f seeing this Light. They have

elaborated that the main obstacle in the way o f intuition (shohood) o f this Light is

paganism. But paganism, based on the gnostics’ viewpoints, is not always explicitly.

(shirk Jail) In this case paganism has a delicate meaning, i.e., seeing “other than God”

in their independent fonn, which has named, in the Islamic concepts, implicit

paganism (shirk khafi). The intuition o f that Light, therefore, depends on m an’s

freedom from ail kind, and fomi o f polytheism, both explicit and implicit ones.

That’s why all prophets tried to free people from all fonns o f paganism over the ages,

Vv'eatlier explicit or implicit forms o f it, as I have mentioned.

The concept o f paganism (shirk) in the technical fonu is not proper to e.\plain and

classification all kinds o f the belief o f being partners to God. In the ontology of

Arabs before Islam shirk classifies in the mould o f Henotheism, in which they

believed in God but not as the Lord of the universe.

Paganism, in its general meaning, and polytheism or henotheism, in their technical

meanings, and all kinds o f shirks destroy the abilities and faculties o f moving in the

way o f perfection. Idol in this meaning is not merely an explicit statue or that sort o f

things, but also every thing which is the cause oi'neglecting or paying no attention to

God such as ambitiousness and lasciviousness by which man feels independence. As

in the previous pages w e comprehensively explained that the centra! point o f

traditional heritage depends on the perception o f ‘man’s dependence.’ Or in other

words everything ‘other than God” is not but His manifestation (laJa/lT) and there are

not any independent existent things but they are effusion (Jhyd) of His Existence, as I

have mentioned above. There is impossible to find in the universe, therefore, any

form o f independence but His Face, then Eternity, Continuity and Survival are His

original qualities and by His effusion existent thins catch these kinds o f qualities. The

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2 0 0

Quran stress to this significant point; will abide (for ever) the Face o f thy Lord -

fu ll o f Majesty. Bounty and Honor. (55:27)

In this regard NasafT writes: O Dervish! You should be received to this Light and

siiould see It. And through the Light you should see the world to be free from

polytlieism and to move from the variety and do not remain the perplexity and to

believe that the Existence is not but the One,

Nasafi says;

Every traveler {salek) who was not received to the Sea o f the

Light and did not overwhelm into the Sea o f The Light, did not

smell anything from the place o f unity, and every body did not

receive the place o f unity and did not reach in the meeting o f

Allah, did not know and see anything as such. He came blind and

went blind. Lots o f people say wc received to that Sea o f Light,

and wc saw this Sea o f Light.

O Darvish! Evcjybody has been received to this Sea o f L,ight, and

has been overwhelmed in this Sea which has a lot o f sings; they

arc entirely in peace with the whole o f world’s people and they

look at the people with blessing and compassion. Thus they never

spare their help from anybody and they never ascribe anybody to

aberrcition and knows that every body is in the way o f God.

Hence, in the theory o f Islamic monism in which philosophers and Gnostics explain a

fonn o f pluralism. The way o f mysticism, based on its anthology is the path o f love.

There are a lot o f stories in the SutT tradition which explained the main purpose of the

efforts o f Sufi in the way o f perfection.

Nasafi adds;

0 Dei'vish! Invitation and education are not to bestow the

welfare to vicious, or to prepare the ground for untalented

pei'son, and to reveal the truth o f things to people, invitation and

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Traditional & M odem O n to lo g y ...

education, in fact, are to remove the bad habits among people

and to simplify and to make life easy, and to simplify the

expedience o f m ans’ living, and to make people friendly with

one another and be kind and sympathetic to each other, and try

that people become truthful and upright with each other.^'*

M ODERN ONTOLOGY

AND ITS ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONSEQUENSES

In the subsequent paragraphs a briefly attempt will be m ade to understand the

implication o f modern ontology which started after the Renaissance. Obviously, the

analysis o f modern ontology needs multi-dimensional discussion, because the

background and history o f the W estern philosophy do not relate only with one

specific philosophical system. There are at least two different philosophical systems

with which the modern philosophy is concerned, namely: the Greek philosophy and

mythology on the one hand and, the evolution o f the Medieval A ge’s philosophy on

the other. Any discussion on modern philosophy, therefore, pertains to know these

two philosophical systems which are mentioned above. There is another point which

is proper to note i.e., the religious background o f the sages and antecedents o f the

modern woiid. In the subsequent paragraphs we will show that the foundations o f the

great sages of modern world were religious, but their beliefs resulted in two main

ideologies: secularism and liurnanism. So, understanding o f the CA-olution o f

Renaissance needs an understanding o f the evolution o f the histor\' o f modern

thought, which emerged after the revolution o f Copernicus (1473-1543) and, a

perception o f the new standing o f modern man based on the new perception o f the

meaning o f world and its order. We have briefly attempted to show the main and

essential foundation o f modern ontology to make a proper introduction o f the

subsequent chapters.

Understanding o f world and its interiiretation or looking for finding the relationship

between things in the world to e.xplain the structure o f tiie universe has been the

essential subject o f inquiry among both scientists and philosophers, in-espective o f

their different methods o f investigations. But ontology formulated in considering the

203

place o f man, the nature and, in the general meaning, in the frame than the so-called

cosmology. Contrary to modern ontology, the purpose o f ancicnt cosmology was to

find harmony and equilibrium between man, nature and, society which is known as

cosmological justice. Modern ontology defines the world in a specific form which

man discoursed new meaning as well as a new standing. As we will show in the next

chapter o f this essay according to religious texts especially in the Isianuc ontology

man is the subject of the knowledge o f the universe, and God bestowed on him the

names of creature, so that he can overcome, dominate and control other creatures in

the world in the mould o f God’s vicegcrency.

And knowing the mimes itself including also the knowledge o f tlie methods c'd'using

things. The status of man as one who can know and use the things is entirel>' different

from things, which are the object the knowledge. I'hiit is why (he position o f man is

clearly different from other creatures in the world, which arc the signs o f the pallnvay

of man’s perfection. But regarding the above points, man is not the center ol" the

creation. Izutsu, while explaining this position puts man in the opposition o f God in

the mould oi'the vicegerent o f God and, so that man is the unique creature whicii the

Quran discussed thoroughly giving him high importance after God. The dignity of

man from the Quranic verses' point o f view is defined in this frame, and the

ibundation o f differences between the dignity ol' man in tSre traditional and modern

points o f view come back to this point, i.e., the standing of man in the uni\’erse.

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M AN I'igurc I

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Despite this point of view, the m odem ontology changed the measures o f the study o f

the world and, therefore, man and his position; so that, it brought him in the center o f

the universe, then replaced and put him in the Center (figure2). Althougli, from

traditional point of view, man is a creator, but his creativeness has arisen from his

divine status i.e., his vicegerency not from his independency, as it has been supposed

in the modern ontology. Ontologically, God, from traditional point o f view, is the

Center o f the universe and man in the pathway o f his periection is a traveler towards

the Center and his dignity is thus defined in this frame.

liiterrelalion oi' Ihc cosm os and man in the m odern \vorld -\ ic\\'

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l-'igure 2

The modern view and tlie Scriptures, however, stress on the dignity o f man, but the

meaning of human dignity in these t w o weltanschauungs arc entirely difi'erent from

one anotlier which, nielhodologically, is a p p r o p r ia te to note and explain,

hi the religious and traditional viewpoints especially in the Islamic ontology the

pathway oi’ man has been moulded in the special form of circling which implies the

perfection o f man, i.e., moving from the Center cind coming back to the Center. The

Quran states: “To Allah we belong, a n d t o Mini is our r e tu r n .” (The Quran, 2: 156) Being

center o f man in the traditional viewpoint means to do the measures w-hich come from

Heaven and, it means achieving the standing o f vicegerency o f God. which in the

religious texts has been called al-lnsaii al-Kamil (the perfect man). But when the

modern oiUology claimed that it has changed m an’s position from the circuit to the

center, in fact, it created a new situation for him, which means to put man in the place

of absoluteness.

205

This standing itself has two consequences: (a) killing God as the Measure, the Origin,

the Center and the Destination o f eveiy attempt o f man in the pathway o f perfection.

As Nietzsche announced the “death o f God, which was actually the death o f Divine

Measure among people, and (b) putting man in the standing o f God and forgetting the

Origin and putting man in the center o f the cosmos. But this information about the

human society had some ontological-epistemological and anthropological

entailments, which modem philosophers such as Descartes, Kant, Hegel and

Nietzsehc attempted to show and explain to the people.

Some modern philosophers explained that the modernity, none-thc-!css, has claimed

the clarity through the reason and rationality but, this view itself had been the cause

o f ambiguity. “ I’hat is because the modernity in itself includes transfonnation. But

attention to the writings o f the sages o f the Renaissance would help in understanding

the process in which the modern man came to the existence.

Anthropologically, basing on the points which have been mentioned above, two main

conclusions belong to the modem ontology: (a) humani.sm and, (b) secularism. But

the process of humani.sm and secularism started w'hen man came up with this idea that

he has to be in the center and, Divine Rules should not interfere in the legitimacy o f

social decisions and laws. Explanation o f these conclusions needs a vast opportunity.

To understand of the differences between the dignity o f man based on the modern

ontology and traditional view, we need to explain the foundation, methods and

consequences of these two kinds o f dignities. To fmd out the differences betw'een two

ideas we would explain the view points o f the Renaissance’s sages and scientists.

A. Mathematics as the EsscRfial Measure of the Renaissance Scientists and its

Consequcnccs

The movement o f the Renaissance man was towards a special kind o f the explanation

of world. In this, the structure o f the world, despite the approach of M iddle Ages, has

been interpreted in the mould o f a machine which can automatically work. This idea

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did not arise immediately, 'fhe analysis o f the world based on mathematical rules was

the commencement o f the way o f this idea. In this regard the explanation o f Galilei is

very significant. He writes:

Philosophy is written in that great book which ever lies before our

eyes— I mean the universe— but we cannot understand it if we do not

first learn the language and grasp the symbols, in which it is written.

T h is book is w rit te n in th e m a th e m a tic a l lan g u ag e , a n d th e sy m b o ls

a re tr ian g le s , c irc le s , and o th e r g e o m e tr ic a l, f ig u re s , w ith o u t w h o se

h e lp it is im p o ss ib le to c o m p re h e n d a s in g le w ord o f it; w ith o u t w h ic li

o n e w anders in v a in th ro u g h a d a rk laby rin th .'’’

The idea of the order o f the world based on the mechanical, geometrical and,

mathematical niles impelled the Renaissance man towards believing in an idea in

which world does not need God but in its creation.

The subsequent quotations from R. Boyle ' ' as a physician, chemist and natural

philosopher who was one o f the most influential scientists in the process o f the

Renaissance are notable. He attempts to ascertain existence o f God based on the

world’s order; he writes;

1 'hat tlie c o n s id e ra tio n o f th e v asln ess , b eau ty , and re g u la r m o tio n s o f

th e h eaven ly b o d ies ; th e e x c e lle n t s tru c tu re o f an im a ls and p la n e ts ;

b esides a m u lti tu d e o f o th e r p h e n o m e n a o f n a tu re , and th e s u b s e r \ 'in g

o f m ost o f th ese to m an ; m an y ju s tly in d u ce h im tis a ra tio n a l c re a tu re ,

to co n c lu d e , tha t th is v a s t , b eau tifu l, o rd e rly , a n d (in a w o rd )m a n y

w ays ad m irab le sy s te m o f th in g s , tliat w e call th e w o rld , w as fram ed

b y an A u th o r su p re m e ly , p o w e rfu l, w ise and g o o d , c a n sc a rc e b y

den ied by an in te llig e n t a n d u n p re ju d ic e d c o n s id e re r ” ”

On the other hand F^oyle states that the world is such as refined clock like

Strasbourg’s clock Vv'hich has expertly made that if it starts its work cveiy thing W'ould

Traditional & Modem Ontology...

depend on its engineer’s plan, and its m otion does not need to its engineer’s

intervention time by time.^**

It was an important introduction o f deactivation o f God in the world. In tliis regard

two different foundations o f traditional and modern ontology are going to be clear. As

we comprehensively explained in llie preceding pages about the characteristics o f the

traditional ontology, the essence o f the cosmos defines itself in the frame o f absolute

dependency. The appearance o f modern idea about the place o f man and its

relationship with God step by step has been organized by these sorts o f analyses. The

following quotation from Burtt contains some cfficacious points:

The vortex theory was, none- the- less, a most significant

achievement historically. It was the first comprehensive attempt

to picture the whole external world in a Wciy fundamentally

different from the platonic-Aristotelian-Christian view whicli,

centrally a teleological and spiritual conception o f the processes

o f nature, had controlled men’s thinking for a millennium and

the half God had created the world o f physical existence, for the

purpose that in man, the highest jiatural end the whole process

might find its way back to God.

N ow G od is re le g a te d to th e p o s itio n o f fire t c a u se o f m o tio n , th e

h ap p en in g s o f th e un iv 'erse th en c o n tin u in g in o ite m m im as in c id e n ts

in llie re g u la r re v o lu tio n s o f a g rea t m a th em a tica l m ach in e . G a li le o 's

daring c o n c e p tio n is c a rr ie d ou t in fu lle r d e ta il. T h e w o rld is p ic tu re d

co n c re te ly as m a te r ia l ra th e r th a n sp ir itu a l, as m e c h a n ic a l ra th e r th an

te leo lo g ica l. T h e s tag e is se t fo r th e lik e n in g o f it, in B o y le , L o ck e ,

and L e ibn iz , to a b ig c lo c k o n ce w o u n d u p by th e c re a to r , an d s in c e

kept in o rd e r ly m o tio n by n o th in g m ore than h is “g en e ra l

co n co u rse” .’ "

2 0 7

Traditional & Modem Ontoiogy...

2 0 8

In this point of view— m odem m an’s perception o f God— God as a creator lias not

been denied, but modem man put God in a frame that He is, but an ineffective

existent in the world and especially in m an’s life. In fact people in the m odem world,

with forgetting the atheistic schools and their followers’ idea, worship God and

majority o f people believe in God but this kind o f belief gradually went towards

putting God in ineffectual position and without legitimacy o f legislation in the human

society.

B. The Scientists’ Understanding of the World and the standing of Man

Understanding of scientists from the world and the standing o f man in the modern

time lias changed step by step since the Renaissance man started to explain the

situation of the earth and other planets. This change declares serious transition of

m an’s position in the world. Ontologically, at least two important points merit our

attention: (a) the meaning o f the world and its relationship with God— I mean the

quality o f need o f the universe for God on one hand and, the quality o f presence and

management o f the world by God on the other— and, (b) putting o f man in the center

o f the world and making “ the measure o f all things.” This process had

epistemological, ontological and anthropological aspects. To change these aspects

which are mentioned above, it was necessary for the Renaissance man to look in the

measures o f the source of his knowledge.

Albeit, the quality o f knowledge in the scripture texts especially in the Old-Testament

on one hand and, the fasiiion o f encounter o f Church with scientists in the M iddle

Age on the other seriously influenced this process. The result o f Descartes’s researcli

about the motion and locus after his awareness o f the destiny of the inquisition o f

Galilei in the church is one o f the significant examples.''^’

Galilei writes about the place o f scripture and its limitation in the scientific

researches: “Methinks that in the discussion o f natural problems, we ought not to

being at the authority o f places o f scripture, but at sensible experiments and necessary

Traditional & Modem Ontology...

2 0 9

Traditional & Modern O nto logy ...

demonstrations. For, from the Divine word, the sacred sciipture and nature did both

alike proceed...”'*'

In early port o f the modern time the position o f man changed as a measure. Kant

attempted to declare that our perception is not adapted to things, but the things adopt

with our understanding. In the words, the reason does not educe its own rules from

the nature but, it imposes them to the nature; or when Descartes explained his idea in

the mould of “I thinlc, therefore, 1 am.” The special meaning o f ‘I,’ as a subject, was

presented in the Weltanschauung o f modern man.

210

Traditional & Modern Ontology...

Notes & References

' . The last sentence ban-owed from C hittick, W .C ., The Sufi Path o f K now ledge,p .81.

Chtnielecki, Andrzej, A V indication o f O ntology, article, Inteniet collection.s.

’ . Burckhardt, Titus, M irror o f the Intellect, Cam bridge, Q uinta Essentia, 1987, p .17.' .See; Ibid.

.Ibid.

. Chittick, W. C., The Sufi Path o f K nowledge, State University o f New York, 1989, p .79.^ . Ibid.V Ibid,p. 81.9 , Ibn ArabT, al-Futhhat al-M akkeiyya: Textes choisisi /Selected texts. Trans. M. Chodkiewicz,.

W..C, Chittick, Chodkicwiez, D. Grill and .1. M orris. Paris: Sindbad, 1989. Ch .172, 289:25. See also,

Chittick, W .C., The Sufi Path o f Kiiowleclgc, op, cit, p. 81.

. Ibid. ch.34, 164.31:81." .Chhtick, W .C., op,cit,p.80.

. In this regard tlie following sources are note-worthy;

I.Kolini, Mohamad Ibn YaqCib, A l-K qfi ( in V III volum es, Dar al- K otob Islami, Iran, Tehran, 1365

A.H. Solar, Vol. 8, p. 19.

II. N ori, M irza Hossain (d. 1319 A.H. 1924 A.D.), M odstad rak al-Va.sael, M oasese ah! - ai -B eit le

Ehya al-Toratli, Qoni, Iran, First ed„ in X V III volum es, Vol. 4, p. 74.

III. A bout Allaii and His attitudes especially the relationship betw een the concept o f M-ujitd ‘And j u h w

(substance) and non-existence see: Ma.jlesi, M ohamad Baqir, (1307 A .H, 1912 A .D .), B ehar a l-A nvar

in CX volum es, Vol. 4, p. 148.

.Ibn ‘ArabT, op,cit„and also see C hittick , W.C., op,cit,p,82..Ibid.. A ziz al-Din Nasafi (lived in the 7th A .H. /13th A.D. century) was one o f the greatest gnostics who

has som e vci-y notable wTitings in the dom ain o f Islamic mysticism. T he book "'al-hisan al-Kciinil (the Perfect M an) is one o f his famous WTitings w'hich m ore refrences will be made.

. See, N asafi, Aziz al-Din, al-Insan a!-kam il. Preface by Henry K orbin, trans.to Persian by D ehshiri,

Z., printed by Intesharal-e TahorrT, Tehran, Iran, 1379 A .H Solar, Sccond discour.se, chapter IV , p .105.

'’ .S ee : ibid, p. 119..This imporlant concept has ben explained at four places in the Quran. Sec:2:46,156;21;93;23:60.. See Izutsu, Tushihiko, G od and M an in the K oran, A yer Co Pub, 1980, ch,3.. This sentence is ban'owed from P ro f Chittick.

. .Ibn ‘ArabT, op,cit,and also see; C hittick , W.C., op,cit„p.86.

2 1 1

Traditional & Modem Ontology...

.Ibn ‘ArabT, Fusus, C a rio ,A .H ..1 3 1 2 ,p p .l9 ,7 8 ,ia i,e tc . refered by N icholson, R.A,,in the h lan iic Mysticism, Aryan Books International, N ew D elhi, 1998, P. 83.

. Nicholson, R.A., I.slainic M ysticism , op,cit,., P. 83.

. Geeta , V III, 3 “ ,Ib id ,X :1 2 .“ . Chittick, W .C., op,cit, p. 83.

. Tiiis .sentcncc has been borrowed from Chittick. W.C28 . Ibn A 'rab I ,Fusus, op,cit,, C h.293, p.34 and also sec Chittick, W.C. op ,cit„ p .85.

. See Nasafi, A., CiF., p. 106.“ . See. Ibid, p. 107.

. Ibid, p. 107.

. Ibid.

Ibid.. Zgyginunt Bauman, M odernity a n d Am bivalence, Cam bridge Polity Press, 1991.. G alileo, Galilei, Opera Com plete di G .G , 15 vols. Firenze, 1842, vol. IV, P. 171. Q uolatioti from:

B unt, Edwin, Arthur, The M etaphysical F oundation o f M odern Sciencx^, D over publication, inc. New York, 2003, p. 75,

[Robert Boyle was] boni January 25, 1627, Lism ore Castle, County W aterford, Ireland and he died December 31, 1691, London, England. [He was a] British natural philosopher and theological writer, a preeminent figure o f 17th-century intellectual culture. H e was best known as a natural pliilosopher, particularly in the field o f chcniisti'y, but his scientific w ork covered m any area.s including hydro.staticvs, phy.sic.s, medicine, earth sciences, natural history, and alchemy. Source: B ritannica CD Rom,2003.

. Boyle Robert, Tlie W orks o f tlie H ounorable Robert Boyle, ed. Thoma.s Birch, 6 vol.s, London, vol.V ,p.515, Quoted liom Burtt, Ldwin, A rthur, op,cit., p. 195.

. Boyle, R., op,cit, p. 163.Bunt, Edwin, Arthur, ibid, p. 113.See: Ibid, pp. 113-4.

‘".G alileo , Galilei, Letter to the G rand duchess, Cri.stina, 1615, (In Salusbuiy vol.I ) sec: Burtt. O p,cit., p. 83,

A . I m .

i- I 1 -'

THE €0 f CEFT 01? MAN

ilE T R U llO F M A N N TRADITIONAL A\D MODERN WELTANSCHAUUNG

THE PLACE OF MAN IN TMDITIOAL AND MODERN WELTANSCHAUUNG

CHAPTER I

The TRUTH OF MAN IN

TRADITIONAL AND MODERN

WELTANSCHAUUNG

® Introduction

® The N ature o f M an and His Truth

® The Nature o f M an in the Various Schools

THE TRUTH OF MAN IN

TRADITIONAL ANB MODERN

WELTANSCHAUUNG

IntrodiictionStudy o f Man has been, and would be, the most important subject for researches, both

scientific and philosophical. The consequences o f these sorts o f researches, therefore,

would not be useful but only with knowing the nature of man, his characteristics, his

aspects and real needs.

It is self-evident that all researches o f human beings, their endavours and scientific

discoveries are not but to improve the quality o f life.

At the first sight such o f efforts seem to be only based on the simple temporal

relationship between people and their bodily needs but, in the second thought, it is

clear to thinkers that all condition o f modern lii'e arc based on the special perception

o f the place of man in the world on one hand and the special definition o f the truth o f

man, his nature, the aspects o f his existence and finally, the special criteria by which

some forms of life become meaningful or meaningless on the other.

Man is a very complicated existence which is further existence is compounded by his

temporal and celestial aspects, and thus linding the meaning o f man is not possible

but only with an exhaustive and perfect study. In this regard to frame proper and

subtle questions a necessity. But there is an important point desctves to be noted i.e.,

nobody can think about something without a mental background or without having a

special approach. In this case Burtt has a delicate and vote worthy point to make:

T h e w o rld -v iew o f an y age can b e d is c o v e re d in v a rio u s w ay s, bu t o n e o f th e b e s t is to n o te

the recu rren t p ro b lem s o f its p h ilo so p h e rs . P h ilo so p h e rs n e v e r su c c e e d in g e tt in g q u ite

2 1 5The Truth o f Man in 1 raditional and Modem Weltanschauung

ou ts ide th e id e a s o f th e ir tim e so as to lo o k a t th e m o b je c tiv e ly -- th is w o u ld in d e e d , b e too

m u ch to expect.*

This point i.e., the importance o f m an is not possible but with finding out the truth of

man, and it depends on finding m an’s nature. Debating about the nature o f m an is one

of the m ost indicate problems. Some thinkers accept and some deny if m an has a

nature. This is one o f the main points by which the approaches o f thinkers separate

from one another.

Thinking about the nature o f man with piecemeal scientific studies is not but like

shooting in the darkness, without knowirig the target.

Everybody has some beliefs, knowledge and information and depending on these

points he propounds proper questions to find a special answer. That’s w hy modern

time and its thinkers with at least two backgrounds properly cannot think about man

and his truth: (a) having the background from the Greek mythology which describes

the situation o f man in rebellion against gods who want to isolate him in, or confine

to, the ignorance and, (b) the ^vrong imagination about the place atid ability o f

scicntific endovours and theories by which they can analyze everything tliat exists.

These two presuppositions ha\'e prompted modem inan to deny everything which

beyond the scope of scientific endavours.

The latest anthropological studies in various disciplines in the m odem world

especially after the eighteenth centuty have tried to find out a relationship between

man and ape for instance, or they tried to explain tlie situation o f man am ong other

temporal creatures to say man, contrary to what religions claini, is not but a bodily

existence without any celestial aspect, and he is the product o f natural evaluation

which has no heavenly purpose.

In this regard anthropological studies have moved toward separating m an’s aspects

and some anthropological studies, especially philosophical ones, tended to be vcjy

2 1 6The Truth o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

Specialized which we have already noted in the first chapter o f part I as “sectoral”

and “regional” anthropology. Finally, we cannot have a reasonable imagination from

man without having a reasonable and true imagination about m an’s characteiistics,

for instance, his nature, substance, freedom and their limitations, the aspects o f his

existence, the meaning o f his spirit and its relationship w ith his body and the vice

versa, the place of God in his life and the quality o f the relationship between God and

man.

That’s why some traditionalists have a serious critical position against the

methodology of modern thought about man. In this regard Nasr writes:

T h e ca re fu l 's c ic n tif ic ' s tu d y o f frag m en ted h u m a n b e h a v io u r is

in cap a b le o f re v e a lin g th e p ro fo u n d e r a sp e c t o f h u m a n n a tu re p re c is e ly

becau se o f a n a p r io r i l im ita t io n th a t so m an y b ra n c h e s o f th e m o d e m

b eh av io u ris lic sc ie n c e s o f m a n -v e rita b le p se u d o -sc ie n c e s i f th e re e v e r

w ere an y S -h av e p la c e d o n th e m ean in g o f th e h u m an s ta te itse lf. T h e re

h a s nev er b een a s l i t t le k n o w le d g e o f m an , o f th e a n th r o p o s , in

d iffe ren t h u m an c u ltu re s a s o n e finds a m o n g m o s t m o d e m

an th ro p o lo g is ts today} E v e n th e m e d ic in e m en o f A fric a (no t to sp e a k

o f the M uslim sag es) h a v e h a d a d e e p e r in s ig h t in to h u m a n n a tu re th a n

th e m odern b e h a v io u r is ts an d th e i r f lo ck , b ecau se th e fo rm e r h a v e b een

co ncerned w ith th e e s s e n tia l and th e la tte r w ith th e a c c id e n ta l , . . T h e

stu d y o f frag m en ted b e h a v io u r w ith o u t a v is io n o f th e h u m a n n a tu re

w h ich is th e c a u se o f th is b e h a v io u r can n o t itse lf le a d to a k n o w le d g e

o f hum an nature .^

As far as the fonns o f studies on man are concerned, it is nccessary tliat following

questions are asked from time to time;

2 1 7The Truth o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung

What does the nature o f man m ean in the traditional viewpoint on one hand and, the

effects o f the structure o f m an’s nature in his life here and in the hereafter on the

other; likewise what are modern thinker’s points o f view?

In another consideration it should be proper to ask: what is the place o f m an in the

world, and what is his place in relationship with (a) the universe (b) other creatures,

and (c) God.

The issue o f “Freedom” is one o f the important and notable problems to which

philosophers have paid their serious attention. The meaningfulness and

meaninglessness o f humanity on one hand and, the usefulness or uselessness o f the

celestial messages on the other critically relate to the meaning of m an’s freedom.

Thinkers have stressed on the importance o f this point in religious beliefs, Chittick

states: The Koran is nothing if not a book of exhortations directed at people to gel them

striving on the path to God. .fust as it detnand.s a vohmlary islam over and above universal

and compulsory islam, so also it d e m a n d s a n d niuja/iada-stmggle in the path of God, If

human beings were mere puppets with no self-control whatsoever, the Koran would be a silly

book, since it would be telling stones to lly. Free will and predestination need to be

understood as coinplenicjitary expressions of the human .situation. Neither explains the

situation fully.^

In this regard we will pay our attention an analyzing the two kinds o f freedom by

which the meaning o f life and tiie meaning o f being human being become different

and based on this dilTerentiation, the quality o f life and the path o f welfare change.

The concept of “freedom” has a strict relationship with the concept o f “submission”

and “reason”. There is a significant question that should be answered: whether

freedom is contrary to submission and, freedom and reason help or hinder each other.

The problems of “freedom from” and “freedom for” are two kinds o f freedom which

have been the bone o f contention between modern and traditional viewpoints which

have influenced the ideas o f m odem and traditional thinkers.

2 1 8The Truth o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung

To study man especially in the traditional idea differs from modem one in the case

o f the meaning o f “pcrfect man.” The meaning o f “perfect m an” is one o f the central

concepts from which the traditional idea draws a plan to explain the quality o f

relationship between m an and God and the place o f man in its perfect form or G od’s

vicegerent.

Some questions thus arise considering the meaning and aspects o f “perfect man”

namely:

a) What do traditional texts mean when they speak of the “perfcct m an”?

b) What is the place of “perfect man” in the universe?

c) What is the relationship between “God” and “perfect man” ?

d) What do religions mean when they speak about the purpose o f the existence o f

“perfect man”?

I

The Nature of Man and His Truth

The puqiose of subsequent paragraphs is to explain the nature o f man and the study o f

its consequences to understand the truth o f man. As we have already mentioned in the

introduction of this part, the quality o f understanding or having a special perception

o f the truth of man compels thinkers to have a special form o f ideals o f man in his

life.

In this regard two main points o f view about human nature namely, the modern and

traditional viewpoints, would be considered.

The problem of the nature o f man gives rise to many questions. Because the concept

o f the nature o f man relates to something by virtue of which man is man. As Erich

Fromme states that for "most o f thinkers o f Greek Antiquity, o f the m iddle ages, and

up to the period o f Kant, it was self evident that there is something called. Human

2 1 9The Ti-uth of. Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung

Nature, something that, philosophically speaking constitutes the “essence o f man” ."*

However, this concept -the nature o f man- during the last hundred years or even

more, began to be questioned.^

Some thinkers, in the explanation o f importance o f the nature o f man, claimed that

solving all problems which relate to various aspects o f the life o f man depends on the

problem o f nature o f man. The quality o f life, therefore, has seriously been bound

with the nature o f man.

In this regard, two viewpoints about the idea o f “human nature” are proper to note: (a)

some thinkers, especially after eighteenth centuiy, claimed that there are no common

need and inner tendency. Durkheim^’ claimed that the social conditions make the

needs o f person, and Jane Paul Sartre^ stated that the positions o f man are the causes

that make the needs o f man; to be in the world, to work in the world, to live among

others and, to be annihilated.

There were some other views that helped the idea that men have no comm on nature.

One reason, as for this, Fromme says, was the increasing historical approach to man.

In this regard the studies o f cultural anthropology about “Primitive peoples has shown

such a diversity o f customs, values, feelings and thoughts that many anthropologists

arrived at the concept that man is born as a blank sheet o f paper on whicli eacii

culture writes its text.”*

There arc further reasons that add to the historical and anthropological approaches.

The evolutionary approach, for instance, was one of the important reasons which also

tended to shake the belief in a common “human nature.”'

Some times the concept of “human nature” was threatened by some scientific or even

philosophical theories, which were not related to the human nature. Understanding o f

the reality o f human nature and its relationship with what the scientilic theories

claimed was the reason for denying the existence of common human nature on one

hand and, a belief that says the scientific theories are for every time and everywhere

2 2 0The Ti-uth o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltanschauung

are true, and also everything beyond the scientific methods is false had, or the

sciences and their methods are the ultimate measure o f truth and false had o f

eveiything and the human belief as well, was one o f the reasons, for this m istake on

the other. The theory o f changing o f every thing in the world that is undertaken by

tnodern physics, which apparently was one o f the reasons for some scientists who

think that the concept o f iiuman nature is meaningless; whereas, the m eaning o f

human nature and its pemianence is not contrary to these theories that have already

been accepted by some Quranic verses or some Islamic philosophical schools.

Another point that was the reason for denying the existence o f human nature were

some abuses in the history o f m an’s thought. Some thinkers reported this problem as

one o f the serious problems, which is one o f the causes for coming to this conclusion

tliat there is no human nature.

In the analysis of such an assumptions we reasonably cannot claim that there is no

nature o f human being, because the abuse o f something is not the cause for being

invaluable for some thing which is abused. Publishing counterfeit notes is not the

reason for their useless. But contrary to that the accepted place o f a thing is the main

reason for its counterfeit fomi.

The conclusion o f denying a common essence or human nature has a dangerous

consequence. In this regards Fromme states:

Is it necessary to come to the conclusion that there is no human nature? Such an

assumption seems to imply as many dangers as those inherent in the concept o f a

fixed nature, If there were no essence common to all men, it may be argued there

could be no unity o f men, there could be no value or nonns valid for all men, there

could not even be the science o f psychology or anthropology, which has as its subject

matter — “man”. Are we not then caught between two undesirable and dangerous

assumptions; the reactionary view o f assuming a fixed and unalterable hum an nature;

and the relativistic one that leads to the conclusion that m an shares w ith o ther

2 2 1The Truth o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung

m en only his anatomical and physiological attributes?'®

An accepted idea which is confirmed by the celestial religions, are an idea that there

is some needs and tendencies innate in the existence o f men by which m an live, and if

these needs and tendencies were in the proper conditions, they prosper and tlourish.

With this definition, contrary to some thinkers' point o f view, the human nature has

some potential abilities, and under special circumstances manifests in m an and, shows

its own effects.

There is a point which is proper to note, that is, to say that the human nature in tlie

general meaning includes all potencies o f man, both good and evil, but it uses in a

specific meaning including only good ones. The verses o f the Quran by which the

concept o f human nature has been explained, imply the second form o f meaning of

human nature, which has been mentioned above.

II

Hum an Nature and ttie various viewpoints and schools

To have a reasonable conception from the concept o f man and arriving at a proper

definition o f it or to grasp a proper perception o f the truth o f man would be necessary

to consider and compare the N’icwpoints o f various schools and thinkers about '‘human

nature.”

The tem i “nature” (a/-fi{!-ali) implies the concept o f “creation” (khifqah).

Etyinologically, the term “nature” (flfrah) in Arabic, means to cleave and al-Ji{rah has

been used for the nature o f man, because man has a special kind o f creation which

distinguishes him fi‘om other kinds o f creatures, hi some Arabic dictionaries

has been defined as a kind o f creation, which depends on the offspring o f man, or

fUrah is a quality o f creation which evei7 offspring ascribcs to in the starting o f his

creation.

222The Trath o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weitanscliauung

There are two kinds o f verses in which the essence o f man has been

explained: (a) one kind o f verses explicitly explains the nature o f man. For

instance when the Quran states;

Man prays fbr evil as he prays for good; for man is given to hasty

(deeds). (17.11)

or when the Quran declares that man qua man is in loss when the Quran

states; “Verily man is in loss.” (103;2).

Man as such is in loss because he, from time to time, loses his most im portant capital

i.e., his life-time wastes, and he actually is such a capitalist with a great estate which

he wastes if he does not use his capital in proper investment. The Quran elaborates

that m an wastes his life-time and he is in loss unless he uses his capital in the way of

faith. In the rest o f the Surah o f val- Asr the Quran says;

Except such as liave Faith, and do righteous deeds, and Ocin together)

in the mutual teaching of Truth, and of Patience and Constancy.(103:3)

I ’hese sorts of verses, to some extent, are self-explanatory and hardly need

commentaries. The second part o f verses about the quality o f man is not

understandable but only with the understanding oi' the meaning o f their symbols.

These series o f verses in the lirst sight are simple but they include very complicated

concepts and without grasping their essence their deep meanings are not easily

understandable. The story o f Adam and Ave is one o f the most signillcant instances

regarding these sorts o f verses.

The story o f Adam in the Quran appeared in the mould of a myth but, as some

specialists have explained, at the sight o f people and according to their everyday

usage, “where a myth is a false story.” The mythology o f Adam, contrary to these

sorts o f folk ideas, is not but a great symbol o f the truth o f human being. To find its

frame, rules and specific characteristic would be a proper guideline for finding out

223The Truth o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung

man's truth. Attention to following paragraph from Prof. W. Chittick would be

useful: (P. 356) vision o f Islam.

One o f the most significant ways for understanding the nature o f man in the Quranic

verses is the study o f the story o f Adam's creation and, it has a fondamental

importance for grasping Islamic view o f human nature. However, contrary to the Old

Testament, and like other stories in the Quran the story o f Adam is not told in one

place or in surah. We, therefore, need to gather some verses from various siiras to

consider the concept o f human nature to illustrate the truth o f man.

The m ain concept which the Quran and Islamic tradition have expounded is the

concept o f human beings’ vicegereny. The Arabic term for vicegerent in this

situation is Khalifa. Etymologically, the temi vicegerent implies some key concepts

like representative, subjection and so on.

As some thinkers have explained there are two kinds of vicegerency am ong creatures,

namely: universal and specific vicegerency.

Adam as a syiribol o f man has got a great heavenly soul by which he is settled and is

placed on a high position that G od’s angels prostrate before him. As far as the truth o f

man is concerned we can say that prostrating continuously would be repeated by

God’s angles to whom they treely come and make voluntary submission to G od’s

commands and instructions. O f course, all creatures, willing or unwilling, bow to His

Will as the Quran states:

Do they seek for other than the Religion oi’ Allah?-while all creatures

in the heavens and on earth have, willing or unwilling, bowed to His

Will (Acceptcd Islam), and to Him shall they all be brought

back.(3;83)

This kind of submission which is called “universal submission” pertaining to

man— both believers and unbelievers— and other creatures. Actually, this kind of

2 2 4The Truth o f Man in Traditional and Modeni Weltanschauung

submission relates to the quality and form the creation o f them, which they are

created based on. But what compels angles to prostrate before Adam was his

specific situation, which the Quran has described as his knowledge o f names through

which Adam could know the truth and quality o f using things.

As all crcated things in the world submit to their Lord, willingly or unwillingly, and

these respectively mean universal and voluntary submission; there arc two kinds o f

vicegerencies pertaining to mankind; on one hand human beings basically have a

natural vicegerency because they are the manifestation o f their Lord’s attributes, and

God created them in His own fi'om, and on the other human beings are free and when

they voluntarily submit themselves to their Lord their spatial abilities and faculties

manifest and appear. Then this fomi o f vicegerency appears only after voluntary

submission to God’s instnactions. The way o f second fonn o f vicegerency is not

possible but by surrendering to God through following the prophetic guidance. What

we explained is the second kind o f vicegerency, which is the criteria o f the perfection

o f man, and the perlcct man is the highest representative o f God on the earth through

whom God descends His benefits and guidance to people. We w'ould come back to

this important point when we will discuss the subject, “the perfect m an” in other

chapters.

There are thus some notable verses regarding this concept by which the truth o f man

and his nature can be explained. In the final analysis and based on these sorts o f

verses, which we have mentioned above, the following conclusions can be drawn;

a) The key concept in the verses we discussed about Adam relates to the

meaning o f vicegerency. That’s W'hy all other concepts which concern to these series

of verses revolve around the axis o f m an’ perfection, and this concept is moulded in

the form o f vicegerency. Other concepts about man and his perfection are the

manifestadon of the concept o f vicegerency o f human being on the eaith. And that’s

2 2 5The Truth o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung

why when God illustrates the way o f perfection actually explains the path of

vicegerency and vise versa,

b) The path o f this significant position i.e., being vicegerent associated with a great

condition. To be vicegerent o f God means having faculty and proper abilities and

qualities to do what is / are appropriate for being in the place o f G od’s vicegerency on

the earth such as the ability o f creation and so on. Being representative o f somebody

needs some abilities and forces. God, for instance, is all-Knowing, all-W illing, all-

Powerful as He is Omniscience and Omnipotence, so His representative or vicegerent

should also be like him, though within his limited situation. That’s why when God

crcated Adam gave him the knowledge o f all things in the world and, it is known that

knowledge itself is the source o f power. In fact, with having been given the

knowledge o f things Adam would naturally have the ability of prevailing over them.

Then God commanded his angels to prostrate before Adam. And their prostrating

was not but before divine abilities, which Adam has received from his Lord. The

action o f prostrating, therefore, continuously would be if any son o f Adam comes to

the pathway which ends to tl\c place o f voluntary vicegerency, as a tradition says:

“God created Adam in his own image.”

This important concept itself includes some significant results: (a) Adam is the

greatest manifestation o f God among the creatures, because all creatures are the

manifestation of some God’s names. But there are two verses from which this

important result regarding human nature and his dignity are deducted. First one is;

“The most beautiful names belong to Allah,”(7;]80) and, second one is: “And he

taught Adam the names o f all th ings...” (2:31). (b) The second result is when the

creatures are the manifestation o f God’s names, and Adam has been given the

knowledge o f the names, all o f them, in fact it means that Adam has been given the

power of overpowering all things. The following verses are the conclusion o f verses

mentioned above.

2 2 6The Truth o f Man in I ’raditional and M odem Weltanschauung

He said:

O Adam! Tell them their names.” When he had told them, Allah said;

“Did I not tell you that I know the secrets of heaven and earth, and I

know what ye reveal and what ye conceal?” (2:33)

And behold, We said to the angels; "Bow down to Adam" and they

bowed down. Not so Iblis; he refused and was haughty; He was of

those who reject Faith. (2:34)

Before informing the angels about creating a vicegerent on the earth God states: “ It is

He Who hath created for you all things that arc on earth; Moreover, His design

comprehended the heavens, for He gave order and perfection to the seven

firmaments; and o f all things He hath perfect knowledge.”(2:29). In fact there is a

logical relationship between being vicegerent and prevailing and triumphing over the

c) Althougli, Adam is the name o f the first person wiio was created, but it is the

name o f all Adam’s all offsprings. Hence, the way o f vicegerency is not restricted to

Adam in its special meaning as tlie first person who was created, but it is the way o f

all people who surrounded the instruction o f God.

d) From the verses which we have discussed about Adam and his vicegerency it

is clear that the nature o f man, contrary to some modern tim e’s idea, is not like a

blank sheet o f paper on which each culture writes its text. But man is a compounded

fomi, the faculties o f good and evil, which in the proper circumstances and conditions

appear.

e) From the latest conclusion it is clear that the education and guidance are important

help to man for overcoming to his own evil faculties. This is the reason that prophetic

guidance was sent. And contrary to some modern tim e’s thinkers like Karl M arx and

some others who believe that man is forced by the historical detcnninism , the Quran

221The Truth o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

states that the way o f guidance and / or pei-version is open. The Quran sates; “Wc

showed him the Way: whether he be grateful or ungrateful.” (76:3), The m eaning is

obvious. That i f not aided by prophetic guidance m an’s evil faculties m ight m isguide

him forcing him to be ungrateful to his God.

2 2 8The Truth o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung

t)

Notes & References

*. In this case see: Burtt, Edwin Artluir, The M etaph ysica l F oiim /atioit o f M odern Science,

D over Piiblication,Inc, N ew York, 20 0 3 ,p. 15.

' . Nasr, Syycd Hossein„Zv/«/?; a n d the P ligh t o f M odern M an, l.,ongman Group Ltd, London, 1975,p.6.

Chitlick, W.C., Sachiko Murata, The Vision o f Islam, LB, Tauris Publisher, Ix>ndon, N e w York, 1996, p. 114.

. See; Erich Fromm and Ram oxiraue, The N ature o f Man, tlie M acmillan Com pany, N ew York, Third print, 1971 p.3.

. See : Ibid.. Emile Durkheim French socia l scientist w ho developed a vigorous m ethodology

com bining empirical research with sociological theoi-y. Me is w idely regarded a.s the founder o f the French school o f socio logy .See: Encyclopedia Brilannica. (2003 edition.)

. .lane Paul Sartre was bom on June 21 , 1905, in Paris, France, He died on April 15, 1980, Pari.s. French novelist, pla.VAVright, and exponent o f Existentialism — a phikisophy acclaim ing Ihe freedom o f the individual human being. He was awarded the N obel Prize for Literature in 1964, but he declined if.

See; Lricli 1-rotiuu and Ranioxirauc,ibid..Sec; Ibid, P.3.

. Erich I'romm and Ram oxiraue, .op, cit.p4.

CHAPTER II

Tlie Place of M an in Traditional and Modern Weltanscliaining

• The Place o f M an in Traditional and M odem

W eltanschauung

• The Structure o f Comm unication o f G od and M an, and

its Subordinates

« Modern and Traditional M an

The Place of M an In Traditional and M odern Weltaiiscliaiiiing

As we have mentioned in the last chapter, the nature o f man has a vigorous tendency

towards his Lord in the name o f “Absolute Perfection”. And this name, although, for

every ideas, schools and so on, does not always mean “God,” but the nature o f man

recognizes that and submits h im self to the concept o f “absolute perfection.” And the

prophetic guidance has come to show and guide people as an instance and with

reference to the “Absolute Perfection;” that is why the Prophet came to rem ind, as the

Quran states: “Therefore do thou remind ibr thou art one to rem ind.” (SS;2l) And

rehgions have come to say that there is no “Absolute Perfection” but God. That is

why divine religions are not but they are a remembrance o f what people have in tiieir

nature (a!-Fi}rah), but they ignored the Divine Promise. So that, there is a great

puipose which is clear to the religions by which people, who accept and follow the

prophetic guidance, can fmd their own reality and it is coming back to their divine

nature. In this regard the Quran states;

We did indeed offer the Trust to the Heavens and the Earth and the

Mountains; but they refused to undertake it, being afraid thereof: but

man undertook it; - He was indeed unjust and foolish; - (33:72)

The modern man under the shadow o f humanism neglected all things which the

Divine Message and the prophetic guidance have brought, in this regard the m odern

man supposed that the past is not but useless, so that he denied the heritage o f

incidents and came up with a new idea to make a new world based on his own

imagination. As we explained in the last chapter, man has got the knowledge o f

names o f things, and depending on this feature, he can do both good and evil. M an’s

ability put him in a situation, where he could m ake good or bad use o f things, because

he knows the quality o f using as well as functions o f all things in the world. But

modern man misused this ability and thus failed to achieve proper perfection, as some

traditional thinkers, in the last fifty years have announced that the m ethod o f life o f

modern man will face serious crises. In this regard the writings o f Rene Guenon are

notable.' Ecological and environmental, identical and very complicated crises are the

consequences o f this misusing by man o f his vicegerency on the eartii and

unfortunately it is going to be worse in future. That is because the faculties o f man in

the positive and negative path are infinite. W hile considering above points the

following question and its consequences are proper to note, namely:

Wliat is the plan o f prophetic message saving human beings in the pathway o f

perfection and helping them to be a proper vicegerent o f God? This question, we

think, can be analyzed in two categories which we will try to explain here: (a) what

kind o f relationship exist between man, God and the prophetic message and specially

I mean (in the Islamic tradition as presented in the lladith and the Quran); (b) How

can we explain the relationship between God and man and vicc versa? The last

question brings forth some points which are appropriate to note:

a. The characteristics and possibility o f relationship between man and God and

the plan o f the Quran.

b. The quality of communication o f man with others, its innuence and effects in

the Ih'st kind o f m an’s relationship i.e., his relationship with God.

Hence, we will try to explain three kinds o f relationship in the realm o f m an’s life;

a. The relationship between man and God and vise versa,

b. The relationship between man and the scripture by which we mean tlie

relationship between man and the Quran here and,

c. The relationship between God and the Quran.

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltansciiauung ^

The explanation o f state o f relationship between God and m an is the most significant

concept grasping the essence o f m an which strictly relates to the centric purpose o f

this part namely, anthropological aspects o f modern and traditional weltanschauungs.

To explain this purpose, first o f all, we will try to elaborate some thinker’s viewpoints

and then we will explain om- own views about the communication between God and

mail and its effects.

To explain the plan o f what has been mentioned above, we need to have a clear

perception about God and His effusion in the universe. That is why we tried to draw

the traditional and modem ontology in the last part as an introduction lo this purpose.

But here we need to pay our attention to some other points about the placc o f God in

the Islamic view.

When the Quran has come to bind man to his Origin and to take him toward Ins

perfection, which means traveling toward the way o f God, therefore the concept o f

God reasonably would be the central concept in all the suras o f the Quran, as Izutsu

states: “Allah is the highest 'focus-word' in the Koranic system, which is surj^assed

by no other word in rank and importance. The Weltanschauung o f the Koran is

essentially Tlico centric, and quite naturally in this system the concept o f Allah reigns

over the wliole from above, and exerts a deep inlluence on the semantic structure o f

all tlie key-words.” ' This semantic structure o f verses in the Quran has made a special

place from God in the Islamic world -view .

Another concept which is \'ery important to note is that contrary to the Greek

philosophy, God in Islam deeply involves Himself in human affairs."’ The

communication between God and man and the vise versa, therefore, has entirely a

different meaning from which some other philosophical schools in the West

understood well which later on became the background and the foundation o f

humanistic schools.

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltanschauung

Contraiy to tra d itio n a l view about m an and his r e la t io n s h ip w ith God, the backgT O und

of modern man from gods is totally different. M an in the Greek m ythology re b e lle d

against gods who wanted to destroy his tru th / This background has m ade a sp e c ia l

view in the modem w o rld , and some p h ilo s o p h ic a l schools especially with humanistic

te n d e n c ie s have wanted to release man from gods’ r e s tr ic t io n s and to achieve for him

the re a lm of freedom . In this regard, gods are not b u t only the enemy o f m an’s

fre e d o m which is his natural desire, rebelling against gods, therefore, w o u ld be a

h u m a n is t ic and natural attempt which modern man has done.

But Allah, in its specific meaning in the Quran, is the reference o f love o f man as the

Quran say; “Yet there are men who take (for worship) others besides Allah, as equal (with

Allah); They love tliem as they should love Allah. But those of Faith are overflowing in their

love for Allah. If only the unrighteous could see, behold, they would see the penalty; that to

Allah belongs all power, and Allah will strongly enforce the penalty.” (2: !65) and love in the

Quran and tradition, veiy briefly, is the root, body and the fruit o f believing in God

and, based on the Quranic viewpoint, the destination o f being real believer is the Love

o f God which has been named in the Quranic verse “a sure abode” as the Quran

states:

In a sure abode with a Sovereign Omnipotent.(54:55).

In this regard, based on such as these discrepancies, not only the quality o f

relationship between God and man would be completely different from other schools

and some tiincs other religions which do not put a vigorous stress on the Love o f

God, but also it influences in the meaning o f both the concepts o f God and man.

Every book concentrates on a special concept or some concepts around which other

contents revolve. In fact the main concepts are the soul of a book.

The Quran is a Theo centric book, so there is the highest place for the word Allah in

the Quranic system,^ Finding out and understanding this situation significantly helps

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung 233

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

in understanding the situations other than God and in our current case the situation

and dignity o f man.

It is evident that the word “Allah” was used by the Arabs before Islam but there are

some differences between the concepts o f ‘Allah” in the Quranic system and the Arab

Culture. A Knowledge o f these differences helps us to have a clear perception o f what

Islam means by the concept o f A llah as used in the Quranic verses. The most

important point in the common perception o f Allah among the Arabs before Islam

was paganism which permitted the association o f partners with Allah. Izutsu writes:

Certainly, of all the ‘relational’ elements that had grown around the

concept of Allah in the system of Jahiliyyah, Islam found some quite

erroneous, incompatible with its new religious conception, and it

fought strenuously against them and against those who upheld them.

The chief of those objectionable elements was the idea that Allah,

although admittedly the supreme God, allowed of the existence of

so-callcd "associates" shuraka' besides Him.*’

As I have pointed out in the last part (Traditional Ontology) the Quran accords the

highest position to Allah among related concepts. This position includes the beautiful

names by which Allah becomes much more clear in the minds. That is w hy the

essence o f God is not understandable or is beyond the abilities o f m an’s mind. There

arc ninety nine beautiful names Allah by which people can contact with Him. These

beautiful names are the path o f perfection, because Allah has ordered people to

achieve these names and try to becom e the manifestation o f these beautiful names in

the mould o f human abilities. Allah, therefore, is the destination o f all efforts o f

believers as well as He is their Origin. When Allah says to the believers that he gave

the Prophet as your own exemplar on one hand and, the prophet is the perfect

manifestation of God’s name on the other. He wants people to achieve the highest

position which a creature can do. The foundation o f human dignity in Islam and such

fine concepts have been moulded in the frame o f being a manifestation o f God.

As far as the objective o f the present chapter is concern, the studying the nam es o f

Allah is important because the names o f Allah, in fact, are the bridge of

understandable relationship between God and man. As the Quran states the way of

calling God is to read His beautifiil names which God H im self has amiounced to the

people. The Quran says: “The most beautiful names belong to Allah: so call on him

by them ..... ” (7:180) So, a special kind o f communication is established which has

three angles God as the absolute perfection, the Quran as the manifestation o f God to

His servants and, the perfect man as the manifestation o f both o f them. We

comprehensively elaborate these three angles according to our own view point in the

subsequent pages.

The concept o f “god” as used in the Quran can help us to have a better understanding

o f the essence o f human being. The word ‘god’ has been used in two different

meanings i.e., positive and negative ones.^ The main and central m essage o f all

prophets, as I have mentioned, is the Unity o f God (lawhid). The word ‘god ’ in the

Quran includes a vast meaning, from which all kinds o f ilah (gods) in the m eaning o f

shirk (to aKsociate partners with God) have been excluded. The concept o f ilah forms

tile Quran’s viewpoint which is broadly than its primary meaning. The concept o f

ilah in the Quran has both a temporal and celestial meaning.

The first message o f Islam which the Prophet o f Islam stressed on, was the motto o f

tawhid : “There is no god but God”. Or in the verses in which the Quran Frequently

used the term ‘god” both in positive and negative senses; for instance in som e verses

the Quran states:

....ibr lliere is no god except one God”. (5:73), “But your God is one

God. Submit then your wills to Him (in Islam).... (22:34).

But what relates to our objective is : “god” {ilah) is not always as “ some thing out

there some thing up in heaven” .

n o rThe Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltansdiauung

The Quranic verses use the word ilah in its vast meaning; for instance the Quran

states:

Then seest thou such a one as takes as his god his own vain desire?

(45:23)

In the Quranic verses every thing which is worshiped or served and that which

causes the neglect o f God is ilah, or you can say the obstacle in worshiping God and

finally, the obstacle in real perfection. The Quran vehemently stigmatizes those who

worship their own inclinations or they love some thing as God, The Quran says: “Yet

there are men who take (for worship) others besides Allah, as equal (with Allah);

They love them as they should love Allah. But those o f Faith are overflowing in their

love for Allah. If only the unrighteous could see, behold, they would see the penalty:

that to Allah belongs all power, and Allah will strongly enforce the penalty. (2; 165) As

far as this subject is concerned: the truth o f man, we can say that man tends towards

Absolute perfection, but some times he can not recognize what clearly is god and

what clearly is God. That is why Muslim thinkers emphasize that there is only one

confident way of understanding God (Allah) - not philosophical and very

complicated mystical terms like the Absolute Existence etc.

As some thinkers'^ have explained that the recognition o f people is impossible unless

they introduce themselves, and “people we can see and touch but God lies beyond the

range o f our vision.” Understanding o f God - not verification and proof o f His

existence, therefore, would be possible only though God’s message which has been

descended to the prophets. There is a point here which should be noted.

The meaning o f this statement which says that the only way for recognition o f God is

His own message does not mean that without revelation we can not confirm the

existence o f God but what I mean here is the recognition o f the Qualities o f God as

7 1 7The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

such not a philosophical subject, such as the Absolute Existence, i f so, and the way o f

perfection o f man, based on religious messages, depends on the knowing o f God we

can say there is an important plan has been drawn by the religious messages. God has

been effiised (tajala Allah) to people in His book i.e., in the Quran.

As I have briefly mentioned, the reality o f God lies in the heart o f Islamic texts

especially the in heart o f the Quran. God has been explained as “the One, the

Absolute and the Infinite, the infmitely Good and All-Merciful.

God in the Islamic doctrine is the Origin and End o f all things. This content has a

special meaning which makes the Weltanschauung o f man in his life. This content,

therefore, includes a transcendental concept which can be ascribed to God. So that, in

the Weltanschauung o f Islam, and based on the Quranic verses, He is the Supreme

Reality.'®

As far as the anthropological studies are concerned there arc some significant notes,

whose consequences relate with the dignity o f man and his place in the world from

traditional viewpoint;

a) God is the Central Reality o f Islamic texts. It means all other concepts

revolve around which by far is the most significant axis.

b) Meaning and / or meaninglessness o f m an’s assumptions based on

Islamic teachings absolutely depend on the satisfaction o f God.

c) Two points, that w e mentioned above, help in drawing this iinportant

and vital conclusion that God in the traditional idea and specially in

Islamic thoughts, contraiy to the modern idea, is the Ultim ate and the

Final criterion and God, therefore, is the m easure o f all things. T hat’s

because God is the Absolute, Transcendent, Infinite, and has the

beautiful and m ajestic characteristics and qualities which give the

meaning and existence to every thing in the universe.

OIQThe Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltanschauung

l l ie conclusions which we have reached at in the last part namely,

Ontological Discussions, have showed that the existent things o f the

universe, willing or unwilling are His servant and, in fact, there is no

real and independent existence but that o f God, and everything other

than God is not but His manifestation,

d) !n this way the distinction betv^een the m easure o f modern and

traditional viewpoints would become clear,

hi the traditional view man is not but, in general, the sign and m anifestation o f God

and, particularly, a bridge between Heaven and earth. He is the vicegerent o f God and

that’s why he has been taught the names and he became the one before whom

prostrated the angles. In this meaning man, therefore, became the m easure o f all

things but his being as a measure is not but by God’s will so that every kind o f

Legislations o f man’s life must go back to God. In the final conclusion o f this

discussion about traditional man we can say that if man takes his ideas, based on

Heaven and its Rules and goes back to the Origin o f all things, the angels will

prostrate before him.

IIT he Structure of Com m unication of God and Man and its Subord ina tes

In the preceding pages wc discussed communication between God and m an and vise

versa and reached at the following conclusions;

a) Tendency or inclination o f human being toward God and having relationship

with his Lord arise from his celestial nature {f'i(ral Allah).

b) The tendency or inclination o f man toward worship and having relationship

with his Lord arise from the tendency o f man toward the (Absolute) perfection

as his natural desire.

c) Understanding o f the m eaning and the essence o f relationship between m an

and God would help in understanding the place and essence o f man.

d) Explanation o f the relationship between man and God helps the plan and map

o f the prophetic messages about the pathway of m an’s perfection.

c) In the exact meaning, explanation o f relationship between man and God helps

to clarify the place o f God, the scripture and man, and helps in planning or

describing the religious systems which God has created.

The purpose o f the following discourse is to help us in having a meaningful scheme

o f the religions which have been descended by God and finally, we would discuss

about the subject o f relationship between God and m an and its link with the

Weltanschauung. The world-view is a mould that people understand, explain and

work in its frame. Hence, finding out the relationship between God and man in a

special religion or in its frame helps to understanding the religion which we have

been discussing.

In this regard and with consideration o f above points, the following points are

appropriate to note:

What kinds o f relationships between God and man are probable?

What are the ingredients o f communication between man and God?

Some thinkers" have divided two chief types o f mutual ‘understanding’ between man

and God: (a) verbal the instrument o f which is the language o f human being and, (b)

is non-verbal the instrument o f which is the signs o f God in the nature. In these two

kinds o f relationship the creativeness belongs to God and in this kind o f relationship

the work o f man in front o f God essentially is a reaction to God’s creativeness.

The Quran has named these two kinds o f relationship in the mould o f ‘sign” {ayah).

As far as the conccpt o f communication between God and man is concerned, a

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weitan.schaimng

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltanschauung

clarification o f m an’s place in the cosmos is an important pathway o f know ing the

essence o f man.

Descending o f signs from God clarifies that God would like to m ake a special

Weltanschauung to human beings; then based on H is dispensation every tiling in the

world which has been created performs a special role to show that the order o f the

world has got a vigorous purpose, and man also in the universe is a purposive

existence. The outlook o f the Heavenly scriptures, in general, and the Quran, in

particular, about natural phenomenona is entirely different from the scientific studies

of the m odem era. When the Quran explains the natural phenomenona and introduces

them to the human beings it wishes to explain the sings o f God instead o f introducing

pure natural phenomena. From the above points, therefore, clear that God wants to

interfere with people’s work, and wants to have various v/ay o f relationship with

people to guide them to their proper end. That is why the scriptures, in general, and

the Quran, in particular, discuss the natural phenomenona. In this regard the place o f

man in the frame o f the universe is significant; he is the subject o f the act o f knowing.

This important point clarifies that other creatures are objectives. The place o f

subjectivity and objectivity distinguishes the place and importance o f creatures and

the level o f their existence in the cosmos. There is no subject o f knowledge among

creatures but human being, and the verses about the creation o f m an and his

vicegerency in the Quran explain this significant place to human being. Knowing the

names o f things is not but for clarification o f m an’s high position among other

creatures.

In this regard natural phenomenona have two effects in the universe and play two

kinds o f roles as G od’s signs; (a) The order o f the universe depends on som e circles

and, God manages the order o f the universe by the instruments, for instance, being a

regular system in the nature depends on some instruments. In this w'ay, rain, w ind,

stonri, earthquake and so on are the instruments o f natural order on the one hand and.

(b) they are the signs o f m an’s guidance toward his pathway o f salvation on the other.

The Quran therefore, wants to gravitate our attention to the natural phenom enona

with a view to finding the way, and finding out the meaningfulness o f the universe

and the relationship between phenomena and making a regular Weltanschauung.

That’s why the Quran has chosen the term sign {ayah) to the natural phenomena.

They are, in fact, the syinbols and mystery or signs o f this pathway. In the final

analysis o f this point we can say that God has manifested in the universe and looking

at the universe and phenomena (signs o f God) can show us the manifestation o f God.

The cosmos, therefore, in its each side is towards God. The Quran states:

To Allah belong the East and the West: Whithersoever ye turn, there

is Allah’s Face...(2:115)

from this standpoint, we understand that the universe is the face o f God and

immediately we find out ourselves in a special structure o f the cosmos which we can

understand supposing that we are in the presence o f God.

The sceond form of communication between God and man is the Revelation which is

named by some th in k e r s a s the verbal communication. The relationship between

God and man has two aspects: (a) from God towards man and, (b) from man towards

God.

According to Islamic concepts, descending o f the Revelation was one o f the most

important points to bring religion among human beings. And as far as the purpose o f

this chapter is concerned understanding o f man and its place in the universe relates to

the understanding o f the meaning o f G od’s Oral relationship with man.

In this regard a focus on some tenns would be useful but they are outside the main

purpose o f this thesis.

Prof. Izutsu has paid his attention to the structure o f Revelation in the Quran which is

appropriate to note here. Izutsu* ' has suggested a frame in which the communication

The Place of'Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanscliauung

The Place o f M an in Traditional and M odern W eltanschauung 2 4 2

between man and God explains in the mould o f importance o f m an among other

creatures that that’s because the Quran puts the concept o f man in the relationship o f

God but another existence has no such situation. Izutsu tries to show that after the

concept o f God in the Quran there is none as important as the concept o f man, and

other concepts in the Quran, in fact, have the role o f instruments for m an’s guidance.

Other creatures, therefore, are the signs in this pathway, so that there is only one

creature which is the subject o f the guidance. In the suggested plan o f Izutsu man

exclusively has got the attributes o f G od.’'*

Ghayb

Shahadah

In the fmal analysis we pay our attention to the place o f man in the cosmos. With

regard lo the last points it becam e clear that God is in the highest meaning o f

perfection which is the Ultim ate End o f all creatures and also He is the Ultim ate

Source o f the existing things in the world. The ultimate perfection o f man, therefore,

is to find “the straight way” toward his Lord. But the way o f knowing the E.ssence o f

God, to some reasons, is closed on human beings. Some o f them were discussed in

the ontological aspects o f traditional viewpoint, i.e. the lim itation o f mental abilities

o f man on one hand and, the Infinite Essence o f God on the other, are the m ain

reasons because o f which people cannot perceive the Essence o f God. As we have

already mentioned, the one possible way o f knowing o f God is His self-introduction.

This fom i has been revealed in the mould o f scriptures, but its more explicit fonn is

the Quran. Basing on some traditions {the Hadiths) God has manifested in the verses

o f Quran to the human beings. Imam §adiq states: “Indeed, Allah has manifested to

his creatures in His speech, but they do not know.”

The third angle o f the coinmunication between man and God is the perfect man, but

in this frame man is not but the same manifestation o f G od’s qualities and attributes

on the earth with the name o f vicegerent (khalifatol allali) or caliph o f God or to be

tlie vicegerent o f God in its perfect meaning In this m eaning the perfect man (al-hisan

al-Kainil) on one hand is tl)e manifestation o f God or the manifestation of G od’s

verses among people and, the Quran is the confirmation and instance o f verses among

people, on the other side the Quran also is the scheme of the perfect man.

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung ^43

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltanschauung 2 4 4

The P erfec t M an

(As tiie nuinifeslation o f

G od, the Q uran and the

v icegeren t o f God)

God

(A s th e incarnate o f U ltim ate P erfection)

(As the m an ifesta tio n o f

G od to the H um an beings,

and the sc h em e o f the P refect m an )

l-'icurL' 2

As we explained in the figure 1, there are mutual relationships between the

ingredients of the map of communication between God and man.

hi sum, there are some significant consequences;

This plan clearly explains the quality of relationship o f man with God and

ileaveniy message.

Despite the philosophical school and according to divine religious teachings

God is not an existence beyond the reach o f man. Having relationship with

God in this Frame is simply explained.

Basing on this scheme, to be exemplar becomes clear. God. in the Islamic

thought is the highest exemplai' for every Muslim. The Beautiful {Jama!) and

K4ajesty (Jatal) Names o f Allah, in fact, are the exempku' o f m an 's life.

The relationship o f man with the Quran and vise versa, are one o f the central

points in the Islamic teachings. Contrary to Muslim customs which many of

us use to read the Quran for our own ceremonies, wedding and so on, the

Quran is the book o f life and it has been descended to people to take them to

the pathway o f salvation. This schem e shows that how this kind o f

relationship would be possible.

The role o f the Quran also becomes clearer than the other inteipretation

regarding the place o f this great book. Every philosophical hum anistic and

that sorts o f thought- schools claimed that their program was the best one in

order enable people to achieve their proper life style. M ethodologically, a

study o f these claims is not possible but with considering the coincidence o f

their claims and what they thought based on their suggestion. This schem e

clearly elaborates that the Quran is not merely a claim without individual and

social consequences. People who are educated in the light o f the Quran and

they actually have been some great exemplars for the life o f hum an being over

the ages. People such as the Prophet o f Islam, Imam Ali and Imam Hossein

not only are the exemplars o f Muslims, but also tliey are exemplars o f

everybody in the world who likes justice, enlightenment and real freedom.

There arc some notable examples through which non-M uslims follow the

method o f Imam Hossein to grasp the freedom.

F'inaily, to be a pcrfect man is not a dream which some philosophical schools

claimcd. Fiasing on the Quranic teachings the perfect man is existent in every

time and the most perfect men arc prophets and, in the Shi’a viewpoint he,

after the Prophet, is Imam. I'he perfect man cannot be without a proper

program. The Quran is the program o f the perfect man and the Prophet o f

Islam was not but the manifestation o f the verses o f the Quran. Now, in sum,

from the above points it is clear that God has manifested in the Quran for

people and, the perfect man is the manifestation o f the verses o f the Quran.

Hence, the final result is the perfect man is the manifestation o f all attnbutes

o f God in the mould o f human being’s faculties. It is, therefore, true to say

The Place o fM an in 'I'raditional and Modem Weltanschauung

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltanschauung 246

that the perfect man is a small model o f Absolute Perfection. The final result

has been shown in the figure 3 in the ginen below.

The invitation of religion

The feed backo f people and

itsconsequences

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

III

M odern and traditional M an

The concept o f God’s vicegerent, therefore, is the central concept for understanding

the cssence o f traditional man. In this regard we will try to show two interrelated

points which help us to grasp the idea as well as the characteristics o f traditional man.

These two significant points are (a) Approaches o f traditional man and their logical

consequences and, (b) the quality o f relationship between man and God. We think

that explanation o f this kind o f relationship will be related with three other subjects

i.e., m an and other people, man and other creatures in the world other than men and,

man and God’s message which has been revealed in the fonn o f scripture. In this

specific situation I will try to explain relationship between man and the Quran.

Man and Traditional Point of View

According to the modern view, which is based on the Greek mythology, man has

rebelled against gods because they wanted to prevent m an from achieving freedom

and knowledge. Contraiy to it, the traditional man has played an important role

among crcatures and instated o f rebelling against Heaven, he has acted as the vice

gerent o f God and his position gives him a special situation in which he is the

reflection o f the celestial source. This position also confers on him a significimt

responsibility by which he tries to achieve the center, so that all o f his efforts, actions

and even intents revolve around the center which he belongs to. This kind o f

Weltanschauung helps him to have a great purpose in his life and relieves him of so

many crises which modern the man has encountered, - the crisis o f identity in the

world and so on, for instance.

Another characteristic o f traditional man is his awareness o f the Origin. This

awareness has got so many significant and effective roles in his life. He knows that

the universe has a quiddity and its nature is dependent on Heaven, as the Quran states:

“To Allah we belong, and to Him is our return.”(2:l58) The special Weltanschauung

makes a special approach by which traditional man tries to fulfill his responsibilities

in the world as a God’s vicegerent. That is because m an’s great position in the world

depends on fuliilling responsibilities which are his due because o f his great position

as G od’s vicegerent, a position that the modern man has misused. There is an

important point which the m odern man despite o f traditional man do not have

attended to that, that is m isusing o f the abilities which have been given to man as

God’s vicegerent. It is evident that each abihty has got a proper responsibility but he

has gone as troy because o f which severe crises have arisen, which even the great

philosophical schools are unable to solve. And these are the problems that the m odem

man him self has e x te n d e d .B u t o f a man takes note o f his great position, it makes

him a responsible person which is not true about other things in his environment.

But the position o f vicegercncy itself depends on the serviceAvorship. The way o f

perfection the perfect fonn o f which is being G od’s vicegerent in its special m eaning

passes through the way o f service/worship, A Muslim must remember this important

concept in his everyday payer when he says in the end o f his prayers that 1 attest that

there is no god but God and Mohammad (peace be upon him) is his sen 'ant and his

prophet. From a M uslim ’s point o f view the way o f perfection, based on this

sentence, passes through service/worship.

As mentioned already, prophecy is the explicit fonn o f G od’s vicegerency on the

earth and the prophets were his vicegerent and all o f them without any e.\ception were

His sen'ants. Accepting the position o f being this servant has got its own effects, we

showed its foundations in our last discussion i.e., “Traditional Ontology” . And we

have discussed that the spirit o f service/worship is the understanding o f this important

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

concept that there is no god but God or in the philosophical meaning every thing

other than God absolutely depends on G od’s existence and, thei'e are no such thiiig as

“independence”. The nature o f the world and creatures, therefore, based on traditional

ontology that makes the mould o f traditional m an’s thought, is to understand this

significant meaning i.e., “dependence.”

M odem man faced great problems when he lost this concept in his life and he

thought (hat rebelling against Heaven would free o f him the chains which restrict him

from having a desirable life. However, with the passage o f tim e it has been proved

that the modem m an’s assumptions were wrong. Tradition, in its special m eaning i.e.,

the rules which come from Heaven to bind man to his Origin, teaches people to know

one important point that is; to imagine independence for a moment which is equal to

falling from the place o f human being which God has respected. That is why to

prostrate is the best action o f a servant in the eye o f Allah from an Islamic point o f

view, and a hadith says that the servant is in the nearest situation to Allah when he

prostrate to Him. That is because man, in this situation, confesses to his absolute need

and, it means there is an Absolute Independent Existence on the one hand and, people

have to go to the path which He shows through His prophets on the other. There are

other ethical and social effects which are not related to our present discourse. In

sum, finding the appropriate place o f man relates to finding what people m ust do until

they achieve the place o f vicegerency o f God, without which the abilities o f

vicegerency are not but the causes o f destruction instead o f salvation. Ail kinds o f

traditions have emphasized this concept which has been mentioned above.

In this regard Nasr also writes:

P rom ethean m an, on the con tra ry , is a creatu re o f th is w orld. H e feels at hom e on

earth , earth not considered as th e v irg in natu re w hich is itse lf an echo o f parad ise ,

but as the artificial w orld created by P rom ethean m an liim se li 'in o rd er to m ake it

possib le for him to forget G od and his ow n inner reality . Such a m an envisages life

as a big m arketp lace in w hich he is free to roam around and choose o b je c ts at w ill.

The Place o fM an in Traditional and Modern Weltanschauung 249

Having lost the sense of the sacred, he is drowned in transience and impermanence

and becomes a slave of his own lower nature, suirender to which he considers to be

freedom. He follows passively the downward flow of the cycle of human history in

which he takes pride by claiming that in doing so he has created his own destiny.

But still being man, he has nostalgia for the Sacred and the Eternal and thus turns to

a thousand and one ways to satisfy this need, ways ranging from psychological

novels to dmg-induced mysticism.'®

If we cornc back to the verses which we quoted and discussed about man and his

vicegerency we would clearly see that the bloodshed o f man and his decay are not

negation o f God’s design, when God said I will create a vicegerent on earth, His

angles asked will you place therein one who will make m ischief therein and

bloodshed? Because it is like having vicegerent’s abilities without doing its related

responsibility which is the cause o f m ischief and blood shed on the earth. And the

way o f doing the responsibility o f vicegerency is service and worship.

Traditional man, contrary to m odem man, has a special view about other creatures

and his environment. Basing on the teachings o f Heaven, traditional m an sees the

other creatures and the environment which are around as the signs o f God and “as an

echo of paradise.” Usage o f them, therefore, is possible but under a special

circumstances. These circumstances depend on the prophctic messages which make a

special fonn of facing and living with people in the world. There are a lot o f instances

from Islamic jurisprudence. For instance, hunting animals for fun is seriously

prohibited or the extravagance and destroying the nature are the great sins which

Islam has criticized. This approach shows that man is not entirely free from his

responsibility towards environinent because all o f creatures arc the signs o f God and

as we mentioned above, the sign is the instrument o f m an’s guidance towards His

perfection. As the Quran says;

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

-Behold! in the creation of ttie heavens and the earth; in the

alternation of the night and the day; in the sailing o f the ships

through the ocean for tlie profit of mankind; in the rain which Allah

sends down from the skies, and the life which He gives therewith to

an earth that is dead; in the beasts of all kinds that He scatters

through the earth; in the change of the winds, and the clouds which

they trail like their slaves between the sky and the earth;- (Here)

indeed are Signs for a people that are wise. (2; 164)

-Behold! in the c rea tio n o f th e heavens and th e earth , and th e

alternation o f n igh t an d day,- the re are indeed S igns for m en o f

understanding,-(3; 190)

The artificial world, which has been creatcd by modem man, does not help him to

understand the world as a sign, because it has been made basing on a special approach

and M^eltanschauung.

The social effects o f that kind o f W eltanschauung are vei"y effective in various aspects

of hum an being’s life. It is clear that one o f the complicated and serious crises o f

m odern m an is the crisis o f environment. As we mentioned above, and as far as the

life o f traditional man and his W eltanschauung are concerned, the environmental and

some o ther crises which the m odem man has faced with arc not but rooted in the

essential problem which we have repeatedly mentioned at various places in this

thesis. This essential problem, in other words, is replacing the m easure of

measurement o f what is true or false in the human life. In fact the modern man saw

him self as the reflection o f man qua man instead o f seeing man “as being h im self the

total and plenary reflection o f all those Divine Qualities whose reflections, in

scattered and segmented fashion, comprise the manifested orders.” ' ’

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung ^

This important problem started professionally after seventeenth century when the

West began to bring about the scientific revolution. In this centuty as well as in

eighteenth and nineteenth centuries scientific endeavours isolated man from his own

truth. Anthropological studies especially in the eighteenth century have insistently

focused on the subject which show that man is not but a product o f evoluation o f the

nature without having a celestial end and, he found him self alien in this world,

whereas traditional knowledge impels man to know that he is not but the

manifestation o f the cosmos^*^ before its creation. The story o f Adam in the Quran

says this reality which we mentioned during analysis o f the story o f creation o f man

and his learning the names o f things.

In this regard some philosophers, sociologists and psychologists em ulate the process

of scientism. This process put the modern studies o f man in the sphere o f positivism.

There are some important examples considenng the process o f separating man from

his Origin and to say there is not any sacred knowledge by which m an can achieve his

proper perfection. Analysis o f all aspects o f human life in the moiild o f natural events

was one o f the widespread scientific efforts during the seventeenth up to the middle

of the twentieth centuries. The conclusion o f such efforts was not but the

secularization o f the Hfe o f m odern man. “ Auguste Comte (1798-1858) who simply

reversed the traditional rapport between the study o f Dens, homo and natiira in

creating his famous three stage theory o f human progress which is based on the total

misunderstanding o f the nature o f man and is a parody o f traditional doctrines

concerning human existence on earth.”

Contrary to modem man whose purpose o f life exclusively relates to the terrestrial

world and, whose responsibility has been made by his own measures, and his

morality depends on his benefits, the responsibility o f traditional m an comes fi-om

Heaven and the primordial Trust which the Quran has stressed in the following verse;

9 S 7The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltanschauung

TCIThe Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

W e did indeed o ffe r th e T ru s t to the H eavens an d the E arth and th e

M ountains; bu t th ey re fu sed to undertake it, being afraid thereof: b u t

m an undertook it;- H e w as indeed un just and foolish ;- (33:72)

Traditional man feels him self and his situation as a creature that lives on the earth but

he remains in touch with Heaven and lives in both spiritual and material moulds.^^

Man instead o f being the product o f evolution and the peer o f other creatures, is the

reflection o f the Divine Empyrean which has taught the names o f creatures tliat

enabled him to be supeiior to other creatures.

The position of man as being in two aspects i.e., the terrestrial and celestial ones,

shows that when he lives among other creatures and has a relationship with them, he

is clearly separate from them and has a special place that depends on his spiritual

aspect which is ensured by tradition.^^

Personality of traditional man, therefore, evolves in such on atmosphere; hence the

traditional man, contrary to the modern man, takes his measures from the Heaven and

dispensation which God has designated for the world and for all creatures. This

reality and the difference between modern and traditional man has becorne the factor

of two totally different weltanschauungs. What is important here is that these

different weltanschauungs need different treasures; traditional man has taken this

measure from Heaven and the prophetic messages and, modern man from what he has

made with his own hands. But making a new measure is not possible until the

previous measures are destroyed. The roots o f destroying m an’s place as the

vicegerent o f God and turning him into a turbulent man can be traced back to the late

middle ages. Nasr claims that the stages o f this point relate to the notion o f

Aristotlelianization o f Western thought in the thirteenth century which is identified by

some with AveiTOes. He says that the result of this idea was “the naturalization o f

Christian man as a well-contented citizen o f this world.

That’s why modem man initially tries, first o f all, to disconnect with Heaven and calls

the message o f Heaven as m an’s imagination which arises irom his childish thought

that m ust be abandoned after maturity. The measure o f m aturity was science. When

modern man started to make this measure he needed to get free o f the idea which

traditional man had lived with. As in the whole o f this chapter we have m entioned

that belief God, as the Center o f the universe and the Origin o f the cosmos or what is

the so-called “other than God”, provides a special measure for every aspect o f life.

To announce the death o f God was the first and the m ost necessary condition for

making modem civilization as “measurement which some philosophers like

Nietzsche^' have completed. W hat is meant by ‘the death o f G od’ when m odern man

announced it? To have reasonable answer to this important question we need to

understand what are the personal and social effects o f believing in God? Or in other

words we can ask what is meant by living with or without believing in God and what

are the effects o f this idea? But, before answering these sorts o f questions, it is

necessaiy to say that whether we accept the idea o f God or not, we need to make

measui'es o f life for what we want to the measurement. That is why modern man

thought he improved when he replaced God and m an’s situation and got released

him self from the Heaven and the prophetic messages, but with this sordid mind

immediately he fell into the dark well o f scientism when he put the sciences in the

place o f God for making measures o f life and he him self thus became the measure o f

all things.

In this regard Max Weber in his famous book; The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit o f

the Capitalism, announces the consequences o f this replacing in the m odem world

and, says that nobody knows who will live in this cage in the future and whether we

would iace with the appearance o f new prophets or with a great renaissance and

rebirth o f new ideas and ancient wishes. He stresses that in any case, about the ‘Last

human beings’ o f this cultural evolution we can say that they are specialists devoid o f

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

Spirit and, are hedonists lacking heart. This nihilism conceives o f achieving a level o f

humanity which nobody ever did. The main problem which W eber stresses is: the

problem o f loosing the m easure o f ethics because o f which the m odern m an in is

involved in the scandals. Unfortunately the tragedy is when the thinkers the

developing countries want to have some solution for some problems o f their own

societies they go to the path which the W est has treaded and encounter with

unsolvable crises. And faced with such crises and problems in his life the modem

man has now turned to “a thousand and one ways to satisfy this need, ways ranging from

psychological novels to drug-induced mysticism.” ; in the words o f Nasr.

But there is one important point which traditionalists should seriously think about.

l.oolcing for difficulties and problems of a system like the modern one and so on,

which are destroying the vital symbols o f human nature and impel them to unsolvable

problems are very vital and emergency needs o f the contemporary world. Nobody

thus denies the necessity o f this important duty which is thinkers’ humanistic and

divine responsibilities; but it is the half o f traditionalists’ responsibility and their

duties. That would be very important to have practical suggestions for the

contemporary life with its every day needs which people face. Unfortunately to say

that “the modem life necessarily is not the best form o f life” or to have general and

subtle suggestions or even introduction o f the foundation and sweet traits o f the pure

traditions such as Islam and others are not enough for finding the pathway o f m an’s

life. Modernism has a serious presence in the contemporary world and it is also

seriously involved with various aspects o f contemporary life on the one hand and, as

some traditional have thinkers stated that being traditional is not to be a believer with

modem aspects o f life because they are not compatible, on the other. The

weltanschauungs o f these two forms o f life are fundamentally different, and their

results and consequences, therefore, arc entirely incompatible with each other.

Majority o f works which we have referred to being traditional in their deep meaning

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung

which we have explained in the second chapter o f first part, are fundam ental studies

and practically have no serious suggestions for every day life. Exactly it is not clear

what does it mean to be traditional? O f course its meaning, its aspects and

foundations not only are clear, but also are strictly true, but it is not our question; our

question is what is meant by the fonn o f life or the forni o f governm ent which

traditional man want to live in? That is because without having a m ultilateral system

of life, having a life based on some philosophical, theological and even ethical

suggestions and analyses would be a motto which people desire but they cannot use

them. Or these sorts o f analyses would be like a very useful and nutrient food or vital

medicine for a seek person which he cannot consume, however.

Making the new and proper measurement with the new situation o f m an after the

Renaissance had some preconditions and the most important and the first

precondition was secularization which indeed was desacralization o f all aspects o f

societies under the shadow of scientism. In sum, sciences in the m odem tim e have

come to replace God, and have made the measures of true and false am ong human

beings. There is another point that some thinkers have pointed out."‘‘

These sorts of thinkers claim that the main thing which changed after the Renaissance

was the replacing o f man’s situation from the circuit to the center and man became

“the measure o f all things” From Descartes whose famous claim w'as “ I think,

therefore, 1 am.” up to Kant, the modern man has wanted to say that there is nothing

but “I”, and therefore there is no measure but me. The central message o f humanism

is not but replacing o f God by man in the world and becoming “ the m easure o f all

things”. And in sum, he forgot and neglected the real place o f himself, as well as the

world and earth. Hence, he got involved in the crisis o f identity. The idea o f “ the

death o f God”, therefore, in its exact meaning had no m ore importance than this news

‘the death o f Absolute M easure’ among people. The announcement o f ‘death o f the

Ahsokite Measure’ was not but in the imagination o f modern m an and, not in the

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanscliauung

reality. That is why, day by day, the modem man got involved in the crises which

have cropped up because o f lack o f the ‘Real M easure’ among people in the modern

society. Henceforth, even if the modern man wants to worship God, or to take care of

human rights, right o f animals and environment, he sees them by his own measure,

and he misuses other creatures, environment and even other people in the non-modem

societies for the sake of his own desires, hideed he thinks he has becom e the center o f

the universe and he can do eveiy thing that he desires. Misusing o f other people and

other creatures, making environmental crises and destroying their faculties are the

signs o f this misunderstanding and misinterpretation i.e., being a man who wants to

be “the measure of all things.”

One important and notable question thus arises regarding the effects o f modern m an’s

Weltanschauung, namely: what are the effects o f disbelief in o f God in the W estern-

secularized societies after the Renaissance? Exact analysis o f to this significant

question needs some introductions and explanations o f some conditions in which

modem man lives and thinks about the world and about himself. This explanation

needs to aq separate investigation, but we will try to show concisely that the effects or

the consequences of modem m an’s commentary on the world and especially on man.

Before replying to the question which we mentioned above, it would be necessary to

pay our attention to the definition o f man in the various philosophical schools.

There are a lot of definitions o f man by which thinkers tried to show the truth o f man.

Some o f which define and some others want to show the m ost important

characteristic o f this complicated existence which God has created.

Many thinkers and philosophers define man as a rational being, some said that such a

definition seemed unquestionable and was self-evident before the discovery of m an’s

profound irrationality which, although seen by Plato, the Greek dramatists, Dante,

Shakespeare, Dostoevsky and many others, may be rational, but the question, what is

the weight and what arc the cause o f this irrationality, remains.” Some have defined

The Place o f Man in I'raditional and Modem Weltanschauung

man as a social being and other definition of man is that he is home fa b er or;, man is

the animal that can produce - Fromme explains the idea o f Marx about difference

between the production o f animals and human beings. But what are the differences

between m an’s and anim als’ productions? Marx differentiated between two kinds o f

productions. He pointed out that “the animal produces according to an instinctively

built in pattern: man produces according to a plan he involves in his mind before hand

Another point is man is a tool making produce. Finally there is the idea o f E.

Cassierer and the philosophers o f symbolic forms. Man is a symbol m aking animal

and the most important symbol he has created is the word.^^

Irrespective of the variety and differences in philosophical schools, all o f them have

stressed on one common point: man distinguishes form other creatures with his

special ability, namely: the reason. The central point o f the answer o f the question

which has been mentioned above, depends upon this significant characteristic.

Physically, man is the only creature who is the straight forward existence among

other creatures. The form of body o f man has been designated based on the forms o f

liis ideal truth. The figure o f ideal man, based on traditional w ould-view . is putting

his intellectuality in tlie high position and natural abilities under that. Symbolically,

according to man’s divine figure, all of m an’s abilities and faculties should be under

the supervision of man’s reason and his intellectual ability. There are, therefore, two

significant points which are proper to note (a) the body o f man naturally and based on

his divine creation, is beautiful and well-shaped, and (b) the spirit o f man should

designate and shape with m an’s free will depending on the prophetic message.

The equilibrium o f man is that his inner characteristics, which are designated by his

free will men which should be like his body’s form i.e., man must put his reason and

intellect and other natural abilities in the highest level o f importance, was under its

(intellect) supervision. Traditional texts have stressed on this meaning and man

should efforts to grasp this important end, i.e. to make his inner figure like his own

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

? SQ

body’s designation which is crystallized by God in the most beautiful figure. W hen

the M uslim sages say the Quran is the book o f human designation they m ean the

Quran’s rules are based on G od’s guidance on one hand, and the verses are based on

the figure o f perfect man on the other, as we described in the mould o f figure 2 and 3

in the preceding pages. The verses if be followed, explain that the inner figure o f m an

would be like his outward form which God designated in the equilibrium position.

Now, with above descriptions, what did the m odem W eltanschauung has with

personality and identification o f man? To reply this question are needs another

important introduction to find the essential answer to our first question. The western

civilization has been based on some fundamental factors: To find a clear perception

from modern m an’s understanding o f the characteristics o f modern societies would be

necessary. Without doubt there is a strong relationship between m odernity and

industrialization. Krishan Kumar writes:

M odern society is industria l society. T o m odern ize a soc ie ty is, first o f

all, to industrialize it. H istorically , th e rise o f m odern soc ie ty lias been

inextricably linked w ith the em ergence o f industrial society. A ll the

features that are associa ted w ith m odern ity can be show n to be re la ted

to Ihc set o f changes that, no m ore than tw o centuries ago, brtiught into

being the industrial tj'i^e o f society.^®

Even if the process oi" modernization started with or related to industrialization, its

effects influenced the nature o f man and changed his idea bout Heaven and especially

about man. The notion o f modernity is not merely changing in the surface o f social

relationship but it was changing in the foundations o f the thought o f the ways o f

grasping knowledge and its possibility, the meaning o f cosmos and, even limitations

o f the presence o f God in the human life, and finally it was a fonxi o f thinking about

the meaning o f man, as a new existence in the world who is the m easure o f all things.

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modern Weltiinschauung

W e will try to show how the concept o f modernity changed the reality o f m an after

the Renaissance. W e think the concept o f industrialization is the central point for

understanding the nature o f m odern man bccause it is more than the changing o f

surface o f the societies, and industrialization concerns all kinds o f social aspects so

that, it relates with individual aspects o f m an’s life. In this regard specialists o f

modem societies have explained this important point, Kumar says:

This suggests that th e tem is industria lism and industria l society im ply

far m ore than the econom ic and technological com ponents that m ake

up their core. Industria lism is a w ay o f life that encom passes profound

econom ic, social, p o litica l, and cu ltu ral changes. It is by undergo ing

the com prehensive transfo rm ation o f industria lization that societies

becom e modern.^'^

To understand and grasp the nature o f m odem man we should focus on the m eaning

o f modern, modernity and modernism. So that, first o f all, we will try to have a clear

definition of the terms, “m odem ” and “modernity”, “modernism” and the m ain

original characteristics o f modem societies which make the nature o f modern man.

Tlie term “modern” surfaced in the realm of enlightenments discussions in the

seventeenth Century, although, the term “modern” has diffusively been used from the

fii^eenth century. Moreover, the term “modern” has been used in a special meaning

which becomes the reason o f denying and rejecting the reliability, validity and

dispensation o f the past qua past.‘°

Modernity, in its best form, is the age which with its distinctive feature, is in a

perpetual transfonnation.” . Basing on this idea and depending on the characteristic

mentioned above, every aspect and status o f the m odem society would be inconstant

and unsteady. Science, Law, knowledge, beliefs and so on would be in the river o f

perpetual transformation. This idea, as we mentioned in the epistemological aspects

o f traditional and m odem view point owes its special effects, for instance, lacking o f

perpetual foundation for the knowledge system and then, skepticism naturally would

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung ^

arise from this viewpoint’s consequences and man in this frame w ould have an

unsteady situation. Although, m odern thinkers claim that every old idea and theoiy

replace with a new and better process.

M odem man, based on the new situation, which supposes that he has been given the

instrument o f becoming “the m easure o f all things” believes that he has found a self-

assurance and depends on his self-reliance. These two features give the m odern man

to be the legislator in all aspects o f his life both individual and social. The main thing

which has given him the pem iission o f being as a legislator in the world is reason.

Some thinkers believe that the modernization individualized and differentiated the

societies on three levels:

C onsidered at the m ost general level, th is po in t suggests a v iew o f

m odern ization as a process o f ind iv idualization , d ifl'cren tiation o r

specialization , and abstraction . Put m ore concretely: first, th e s tm c tu res

o f m odem society take as the ir basic unit the individual ra th e r than , as

w ith agrarian or p easan t society, the group o r com m unity. S econd ,

m odern institu tions are assigned the perform ance o f spec ific ,

specialized tasks in a social system w ith a h ighly developed an d

com plcx div ision o f labour; in th is they stand in the sharpest p o ss ib le

contrast w ith, for instance, the fam ily in peasant society , w h ich is at

once the unit o f production , consum ption, soc ia liza tion , an d

authoritative decision-m aking . T h ird , rather than a ttach ing righ ts an d

p rerogatives to p a rticu la r g roups and persons, o r being gu ided b y

custom or trad ition , m odem institu tions tend to be g o verned an d

guided by general m le s and regu la tions that derive th e ir leg itim acy

from the m ethods an d findings o f science, In p rincip le at least, th e y are

not the agents o f p articu la r individuals, such as a k ing o r p riest,

endow ed w ith d iv ine or p rescrip tive au thority , but act acco rd in g to th e

rational and im personal precepts form ulated by “experts” .

As Kumar declares, the m odem society rather than attaching rights and prerogative to

particular groups and persons or being guided by every thing other than reason,

accepts according to the rational and impersonal precepts formulated by “experts” . As

far as this point is concerned to our present debate, modem man takes the legitimacy

o f every aspect o f his individual and social life from the reason in the m ould o f

authority o f rationalism which is fomiulated in the frame o f “experts.”

There is an important point, if a question is asked; what is/are the criterion /criteria of

these experts or in other word where do the experts get their criteria fx'orn.? M odem

man would answer that these criteria are derived from their reason, but we think this

answer is not the end o f the pathway o f making legitimacy o f reason because there

other questions: Is the reason more than a mixture of infomiation to m aking a result

or some conclusions? And i f so, where the source o f this information comes from?

The answer o f traditional man is clear; he believes that the original and main source

o f his individual and social needs come from the Revelation; albeit traditionalists

themselves believe that there is no reason to have all the details o f life which have

been sent by the Revelation and, “experts can give the main idea o f God to make the

frame o f m an’s life based on Heavenly rules. W hile the modern man has no way other

than his own imperfect reason, which he has to fertilize by his experience. That is

why modern man has to trust his reason although in the mould o f ‘"the reason of

experts.” We think that adding the word o f “experts” to the word reason carmot solve

the paradoxical dilemma o f m odem ity by which modern man has encountered the

great crises. According to this problem other problems in the realm o f epistemology

and ontology are explained.

To understand the characteristic o f m odem man should be had in the context o f

modern society. Basing on the characteristics o f modern society an understanding o f

the conccpt o f man in the m odem era would be easy and clear.

The Place o f Man in Traditional and Modem Weltanschauung 'l.G l

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

Understanding of the modernity as the process of becoming modern in human

societies needs an understanding the quality and reasons o f being bom in modem

societies. But thinkers believe that “it is not fully understood that produced in the leap

into m o d ern ity ...H o w e v er, it is clear that modernity started with industrialization,

and there is a vigorous communication between m odem society and industrialization.

But there is an in extricate problem facing modern man. This important problem gives

rise to the communication between modern man and machine. Industrialism is not but

changing all aspects o f the life that “encompasses profound economic, social,

political, and cultural changes.” ’'’ If a question is asked what is the communication

between the industrial system and the humanistic aspects o f life? We can say that

there areat least two points which may properly be noted; (a) machine itself makes a

special form of life, and a mechanistic life has thus special rules and. therefore,

special ethics. The analysis o f this point itself leads to another opportunity, (b)

Overcoming the m achine for the aspects o f life step by step makes a special

Weltanschauung, which is so-called m achinism . In this frame ever},' kind of

relationship and communication in the human life is fomiulated basing on the rules o f

the machine. The main and the most important and notable consequences o f this kind

of over powering o f machine is the phenomena o f alienation. Dr. Ali Shariati writes

about the definition and the cause o f alienation;

[A lienation is] the p ro cess o f fo rgctling or becom ing unfam iliar w ith or

indifferent to one's self. T hat is, one loses the se lf an d d irects

perceptions from w ith in ano ther person or th ing. This grave social and

spiritual illness m anifests itse lf in m any d iffe ren t shapes and fo n n s and

depends on m any factors. O ne fac to r aliena ting a hum an being is the

tools with w hich he w orks. Sociology and psychology report th a t a

man, during his life tim e gradually lends to forget his real, independent

identity as he in c reases h is contact w ith a certain tool or p ro iess ion

more and more every day. He begins perceiving his tools in place of

his se lfh o o d ”

One o f the best examples for the communication between alienation and the rules o f

machine is the famous film, “M odem Times” in which Charlie Chaplin shows the

destiny o f modern man who has been involved in the rules o f m achine and step by

step the machine changes his m orality from the nonnal form and he feels something

and does something else depending on his natural desires, but m achine changes his

normal and natural desires.

Max Weber, the Gemian sociologist, in his great work the Protestant Ethic and the

Spint o f Capitalism (1904) explains that the reason-approach o f the northwestern

Europe was the origin and heart land o f the Protestant reformation o f the 16"' century.

He illustrates that there was an important difference between the view o f Roman

Catholicism and even Eastern religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism were

essentially other worldly religions with the Protestantism. The kind o f view in these

religions with Protestant Reformations was different, “ l-'or the Protestant, all works,

all occupations were in a sense a religions v o c a t i o n . T h e spirit o f Capitalism like of

this viewpoint for increase. Kumar W rites “The Protestant nations, therefore,

according to Weber, invented modern capitalism and so launched the world on a

course that it still follows.”^

Kumar mentions tliat some o f historians have disputed W eber’s thesis but, iinally he

him self accepts the thesis o f W eber and Writes; “ In a similarly persuasive way, the

rationality of the Protestant work ethic has seemed linked to the development o f

modern science.”"'* What is im portant that there was a great relationship between the

quality o f the view o f Catholicism in the W est and what has happened in the name of

Refonnation? During the process o f the Refomiation the place of man and his dignity

based on rejecting unacceptable notions on one hand and, making a desire place based

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung 2 6 4

on economic developments, psychological thesis and so on, on the other, were the

main causes o f destroying m an’s place and his real dignity in the m odem world.

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

Notes & References

' . In th is f ie ld see: G u e n o n , R . The Crisis o f Modern World,c\\.l.

I z u tsu , T o sh ih ik o , God and Man in The / i 'o r a n ,I s la m ic B o o k s T ru s t ,M a la y s ia , N e w ed itio n ,2 £ )0 2 , p 9 6 .

. T h is s e n te n c e is b o r ro w e d f ro o i Iz u lsu .

. In th is f ie ld see: th e a n a ly s is o f S hariati,A .,/n .vaM , Islam va ?naktah have magreh zarnin(Man,I s ia m an d th e S c h o o ls o f th e W e s te rn e ra ) P u b lis h e d b y M o sse in ic h E ,rsh ad ,1 3 5 6 A .H s o lo a r ,p p .8 - 1 2 . A ls o see : th e p ro m in e n t w o rk o f N a s r ,S .H ., Knowledge and The Sacred, L a h o r ,1 9 8 8 .c h .5 .A n d S ec : Iz u tsu , T o sh ih ik o , op.oil,.ch.4.

. S e e : Iz u tsu , T o sh ik ik o , o p , c it . , c h a p te r 4 .^ l b i d , p .1 0 4 .’ . S e e : M u ra ta , S a c h ic o & C h u tt ic k ,.W .C .r / i i? Vision o f Islam,I.H . T a u r is P u b h s h e rs . L o n d o n . N e w Y o rk , 1996 , p p .4 7 -5 2 .®. C h it t ic k , W .C ., The Vision o f Islam, o p ,c i t . , p p 4 7 -8 .C)

. S e e : N a s r , S .H ., T h e Heart o f Islam, H a ip e r s a n F ra n c i.sco o , 2 0 0 2 , p p .3 -9 .

. N a s r , S .H . A Young M uslim 's Guide to the Modern World, K a z i P u b lic a t io n s , Inc. C h ic a g o ,199 3 , p .2 3 ." . iz u lsu , T o s liih ik o , op.cit,.c h s .6 J .' ^ I b i d .

.S e c :ib id ,c h .7 .

.T h e fo llo w in g f ig u re is q u o te d fi-om Iz u tso in the b o o k o f G o d a n d M a n in th e K o ra n o p .c i t ,p .9 6 .

. M a jle s i ,M,Bihar al-Anwar, in 1 1 0 vo lum c.s, V o l. 8 9 , p. 107.

. S ec : N a s r , S .H . Knowledge and The Sacred,op.c\{, p . 160.S e e : M u ra ta , S a c h ic o & C h it t ic k , W .C . The Vision o /7 ,s7 « m ,o p ,c it., p. 124.

N a.sr, S . H , , o p , c it., p 161.

. T h e la.st se n te n c e h a s b e e n b o r ro w e d t r o n i N a s r .

. S e e : N asaiT , A z iz a l-D in , al-Insan al-Kamil, tra n s . B y D c lis h ir i .Z ., In tc sh a ra t T a h o o r i . T e h ra n ,I r a u ,1 3 7 9 A .H ., S o la r p . 80 .

. N a s r , S .IT , o p .c it .,p . 164.

’ ’ . T h e c o n c e p t in th e se p a ra g ra p h s h a s b e e n ta k e n f ro m N a s r w i'ilin g s.

. S e e N a s r , S .H ., o p ,c i t . ,p p , 1 6 7 -8 .

Ib id , 163.. S ee ; N ic tz c h e F r ie d r ic h , The G a y sc ie /ice , T ra n s . W a lte r K a u fm a n , V in ta g e L k toks, N e w Y o u rk ,

1974 , pp . 181-2 .. S ee : H a n n a A re n d t, 7'he Human conditions, C h ic a g o U n iv e r s i ty o f C h ic a g o P re ss . 1 9 5 8 , p . t. 13 3 .

" . F ro n in ie . A ., The naliirc o^'Man.Tht; M a c m illa n C o m p a n y , N e w Y o rk , L o n d o n , T h ir d e d i t io n .197 1 , p .5 .

The Place o f Man in Traditional and M odem Weltanschauung

. Kumar, Krishan, E ncyclopedia B ritannica, V ol. 24 , 15 ed ., 1990 , p. 255.

30Ibid.

. See-.Zygmunt Bauman, "M odernity'' in Joel K rieger (ed). The oxford com panion to P o litics o f

the world, (N ew York and Oxford: O xford U niversity Press, 1996) p. 592.

See: Ibid Kumar, K ., op.cit.

” , Ibid.

. Shanati,A U ,C iviliza tion a n d M odern iza tion , sec in the w ebsite Shriati.com., This sentence is borrowed from K. Kumar.

” , Kumar, K., op.cit,, Ibid.

Conclusion

n r i h i s is difficult for me saying something as conclusion about tiie concept o fTman. I confess that if it was possible to me and there were not some

obligations and necessities I preferred to work and research more. This essay and

its chapters, however, are not but a concise introduction to the study about the

concept of man, although there were serious attempting to explain what 1 think is

true or false, but like these comprehensive subjects complete after many years with

rigorous inquiries.

Understanding ihe concept o f man in various traditions, various schools o f Western

philosopiiy, the perception o f crises which the modern as well as traditional man,

have encountered need some special conditions and introductions. Visiting and

living within such societies is one o f them, although I had a unique Expounding

opportunity to visit hidia during the last three years and talking with people and

specially young generation about their idea which related to my field work seriously

helped me to write some things which are more important and gainful than I read

and w'rite. After more than twenty years o f teaching at the universities o f Iran and

living in some difierent areas and mingling with new generation at the universities, I

can say that notwithstanding very good opportunities and having great traditional

heritage in some countries like India and h'an the situation of new generation which

is influenced by modernism and its ethics is alarming and critical. 1 think that the

greatest crisis which tlireatens the new generation is the crisis o f identity or the

alienation. Influence o f modern aspects o f life, step by step, changes the values in

w'hich our ancestors belie\'cd. Irrespective o f some superstitions which traditional

societies have. There are so many gainful heritages which people can trust, but

m odem life, based on the modern Weltanschauung, explains that there is no gain for

what relates to the past. Essentially, as I have mentioned in various chapters

especially the characteristics o f m odem epistemology and modern ontology and

their anthropological consequences the concept o f ‘m odern’ itself says that tradition

is past its sell-by date! And, we must think about new. To achieve it, they attempt

with very complicated instm ments, Hollywood as the flag o f this attack is one for

instance. That is why from modem thinkers’ point o f view, traditions are not but

useless and including some gainless contexts for our modern life. Towards this

greatest crisis which seriously threatens the whole body o f traditions and great

ancient civilization other crises which modem thought has built are in the

subsequent antecedence like environmental crisis which threatens the health and

existence of creatures in the earth. These sorts o f crises are not separated from the

root which lies in the foundation o f modern thought or modern Weltanschauung.

As 1 mentioned in the last part o f this essay, modern man by escaping from the

Center and placing his own measure in the position o f God’s measures has m ade a

special form of life and world which have no conclusion but nihilism and alienation.

Replacing man in the Center is the opposite of his nature (fitrah) which God

bestowed on him. The gifts o f modernism were not but secularism and humanism,

both o f which were not but a great deviation from Heaven M easure. Now modern

man revolves around him self and shoots in the darkness, and he has trust in his own

reason which needs the light to move in the darkness o f problems some o f which

relate to the esoteric aspects o f his existence and some others relate to the implicit

aspccts o f tliis very complicated universe, which modern thought restricted in the

body and temporal aspects. And he claimed that belief in God and angles, paradise

and hell, spirit and soul, prophets and scriptures are not but some fictions and

superstitions which are past their sell-by date. In the modern world scientists are in

the standing o f prophets and scientific theories have replaced the Heaven M essages

and man him self is in the ccnter o f (he universe which he has m ade in his own mind.

Conclusion 269

and his reason is the place o f G od’s Wisdom and scientism in the place o f religion

and machines in the place o f G od’s angles created the world in which m an is

encountering with complicated problems. But the end o f the histoiy from the

Q uran’s viewpoint is not dark; God has promised that the earth will finally belong

to the righteous servants o f God. The Quran says;

Before this We wrote in the Psalms, afler the Message (given to

Moses) ‘My servants the righteous, shall inherit the earth.” (21:105)

In the final analysis, and on the other side, we need again to attend to the situation

o f traditions among people who live in the world that the aspects o f m odem life are

inescapable.

Tradition in its special meaning— Heaven Message — has come to bind man to his

Origin, and has a great heritage. But there are some points which I w'ould like to

briefly explain in the final analysis of this essay:

1. Religion in the general fom i is not but, in the majority o f situation, som e general

outlines by which human beings must look for their needs. In fact, tlie religious

messages show the main programs by which man, based on his intellect, designs the

essential lines o f his life towards his proper perfection.

Islam, however, has got a great source o f verses and hadltJts but they need to

commentary and clarification to be an appropriate and practical law for the frame of

people’s every day life.

2, The essential duty o f thinkers, therefore, is to design proper proposal which was a

practicable plan to the contem poraiy world. Undoubtedly, fundamental studies are

necessity but not enough. Traditionalists who are anxious about the new position o f

man must proponed exact plans to the contemporary world. Right or wrong, people

live in the world with various fomis o f instruments o f modern civilization, and

living without them, if not impossible, obviously is very difl'icult and on the other

hand if it was possible, it was irrational. But modern instruments have their own

entailments and, therefore, they make special ethics which we sim ply can not escape

from. Warning people about their dangeixius position which the m odern civilization

C onclusion 270

lias m ade is necessary, but o f course is not suiTiciciit to solve the pi'oblem, or cvci’!

to have som e general suggestion for the people abtiut coming back to tradilitjn is not

also rational and sufficient for solving the problem. Having appropriate strategy foi-

iong-time on the one liand, and suggesting practicable program s for short-tim e or

everyday life must be t!ie emergency programs o f traditionalists in the coiiteni{)orary

world.

3. To polish and purify the body o f the traditions from various superstitions and

showing the pure and beautiful body o f the Celestial Messages is one o f the \vay.s

which traditionalists bravely must do. Unfortunately, these .soils o f w orks encounter

with serious problems some o f them relate to radical and .sectarian O lama and, some

others relate to the beliefs o f people which mixed with their customs that have made

a special fomi o f religion which reserve to a special reign. For instance, the people’s

action.s in the name o f Islamic practices and Islamic tradition entirely different from

each other in the various countries. To purify customs from essential rules o f

religions which are compatible with the nature o f man if not im possible defiantly is

by far the most difficult program which traditionalist must do.

4. And finally, the necessity o f combining the fundamental researches with applied

ones, hi this regard cooperation o f various disciplines would help to purify and

clarify the tradition.

C u n c l u s i d u