chapter iii status of sanitation and total sanitatiion...

76

CHAPTER – III

STATUS OF SANITATION AND

TOTAL SANITATIION CAMPAIGN

IN INDIA

77

CHAPTER-III

STATUS OF SANITATION IN INDIA

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter an attempt is made to portray sanitation conditions

prevailing in India in comparison to other countries. The chapter is divided into five

sections. Section-I provides a brief introduction to the study. Section-II is intended to

discuss the historical perspective of sanitation in India. Sanitation and open defecation

levels in the World as well as in India are discussed in section-III and Section-IV

respectively, while summary is presented in section-V.

Sanitation has been the millstone around humanity’s neck since the dawn of

civilization. It is the most basic of human need. It is a situation we have to live with

on a day to day basis. It is vitally related to our daily living. However, neither we nor

the environment we live in can survive without proper sanitation. Yet it has been

among the most neglected aspects of our life. Lack of awareness about the importance

of sanitation and our long neglect of it has caused enormous damage to our lives, our

social cohesion, as well as our environment. In the Indian context, the problem of

sanitation is worsened by its link to manual scavenging and untouchability. Poor

sanitation is said to be an environmental pollutant, while untouchability can be

described as social pollutant. Unless manual scavenging is totally eliminated, we can

neither have proper sanitation nor have good social cohesion. Mahatma Gandhi, in the

heat and dust of the Indian freedom movement, realized the enormity of the problem

of untouchability and put it very high on his agenda. That is why Gandhiji said “I do

not want to be re-born, but if I have to be re-born, I should be reborn as an

untouchable, so that I may share their sorrows, sufferings and the affronts leveled

against them in order that I may endeavour to free myself and them from their

miserable condition.” Thus, Mahatma Gandhi ignited the torch and future generations

have to take it forward.

78

The vital importance of sanitation and water to human health and well-being

and their role as an engine of development is well recognized across the globe. The

question is how to accelerate progress towards achieving the United Nations

Development Programme (UNDP) Millennium Development Goals (MDG) target and

how to go beyond it in order to ultimately achieve the vision of universal access. An

attempt is made to examine current status of sanitation and open defecation in the

World in comparison to India against this backdrop.

3.2 Historical Perspective of Sanitation in India

The section is intended to discuss about the historical perspective of sanitation

by presenting facts from ancient time to till date.

3.2.1 Sanitation-Ancient India

When man was not civilized and lived in forests and caves, sanitation was not

even a viable concept. In such a case, open defecation was not merely an option but, it

was a compulsion. However, if that remained a compulsion for thousands of years, it

is of least interest to history. When the great civilizations viz., Indus valley, Egypt,

Athens, Rome, and many others flourished, sanitation was still a luxury of the rich,

while itis out of bounds for the poor. Open defecation was a normal and socially

acceptable norm and availability of boundless space was its rationale. It was the

privilege of the kings, emperors and the nobles alone. The ordinary people were quite

happy and contended with their open air defecation.

But historians and archeologists have somehow recorded the most intimate

aspects of private social life by digging up evidences of toilets and drains, of

cesspools and bathing places in Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa in the third millennium

BC, in-house toilets in ancient Egypt in the second millennium BC, and sewer

arrangements in Rome in 615 BC. There were public toilets in Pompeii and Rome.

The general picture was that of a community hall with rows of holes with a flowing

drain underneath. Forts had hanging toilets on their ramparts with the waste falling

into ditches or rivers. There were even toilets extending into rivers. The story is a long

and fascinating one passing through centuries and countries and provides ingenious

solutions to ‘the permanent ever present problem’.

79

Looking back at the Indian historical context, it is a bit embarrassment to note

that according to our Vedic age scriptures scavenging (manual handling of human

excreta by a particular caste) had been in existence, since the beginning of

civilization. One of the fifteen duties of slaves given in the Naradiya Samhita was

disposal of human excreta. During the Vedic period villages and towns had proper

drainage facilities and houses with bathrooms, but no toilets. Coming into the

Christian millennium, Chanakya’s Arthashastra gives a detailed account of the

Mauryan administration, in which cities were kept neat and clean with proper sanitary

arrangements. According to the Greek traveler Megasthanes, who traveled extensively

in India and lived for many years in Patliputra (today’s Patna), the city had a good

drainage system with soak- pits, and open defecation was not allowed. Even during

the medieval period, cities were well planned with a proper drainage system.

3.2.2 Sanitation-Pre Independence Period

With the coming of the Mughals and the founding of the Mughal empire by

Babur in 1526, the sanitation situation changed for the worse (BindeswarPathak).

There was a total absence of social awareness about community sanitation. Rural

areas were entirely overlooked. Sweeping and Scavenging were established as

professions, particularly for those who were made captives after their defeat. Bucket

privies were in use in the Mughal harems for the sake of purdah, which were cleaned

by the slaves. Even during British rule, no efforts were made to create social

awareness among the masses against open defecation and its hazardous consequences.

Rural sanitation was totally ignored. The cities were planned to have civil lines or

Cantonments for the Britishers with adequate sewage and drainage systems, but the

remaining parts where Indians lived had no civic amenities at all. The septic tank was

introduced about 150 years ago. Interestingly the first modern toilet in U.S President’s

official residence - the Whitehouse was built around 1830 only. After municipalities

were established in towns and cities, a large number of people were employed for

sweeping and scavenging services. The sewerage system was introduced in 1870 and

as yet, there was no provision of toilets in the Indian railways, which were introduced

much later.

80

3.2.3 Sanitation - Post Independence Period

Independence in 1947 brought to light the very grave problem of sanitation in

India. In the earlier Five Year Plans construction of sewerage was given high priority,

but even till today there are hardly 240 towns (out of 4700) with sewerage systems. It

was in the Sixth Five Year Plan, that a scheme for the liberation of scavengers was

introduced with the twin objectives of conversion of dry latrines into flush toilets and

rehabilitation of liberated scavengers in alternative jobs. The widespread problem of

open defecation, even in urban areas, remains grim after 60 years of independence.

The situation is particularly crucial and hazardous for womenfolk who are compelled

by modesty to go out only before daybreak or after dark to lonely areas to answer

nature call. Statistics reveal that even today 110 million Indian households do not

have toilets, and 10 million houses have bucket privies; that hardly 20 percent of

urban population have access to sewerage toilets, 14 percent to septic tank toilets, 33

percent have bucket latrines and the remaining 33 percent nothing at all. The rural

statistics reveal a grim picture as sanitation coverage is merely 17 percent. As a result,

nearly half a million children die every year due to diarrhea and severe dehydration.

A number of committees were constituted by the Central and State

governments for the liberation and rehabilitation of scavengers since independence

such as the Barbe Committee in Maharashtra, the Slappa Committee in Karnataka,

the Malkani Committee, the Bhanudas Pandya Committee and presently the Safai–

Karmacharis Commission. However, the problem is so gigantic that there is a lot of

ground to be covered.

The Indian parliament passed the Employment of Manual Scavengers and

Construction of Dry Latrines (Prohibition) Bill 1993 to abolish scavenging and ban

construction of dry latrines. It also constituted the National Commission for Safai

Karmacharis in 1994, with its main function being recommending specific

programmes of action towards elimination of inequalities in status, facilities and

opportunities for SafaiKarmacharis under a time-bound action plan and study and

evaluation of the implementation of the programmes and schemes. But sadly, very

little has come out of these governmental efforts.

81

The Planning commission has prepared a National Action Plan for Total

eradication of manual scavenging by 2007. As BimalJalan, the former Governor of

Reserve Bank of India has very rightly pointed out in his book, ‘The Future of India’

(2005, Page.111), a suitably formulated model of public-private partnership is the best

solution for accelerating the process of change.

International experience in the management of public services shows that the

objectives can be achieved if a distinction is made between the ownership of services

(by the government) and the delivery of such services (by private and local

enterprises). In India, two noteworthy examples of public-private collaboration in the

area of public services are the public call offices(PCOs), which revolutionized the

availability of telephone services all over the country in the 1990’s, and the Sulabh

Shauchalayas, which are estimated to have provided sanitation facilities to ten million

people at very low cost.

The UN Millennium Development Goal (MDG) for sanitation was set at the

World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg in 2002 to halve the

proportion of people without sustainable access to basic sanitation by 2015, and

providing safe and hygienic toilets to all by 2025. But, even after a passage of 5 years,

the goal still remains elusive. The two current technologies namely the sewerage

system with a sewerage treatment plant and the septic tank system are not likely to be

viable for attainment of the goal. Each country will have to adopt its own appropriate

and affordable technology, which must be region and development based.

3.2.4 Sanitation and Sulabh International in India

Public Toilet i.e., “pay and use” it had already been tried without success

when the British government in 1878 has passed an Act for setting up for the first

time the “pay and use toilets” in Calcutta. But, the scheme failed miserably both in

Calcutta and other parts of the country as the maintenance were grossly neglected.

The horrible stink would discourage people from using such toilets. Even after

independence, the Indian government did not entertain the idea seriously. After a

lapse of 96 years in India, Dr.Pathak took up the challenge by getting ready to set up

82

full-fledged Sulabh Public Toilet complexes at few Bihar cities - Patna, Arah and

Buxar after convincing their municipalities in 1974.

In India Sulabh has developed the two technologies, one for individual

households and the other suitable for public toilets, housing colonies, high rise

buildings, hospitals, etc. Sulabh has shown the way how the MDG can be achieved in

India by 2015 and 2025, or even earlier. It’s broader aims of improved environmental

sanitation and the complete liberation and rehabilitation of scavengers and the other

untouchables are additional benefits flowing from basic sanitation technologies.

Dr.A.P.J.Abdul Kalam, the former President of India wrote in his book “Mission

India” (P.79) – Sulabh is doing commendable work to improve sanitation in the

country, which is the largest internationally recognized pan- Indian social service

outfit with over 35,000 volunteers. It began through Pathak’s desire to help

scavengers – men and women who carry and dispose of human excreta. He developed

a two – pit pour flush toilet (known as the Sulabh Shauchalaya) which required no

scavenging to clean. Subsequently Sulabh also started pay and use public toilets,

popularly known as Sulabh Complexes, with bath, laundry and toilet facilities. These

are used by ten million people every day. Sulabh has also pioneered the production of

biogas and bio-fertilizer from excreta based plants.

3.3 Sanitation and Open Defecation Levels in the World

In this section an attempt is made to elucidate some of the important

definitional concepts of sanitation, besides presenting the sanitation and open

defecation levels in the World.

3.3.1 Open Defecation

It means when human faeces are disposed off in fields, forests, bushes, open

bodies of water, beaches or other open spaces or disposed of along with solid waste.

3.3.2 Unimproved Sanitation Facilities

These do not ensure hygienic separation of human excreta from human

contact. Unimproved facilities include pit latrines without a slab or platform, hanging

latrines and bucket latrines.

83

3.3.3 Shared Sanitation Facilities

Sanitation facilities of an otherwise acceptable type shared between two or

more households. Only facilities that are not shared or not public are considered

improved.

3.3.4 Improved Sanitation Facilities

It ensures hygienic separation of human excreta from human contact. They use

the facilities such as flush/pour flush to piped sewer system or septic tank or pit

latrine or Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) and Pit latrine with slab or Composting toilet

3.3. 5 Sanitation and Open defecation levels in world

Table 3.1 shows the global status of sanitation and open defecation facilities

and percentage of population using improved and open defecation by region wise in

the World.

Table 3.1: Percentage of Population with Sanitation Facilities and Open

Defecation in the World in 2008 (Region-wise)

Region Improved Shared Unimproved Open defecation

Sub Saharan Africa 31.0 20.0 22.0 27.0

Northern Africa 89.0 6.0 1.0 4.0

East Asia 56.0 18.0 22.0 4.0

Southern Asia 36.0 10.0 10.0 44.0

South Eastern Asia 69.0 9.0 8.0 14.0

Western Asia 85.0 5.0 7.0 3.0

Latin America 80.0 0.0 14.0 6.0

Developed Region 99.0 0.0 1.0 0.0

Developing Region 52.0 13.0 1.0 21.0

World 61.0 11.0 11.0 17.0

Source: JM P Report, World Health Organization and UNICEF 2010

From the Table 3.1, it is clear that by 2008, only 61 per cent of the World

population have access to improved sanitation facilities, while wide spread disparities

exists between various regions. More or less entire population developed region had

access to improved sanitation facilities (99 per cent), where as only 52 per cent of the

population in the developing region had access to improved sanitation facilities. Thus,

nearly half the population of developing region was not using improved sanitation

84

facilities. At the same time, it is pertinent to note that, only 31 per cent of population

was using improved sanitation facilities in Sub Saharan African region, which is the

lowest among the all other regions in the World. As far as Asian region is concerned,

Southern Asian region was reported as lowest usage of improved sanitation facilities

(36 per cent). Out of the total 85 per cent of population of Western Asia region using

the improved sanitation facilities. This is how the disparities are prevailing at global

level and Figure 3.1 presents the facts.

Further, 11 per cent of World population is observed to have access to shared

sanitation facilities. It is interesting to note that no population of Developed world and

Latin American countries are figured in the list of shared facilities, while a maximum

of 20 per cent of Sub Saharan African population is using the shared sanitation

facilities. Next to the Sub Saharan African region, 18 per cent of East Asian

population is noticed to use the shared sanitation facilities followed by the 13 per cent

of developing region population. Further, 10, 9 and 5 per cent of Southern, South East

and Western Asian population is observed to use the shared sanitation facilities. All

these facts are presented in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.1: Percentage of Population using Improved Sanitation by region

wise in the World in 2008

85

From the Table 3.1: it is clear that, 11 per cent of World population is still

suffering on account of unimproved sanitation facilities. The worst victims of

unimproved sanitation facilities in the World live in Sub Saharan African region and

East Asian region (22 per cent of population each), followed by Latin America (14

per cent of population) and Southern Asia (10 per cent of population). At the same

time, 8 and 7 per cent of South East and Western Asian population is found to suffer

on account of unimproved sanitation facilities. It is interesting to note that one per

cent population of each of Developed and Developing regions are suffering on

account of unimproved sanitation facilities and all facts are shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.2: Percentage of Population Using Shared Sanitation by region wise in

the world in 2008

86

Figure 3.3: Percentage of Population Using Unimproved Sanitation by region

wise in the world in 2008

Open defecation is declining in all regions and has decreased worldwide from

25 per cent in 1990 to 17 per cent in 2008. However, 44 per cent of Southern Asian

and 27 per cent of the Sub-Saharan African population is still practicing open

defecation. In contrast, open defecation is now practiced by only 4 per cent of the

population in Northern Africa and Eastern Asia and 3 per cent in Western Asia. In

five of the seven developing regions for which data are available, less than 15 per cent

of the population practices open defecation. Figure 3.4 depicts open defecation

practices of various regions across the globe.

Figure 3.4: Percentage of Population Using Shared Sanitation by region wise in

the world in 2008

87

3.3.6 Sanitation and Open Defecation Status among Urban and Rural population

at Global Level

Table 3.2 presents distribution of percentage of urban and rural population

using sanitation facilities and open defecation by region wise in the World in 2008.

From the Table it is clear that at the global level, 76 per cent of urban people are using

improved sanitation facilities, whereas only 45 per cent of their counter parts are

using improved sanitation facilities in rural areas implying difference 31 per cent

points. More precisely in southern Asia, this difference is very high (31 points),

followed by Developing region (28 points), Western Asia (27 points), south East

Asian and Latin America by 20 points each. Thus, significant disparities between

rural and urban areas with regard to sanitation are prevailing. Rural areas continue to

have a lower percentage of population using improved sanitation facilities and thus,

large number of people has no access to improved sanitation facilities. The urban and

rural disparities relating to improved facilities enjoyed by people at various regions

across the globe are presented in Figure 3.5

55

Table 3.2: Urban and Rural Population with Sanitation Facilities and Open Defecation by Region

Wise in the World in 2008

Region

Urban Rural

Improved Shared

Un

improved

Open

defecation Improved Shared

Un

Improved

Open

defecation

Sub Saharan

Africa 44.0 31.0 17.0 8.0 24.0 13.0 25.0 38.0

Northern

Africa 94.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 83.0 6.0 2.0 9.0

East Asia 61.0 30.0 3.0 6.0 53.0 8.0 37.0 2.0

Southern

Asia 57.0 19.0 10.0 14.0 26.0 6.0 10.0 58.0

South

Eastern Asia 79.0 10.0 3.0 8.0 60.0 8.0 12.0 20.0

Western

Asia 94.0 6.0 0.0 0.0 67.0 5.0 18.0 10.0

Latin

America 86.0 0.0 12.0 2.0 55.0 9.0 16.0 20.0

Developed

Region 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 96.0 0.0 4.0 0.0

Developing

Region 68.0 20.0 5.0 7.0 40.0 8.0 20.0 32.0

World 76.0 15.0 4.0 5.0 45.0 8.0 18.0 29.0

Source: JMP Report, World Health Organization and UNICEF 2010

130

Figure 3.5: Distribution of percentage of urban and rural areas using improved

sanitation facilities in the region of the world in

2008

From the Table 3.2: it is clear that, 15 per cent of urban population and 8 per

cent of rural population are adjusting with shared sanitation facilities, while a

maximum of 31 per cent of urban and 13 per cent of Sub Saharan African population

are using shared sanitation facilities. At the same time, 30 per cent of East Asian

urban population and 8 per cent of rural population are adjusting the shared facilities,

19 percent of urban and 6 per cent of rural population are constrained to use shared

facilities. Further, urban – rural dichotomy of population constrained to use shared

sanitation facilities in respect of SouthEast Asia stood at 10 and 8per cent

respectively, while the same in respect of Western Asia recorded 6 and 5 per cent

respectively. Moreover, it is interesting to note that while nobody is sharing the

sanitation facilities in the developed region, 20 per cent of urban and 8 per cent of

rural population in developing region are constrained to use shared sanitation

facilities. Figure 3.6 shows the wide spread disparities of various regions in people

using shared sanitation facilities across the globe.

131

Figure 3.6: Distribution of Percentage of Urban and Rural areas using shared

sanitation facilities in the regions of the world in 2008

Data on unimproved facilities also reveals disparities across various regions.

Thus, 4 per cent of urban and 18 per cent of rural population in the World by 2008 are

still found to suffer on account of unimproved sanitation facilities. The disparities

between urban and rural areas are found to be much more in case of Eastern Asia,

where 3 per cent of urban and 37 per cent of rural population are still struggling with

unimproved facilities. Similarly, nobody in the urban areas and 4 per cent of rural

population in the developed World are suffering on account of unimproved sanitation

facilities, while the same in respect of developing regions stood at 5 and 20 per cent

respectively. The urban – rural dichotomy with regard to unimproved sanitation

facilities is shown in the Figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7: Distribution of Percentage of urban and rural areas using

unimproved sanitation facilities in the regions of the world in 2008

132

Disparities are also particularly apparent regarding open defecation practices.

Disparities is found to be more in rural areas when compared to the urban areas in

almost all regions except East Asia where in surprisingly urban open defecation is

more than rural open defecation. The majority of the population in Sub-Saharan

Africa and Southern Asia live in rural areas, so these disparities are important in terms

of the number of people practicing open defecation. Open defecation is largely a rural

phenomenon, most widely practiced in Southern Asian and Sub-Saharan Africa. Even

in those two regions, decline in open defecation cases have been recorded, with a fall

from 66 per cent of the population in 1990 to 44 per cent in 2008 in Southern Asia,

and a corresponding decline in Sub-Saharan Africa from 36 per cent to27 per cent.

Figure 3.8 is intended to present the disparities relating to open defecation practices

across various regions of World.

Figure 3.8: Distribution of Percentage of urban and rural areas using ODF in the

regions of the world in 2008

3.3.7 Magnitude of People without Sanitation Facilities in the World

Table 3.3 is devoted to present the distribution of people who do not use

improved sanitation facilities in the World. Among the 2.6 billion people in the World

who do not have access to improved sanitation facilities, greatest number are in

Southern Asia (about 40 per cent) followed by Eastern Asia (about 24 per cent) and

Sub-Saharan Africa (about 21 per cent). Thus, out of 2652 million people, majority of

them 1903 i.e. about 72 per cent of people are from Asian region. Figure 3.9 presents

facts about distribution of people without improved sanitation facilities in the World.

133

Table 3.3: Distribution of People without improved sanitation facilities in

the World

Region Population (million) Percentage to Total

Southern Asia 1070 40.4

Eastern Asia 623 23.5

Sub-Saharan Africa 565 21.3

South eastern Asia 180 6.8

Latin America & Caribbean 117 4.4

Western Asia 30 1.1

Common Wealth of independent

states 29 1.1

Northern Africa 18 0.7

Developed regions 15 0.6

Oceania 5 0.2

Total 2652 100


Figure 3.9: Distribution of People who do not use improved sanitation

facilities in the world (Percentage)

134

Distribution of population who has access to improved sanitation facilities at global

level is presented in the Table 3.4.

Table 3.4: Region Wise Distribution of People Accessed to Improved

Sanitation Facilities in World during 1999-2008 (population in 000's)

Region

Total

Population

Population accessed to

improved sanitation

facilities

Percentage to

Total population

Sub Saharan Africa 822436 114344 14.0

Northern Africa 164466 58899 35.8

East Asia 1419532 275865 19.4

Southern Asia 1668746 305467 18.3

South Eastern Asia 575626 192941 33.5

Western Asia 207991 69478 33.4

Latin America 576102 15449 2.7

Developed Region 1028520 93166 9.1

Developing Region 5444533 1172937 21.5

World 6749872 1263547 18.7


Notable increases in the use of improved sanitation facilities have been made

in Northern Africa (about 36 per cent), South Eastern Asia (about 34 per cent),

Western Asia (about 33 per cent) and Eastern Asia (about 19 per cent), whereas there

has been no progress in the Commonwealth of Independent States and a decline in

Oceania. The proportion of the population using improved sanitation facilities is

increasing in all the developing regions. Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa are

the only regions where less than half the population use improved sanitation facilities.

Figure 2.10 is intended to present region wise distribution of people accessed to

improved sanitation facilities in the World during 1999-2008.The Nobel laureate in

literature V.S.Naipaul (1964) in his book “Area of Darkness” pointed about open

defecation in India along railway tracks and everywhere making him call India itself

as a “very big toilet”. But it is not only true in respect of India, but also many

countries in Africa. There are similar conditions in Kenya, at Kieran, the biggest slum

in Africa, through which the main railway line between Nairobi and Mombasa passes.

In fact, open defecation is the most archetypal image of poverty and total lack of

sanitation in all the under developed countries of the world.

135

Figure 3.10 Region-wise distribution of People accessed to improved sanitation

facilities in world during 1999-2008(population in 000’s)

3.4 Sanitation and Open Defecation Trends in India

The sanitation facilities and open defecation status in India and its position

when compared with other countries as well as urban and rural differences are

presented in this section.

3.4.1 Population with Access to Sanitation Facilities in India

The Table 3.5 presents the trends of Indian population with access to

improved sanitation facilities and shared sanitation facilities, unimproved sanitation

facilities and open defecation practices during 1999 to 2008.

Table 3.5: Trends in Percentage of Population with Access to Sanitation Facilities

in India 1999-2008

Year Improved Shared Unimproved Open defecation

1999 18.0 6.0 2.0 74.0

2000 25.0 8.0 4.0 63.0

2008 31.0 9.0 6.0 54.0


136

From the Table.3.5, it is clear that, by 1999, only 18 per cent of population has

access to improved sanitation facilities, while the same rose significantly to 25 per

cent by 2000 and further to 31 per cent by the year 2008. At the same time, the

percentage of population access to shared sanitation facilities with other one or two

households has increased from 6 per cent in 1999 to 9 per cent by 2008. Further, it is

pertinent to note that the percentage of people with unimproved sanitation facilities

also increased from 2 per cent to 6 per cent. Regarding the open defecation practice, it

has reduced from 74 per cent in the year 1999 to 54 per cent by the year 2008. But,

nearly half of the Indian population is practicing open defecation. This is bound to be

a major issue for the policy makers. Figure 3.11 presents the trends in percentage of

population with access to sanitation facilities in India 1999-2008.

Figure 3.11: Trends of People using of Sanitation Facilities in India

during 1999-2008 (Percentage)

3.4.2 Sanitation Facilities and Open Defecation Trends in Urban and Rural India

Table 3.6 presents percentage of population using sanitation facilities and

open defection practices in urban and rural India.

137

Table 3.6: Trends in Percentage of Population with Access to Sanitation Facilities-Rural and

Urban India

Year

Urban Rural

Improved Shared

Un-

improved

Open

defecation Improved Shared

Un-

improved

Open

defecation

1999 49.0 19.0 4.0 28.0 7.0 1.0 2.0 90.0

2000 52.0 20.0 6.0 22.0 14.0 3.0 4.0 79.0

2008 54.0 21.0 7.0 18.0 21.0 4.0 6.0 69.0


It is clear from Table 3.6 that, as far as improved sanitation facilities are

concerned, 49 per cent of urban population has been using these facilities in India and

it rose to 52 per cent and 54 per cent by 2000 and 2008 respectively. In the rural India,

the improved sanitation facilities usage has drastically increased from 7 per cent in

1999 to 14 per cent by 2000 and 21 per cent by 2008, but when compared to urban

India, these are at very low level. At the same time, urban percentage of population

constrained to use shared facilities is increased from 19 in 1999 to 20 by 2000 and

further to 21 by 2008, while the same in respect of rural India improved from 1

percent in 1999 to 3 per cent by 2000 and thereafter to 4 per cent by 2008. Similarly,

the proportion of urban population struggling on account of unimproved sanitation

facilities increased from 4 per cent in 1999 to 6 per cent by 2000 and thereafter to 7

per cent by 2008, while the same in case of rural India increased from 2 per cent in

1999 to 4 per cent by 2000 and thereafter to 6 per cent by 2008. It can be inferred that

the levels of open defecation is unlike the levels of improved sanitation

facilities. Rural areas reported more open defecation levels than the urban areas. Open

defecation in the urban areas is reported as 28 per cent in 1999, 22 per cent in 2000

and 18 per cent in 2008, where as the corresponding figures for rural areas stood at 90

per cent, 79 per cent and 69 per cent respectively. At the same time, open defecation

trends have been coming down in both urban and rural areas in India. Figures 3.12

and 3.13 are intended to present the trends in percentage of population with access to

sanitation facilities in urban and rural India over the period 1999 – 2008 respectively.

138

Figure 3.12: Distribution of urban usage of Sanitation facilities in India-

1999-2008 (percentage of people)

Figure 3.13: Distribution of Rural usage of Sanitation facilities in India-

1999-2008 (Percentage of Population)

3.4.3 Sanitation and Open Defecation Practices in India –and other

select nations

Table 3.7 presents the use of Sanitation facilities In India and other select

nations for the year 2008.

139

Table 3.7: Percentage of Population Accessed to Sanitation facilities in India

and Other Select Nations-2008

Country Improved Shared Unimproved Open defecation

India 31.0 9.0 6.0 54.0

China 55.0 17.0 24.0 4.0

Sri Lanka 91.0 4.0 4.0 1.0

Pakistan 45.0 5.0 23.0 27.0

Bangladesh 53.0 25.0 15.0 7.0

Brazil 80.0 25.0 13.0 7.0

South Africa 77.0 10.0 5.0 8.0

World 61.0 11.0 11.0 17.0


From the Table-3.7, it is clear that by 2008, 61 per cent of World population is

enjoying the improved sanitation facilities, only 31 per cent of Indian population is

using improved sanitation facilities, which is least when compared to countries like

Sri Lanka (91 per cent), Brazil (80 per cent), South Africa (77 per cent), China (55 per

cent), Bangladesh (53 per cent) and Pakistan (45 per cent). At the same time, 11 per

cent of World population is constrained to depend on shared sanitation facilities, 9 per

cent of Indian population is depending on shared sanitation facilities. In this regard

also Indian population is said to be disadvantage position when compared with small

countries like Pakistan (5 per cent) and Sri Lanka (4 per cent). Further, 11 per cent of

World population is struggling on account of unimproved sanitation facilities, while 6

per cent of Indian population is facing the same problem. However, compared to

some countries like China (24 per cent), Pakistan (23 per cent), Bangladesh (15 per

cent) and Brazil (13 per cent), India is said to be in a better position with regard to the

population suffering with unimproved sanitation facilities. At the same time,

proportion of World population practicing open defecation stood at 17 per cent, while

major percentage of population (54 per cent) is practicing open defecation in India.

India is seen to be in the worst position compared to even in small countries such as

only1 per cent in Sri Lanka, 4 per cent in China, 8 per cent in South Africa, 7 per cent

each in Bangladesh and Brazil respectively and even it was 27 per cent in Pakistan.

Thus, analysis reveals the peculiar situation prevailed in India. Figure 3.14 to 3.18

140

1presents the comparative picture of improved, shared, unimproved and open

defecation levels in India and selected countries in the World.

Figure 3.14: Percentage of Population Accessed to Unimproved Sanitation

facilities in India and Selected Nations

Figure 3.15: Percentage of Population Accessed to Improved Sanitation facilities

in India and Selected Nations

141

Figure 3.16: Percentage of Population Accessed to open defecation in India

and Selected Nations

Figure 3.17: Uses of Sanitation Facilities–India 2008

Note: circle size represents the equivalent population size.

Source: WHO/UNICEF Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water, 2010 Update (JMP)

Table 3.8 furnishes the distribution of population accessed to improved

sanitation facilities in India and other selected nations during 1999 to 2008 are

presented. Notable increases in the use of improved sanitation have been made in

142

Pakistan (33.7 per cent), Sri Lanka (30.7 per cent) Indonesia and Bangladesh 26 per

cent each, whereas there has been least progress in India (17.9 per cent).

Table 3.8: Population Accessed to Improved Sanitation Facilities in India and

other Select Nations (Population in 000's)

Nation

Population Accessed to

Improved Sanitation Facilities

Total

Population

Percentage

to Total

Nepal 6829 28810 23.7

India 211049 1181412 17.9

Indonesia 59682 227345 26.1

Bangladesh 39704 160000 24.8

Pakistan 59690 176952 33.7

Brazil 50374 191972 26.2

Sri Lanka 6152 20061 30.7

South Africa 12890 49668 25.9

China 267319 1337411 20.0


Figure 3.18: Population Accessed to Improved Sanitation Facilities

143

Figure 3.19: Percentage of Population Accessed to Improved Sanitation Facilities

in India and Selected Nations

Table 3.9 depicts the status of open defecation in India and other selected

nations in 2008.From the Table it is clear that, open defecation practice is wide spread

in India as about 56 per cent of population subjected to open defecation practice. At

the same time, the practice of open defecation is found to be less than 5 per cent even

respect of small countries like Indonesia (about 5 per cent), Ethiopia (4.3 per cent),

Pakistan (4.2 per cent), Nepal (1.3 per cent) and Brazil and Niger each (1.1 per cent).

It is pertinent to note that open defecation practice even in a most populous country

like China is far less (4.4 per cent) compared to India.

Table 3.9: Status of Open Defecation in India and Other Select Nations- 2008

Country Population (million) Percentage to Total

India 638 55.6

Indonesia 58 5.1

China 50 4.4

Ethiopia 49 4.3

Pakistan 48 4.2

Nigeria 33 2.9

Sudan 17 1.5

Nepal 15 1.3

Brazil 13 1.1

Niger 12 1.1

Rest of the World 215 18.7

Total 1148 100


144

Figure 3.20: Percentage of Population Accessed to open defecation in India and

Selected Nations

3.5 Total Sanitation Campaign In India

The economy of any nation depends on healthy and strong people and it will

grow into a robust and self-reliant process if we are able to develop human capital and

invest it purposefully. In an agrarian economy like India, we need to provide the basic

amenities of life to the rural people, such as clean drinking water and good sanitation.

Then only our rural people will be strong and healthy enough to actively and

efficiently participate and contribute to economic activities, which in turn will help

economic growth of the country as a whole. Therefore, the key formula to develop

human capital, which helps in the economic growth of the country, is to ‘grow more,

eat more and maintain a healthy and balanced life’. The improved health and

agricultural production are directly linked to the development process. Development

here means to do “maximum good to the largest number possible”.

In a country like India, where most people live in rural areas, provision of safe

drinking water and sanitation system for all has been one of the concerns of the policy

makers and development administration. Drinking water and Sanitation are not only

basic necessities of life, but they are also crucial for achieving the goal of “Health for

all” aimed by the government. Nearly 80 per cent of common diseases in rural areas

are caused by unsafe drinking water and lack of sanitation. Every human being has

the right to adequate and clean drinking water facilities, access to clean toilet, safe

disposal facilities of human waste, animal waste as well as solid waste in every

village in the country. The Government of India has also undertaken integrated

145

approach to improve sanitary conditions in the villages, as the rural sanitary

conditions remain pathetic even today.

The Government of India (GOI) has invested a large amount of about ` 32,000

crores in the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS) sector since 1954 but the

results and achievements are not very encouraging. World Bank (1999) survey

estimated that the total investment needed for fully covering entire rural population in

the country and restoring functionality (repair or rehabilitation) of distressed/withheld

schemes at about ` 200 billion (`50,000 Crores).

Drainage and waste management are interrelated aspects of sanitation. Proper

drainage and waste management are essential for keeping the environment clean.

Drainage refers to channel for carrying waste water away from the premises of a

building or homes. Drainage not only takes away the waste water but also takes away

storm water. In most villages in India sullage water commonly flows over the village

roads resulting bad smell and spreading dirty sullage on the road. During the rainy

season the situation becomes more hazardous for health and environment resulting in

breeding mosquitoes, flies etc.

Waste management is also an important aspect of sanitation and includes

collection, handling, transport and disposal of wastes generated. Due to ineffective

collection and disposal of waste material, rodents and flies breed resulting in the

spread of diseases. The untreated wastes can pollute surface water and ground water

as well as ferment slowly and can produce bio-gas that will result in harmful health

and environment consequences (Bartone et al 1990). Effective waste management can

result in the improvement of health and reduction of morbidity and mortality,

improvement of water and air quality and economic development.

Further, since only 20 per cent of the households were having sanitary

facilities, the government planned to cover all the villages in the country through a

reformative programme called the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC). Total Sanitation

Campaign was launched in April 1999, advocating a shift from a high subsidy to low

subsidy regime, a greater household involvement and demand responsiveness, and

146

providing for the promotion of a range of toilet options to promote increased

affordability. The TSC gives emphasis on Information, Education and

Communication (IEC) for demand generation of sanitation facilities, providing for

stronger backup systems such as trained masons and building materials through Rural

Sanitary Marts (RSMs) and production centers. TSC also puts emphasis on school

sanitation as an entry point for encouraging wider acceptance of sanitation by rural

masses as key strategies. It also puts thrust on school sanitation and hygiene education

for bringing about attitudinal and behavioural changes for relevant sanitation and

hygiene practices from a young age.

Thus, Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) is a comprehensive programme to

ensure sanitation facilities in rural areas with broader goal to eradicate the practice of

open defecation.

The key intervention areas are Individual Household Latrines (IHHLs), School

Sanitation and Hygiene Education (SSHE), Community Sanitary Complex (CSC),

Anganwadi toilets supported by Rural Sanitary Marts (RSMs) and Production Centers

(PCs). The main goal of the GOI is to eradicate the practice of open defecation by

2010. To give fillip to this endeavour, GOI launched Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP) to

recognize the efforts in terms of cash awards for fully covered PRIs and those

individuals and institutions who have contributed significantly in ensuring full

sanitation coverage in their area of operation. The project is being implemented in

rural areas taking district as a unit of implementation.

3.5.1 School Toilets

The second largest component within TSC is construction of school toilets.

Data on expenditure and physical achievement of school toilets tells a similar story to

the IHHL one. Kerala and Punjab have met their targets for school toilets; Bihar lags

behind with only 61 per cent of targets achieved. Here too there is no clear correlation

between allocated funds and expenditures. By February 2011, Kerala had spent all of

its funds and achieved all of its targets. Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra had also

achieved near full coverage with their allocated funds. Punjab on the other hand,

achieved 100 per cent of its physical targets by spending only 40 per cent of its

147

approved funds. Uttar Pradesh and Bihar spent 68 and 44 per cent of their approved

funds and achieved 85 and 61 per cent of their physical targets.

3.5.2 Information, Education and Communication

Although a small proportion of overall funds, IEC is an important component

of TSC as it is intended to create demand for sanitary facilities in rural areas by

imparting hygiene education to people. Expenditure on IEC varies widely across

states. Himachal Pradesh (69 per cent) and Haryana (68 per cent) have spent most of

their IEC funds, Andhra Pradesh have spent 24 per cent while Orissa, Jharkhand and

Bihar have spent less than 16 per cent.

3.5.3 Sanitation Coverage under TSC

Due to this unique partnership between people and government, there has been

an overall improvement in coverage of sanitary facilities across rural India. TSC has

achieved a target of 81 per cent coverage in building school toilets, 65 per cent of

targeted BPL households have access to individual latrines while 55 per cent coverage

among APL households has been achieved. Coverage under this flag ship sanitation

programme includes 1.2 lakhs Anganwadi toilets, 11,000 Community Sanitation

Complexes (CSC), 7100 Production Centers (PCs) / Rural Sanitary Marts (RSMs).

In 2003, GOI instituted the Nirmal Gram Puraskar (NGP) for recognizing,

encouraging and facilitating Panchayati Raj Institutions, individuals and organisations

to promote and achieve total sanitation. The NGP is awarded to Gram Panchayats that

have achieved open defecation free status. The award is also extended to Block and

District Panchayats. However, wide variations are observed in NGP achievements

across states. Between 2005 and 2009, Panchayats in Kerala won the most NGP

awards i.e. 87 per cent. In West Bengal and Maharashtra, approximately 30 per cent

panchayats have won the NGP award. On the other hand, only 5 per cent panchayats

in Andhra Pradesh and Chhattisgarh and 2 per cent in Bihar won the NGP award by

2009. Despite improvements, still a large number of households exist without access

to proper sanitation facilities. As of February 2011, in India, 30 per cent rural

households lacked access to a toilet i.e. one in every 3 households do not have access

to individual toilet. In Bihar still as many as 64 per cent households do not have such

access having the dubious distinction with highest percentage of households without

148

access to toilet. Orissa with 49 per cent households without access to such facility is

the other state above the national average of 30 per cent. However, by 2011, states

such as Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Haryana, West Bengal

and Haryana will have more than 70 per cent households with access to toilet

compared to 2001. It is interesting to observe that Sikkim and Kerala have achieved

100 per cent access of toilet to all individual households. These two states are the best

performers and have ensured that all rural households have access to toilets by

February 2011. In fact, Sikkim was the first state, to be declared as totally open

defecation free state in the country by 2008.

3.5.4 Objectives of Total Sanitation Campaign

The major objective of the Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) is to bring about the

desired improvements in the general quality of life in rural areas. To achieve this

objective, the following operational objectives have been set for attaining as goals:

1. Accelerating sanitation coverage of the rural population to bring about an

improvement in the general quality of life in rural areas,

2. Generating the demand or felt need through the creation of awareness, health

education and the promotion of health and hygiene.

3. Covering all the schools and anganwadis in rural areas with sanitary facilities

and promote hygiene behavior among students and teachers,

4. Encouraging suitable cost effective and appropriate technologies for purposes

of improving sanitation.

5. Endeavour to reduce water and sanitation related diseases.

The new approach of the government through TSC is not only people –centered

but also community-led in order to ensure its sustainability. It includes the concerns of

equity, the protection of the environment and the health of both the general public and

the target group it is specifically aimed at.

With these objectives in view, efforts are being made for accelerating sanitation

coverage of the rural population by creating a demand for and awareness of improved

physical quality of life in rural areas, improving sanitation at schools and by providing

149

suitable, cost-effective and locally designed toilets for individual households. It may

be seen from the restructured programme, that it has changed from a high subsidy to a

low subsidy regime, which focuses more on creating a demand for latrines by means

of promoting awareness of hygiene and motivating the users to manage and fund their

own sanitation facilities. Obviously, a change in the perception towards sanitation and

general behavior of the rural population is the key to success of this approach.

3.5.5 Strategy

The Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) has been launched by government of

India under the Sector Reform Programme. As a step towards decentralization, the

campaign proposes to move from the state-wise allocation of funds to demand-based

projects, where beneficiaries are not only empowered to choose their own schemes,

but also made to pay a part of the cost of construction of latrine. The components of

TSC are household latrines, construction of sanitary complexes for women, toilets for

schools especially for girl students, educational institutions and balwadies /

anganwadies. Besides, funds are being provided for start-up activities, Information,

Education and Communication and Administrative expenses.

The main features of TSC can be summarized as follows:

1. Shift from high subsidy to a low-subsidy regime – from ` 2000/- to ` 500/-,

2. Greater household involvement and participation in sanitation related

activities,

3. Technology options as per the choice of beneficiary households,

4. Stress on Information, Education and Communication (IEC) as part of the

campaign,

5. Emphasis on sanitation of school,

6. Tie-up with various Rural Development Programmes,

7. Involvement of NGOs and local groups and

8. Promotion of access to the institutional finance.

3.5.6 TSC Implementation mechanism

The TSC is being implemented in districts of the states / UTs with support

from the GOI and respective State / UT Governments. The States/UTs prepare a TSC

project for the select districts to claim Government of India’s assistance / funding. A

typical TSC project is expected to take about 3 to 5 years for implementation. At the

150

district level, Zilla Panchayats implement the project. In case, Zilla Panchayat is not

functional, District Water and Sanitation Mission (DWSM) can implement the TSC.

Similarly, at the block and panchayat levels, Panchayat Samitis and respective Gram

Panchayats are involved in implementation of the TSC.

3.5.7 Funding provision in TSC

In TSC, fund is earmarked both for the hardware and software activities. Fund

is provided for hardware activities like construction of toilets in households, schools,

Anganwadis, public places, setting up of RSMs/PCs and software activities like

awareness creation, capacity building of different stakeholders, startup activity like

conducting baseline survey, administrative expenses etc.

The total outlay of 572 projects under implementation in the country during

2007 is ` 12495.09 Crores, Central and State shares of the projects are ` 7802.08

Crores and ` 2750.10 Crores respectively. The success of the TSC lies in the fact that

the community has contributed ` 1942.91 Crores to its share of TSC. The financial

outlay of TSC projects has considerably been increased since its inception. The

implementation has been gradually improving. The financial expenditure up to 25th

June 2007 was ` 3002.23 Crores, out of which Center, State and beneficiary shares are

` 1537.25 Crores, ` 897.03 Crores and ` 567.95 Crores respectively. Significantly, the

community has invested `567.95 Crores so far. In 2011-12 Government of India

allocated `1485 Crores for TSC, a rise of 4 per cent over the previous year. However,

as a percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) budgetary allocation for sanitation

was a mere 0.02 per cent in 2010-11.

3.5.8 Activities of TSC

(a) Start-up activities such as assessment of needs and preparation of plans;

(b) Information, Education and Communication (IEC);

(c) Construction of Individual Household Latrines (IHHL);

(d) Construction of Community Sanitation Complexes (CSC);

(e) Construction of school toilets and hygiene education to students, and

(f) Construction of Anganwadi toilets

151

Expenditure incurred under the TSC is shared between GOI, state and

beneficiaries in different ratios. For example, while start-up activities are 100 per cent

centrally funded, IEC funds are shared between the center and states in an 80:20 ratio.

For the construction of toilets in households, schools and Anganwadi centers,

beneficiaries also have to contribute a pre-determined percentage of costs incurred.

Expenditure performance of the central as well as state governments has improved

over the years. In 2005-06, GOI spent only 48 per cent of its released grants while in

2009-10, it spent more funds than it released i.e. 128 per cent.

3.6. Summary

Sanitation has been the millstone around the humanity’s neck since the dawn

of civilization. Sanitation which was well organized during the Mauryan period was

neglected during Mughal period as well as during the British rule. Compared to other

select countries in the world, open defecation levels were very high in India,

particularly in rural India. Among the developing countries Sri Lanka, Brazil, South

Africa and China were found to be better compared to India, Pakistan and

Bangladesh. However, since independence, concerted efforts have been made by the

government to improve sanitation and to reduce open defecation in the country. In the

Indian context, inadequate sanitation and high levels of open defecation are found to

be more severe in the rural areas compared to urban areas. In view of this Total

Sanitation Campaign has launched in India to address the problem of sanitation.

152

References

T.V.Sekher and Md.Nazrul Islam (2006),”Sanitation Facilities: Status, Experiences and

Challenges” Population Research Center Institute for Social and Economic Change,

Nagarabhavi PO, Bangaluru-560072.

JUMP Report (2010), World Health Organization and UNICEF.

Oliver Cumming (2008), Water Aid: Report – Tackling the Silent Killer, the case for

sanitation July.

Arne Panesar (2008), Sustainable Sanitation in India, GTZ - Germany and Economic Services

Foundation Pune, India.

Rajiv Gandhi Foundation (RUF) (2002), Annual Report, Government of India, New Delhi.

The World Bank (2000), Report on Water and Sanitation.

Government of India (2000), Guidelines for Implementation of Rural Water Supply

Programme – Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission.

Bindeshwar Pathak (2010), Prevention is better than Cure: Sustainable Sanitation Practices

for better Health Care, Sulabh International Social Service Organisation, September, 22.

U.C. Agarwal (2005), Social sector Development: “outlays Vs. outcomes” – An Overview,

Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol. XI, No.3, July-September.

Bindesswar Pathak (2008), History of Public Toilets, Plumbing world, paper presented at the

International Symposium on Public toilets, Hongkong.

R.N. Sharma, Amita Bhide (2005), World Bank Funded Slum Sanitation Programme in

Mumbai – Participatory Approach and Lessons Learnt, Economic and Political Weekly, April.

chapter iii status of sanitation and total sanitatiion...

Documents