chapter one
TRANSCRIPT
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Introduction
It is not unusual for a child to repeat a standard. Classes normally are held M-F and on
Saturday mornings. The school year schedule is Jan-March, holiday in April, May to
July, holiday in August, and Sept-Nov. with holiday in December. In November of the
8th year all students take a national exam (500 points) that will determine their eligibility
for secondary schools. Those who score between 250-300 will enter a district Primary
School. Between 300-400, a student is eligible to attend a more prestigious provincial
Primary School. With a score of 350-500 and sufficient money, students may attend a top
national secondary school. The cost of these top schools ranges from 60,000KSH per
year ($1000) and up. If a child obtains a score lower than 250 on the exam, the child
either repeats standard eight or can go to a private Primary School, where the parents
must pay. Alternately, someone who can never pass the exam will go on to a polytechnic
school to learn a trade. Comprehensive school counseling programs initiation is an
essential aspect of primary school discipline management.
This chapter discussed the background of the study, statement of the problem,
significance of the study, limitation of the study, objectives of the study, the research
questions, the scope of the study and the conceptual framework.
1.1 Background to the Study
The issue of education is taking a completely new dimension in Kenya. The demand is
rising, new universities are opening up, day by day and job scarcity makes failing in
academic a sure way to limit chances of success, schools are competing for mean grades,
while the curriculum is over loaded. Students are made to go for tuition, weak students
are given remedial teaching, teachers find themselves under pressure, as parents spend
less and less time with their children, the young are left on the hands of their peers for
advice, those with access to internet get exposed to e-information, others go for electronic
and print media. The unlucky ones depend on rumors.
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These not withstanding, HIV/AIDS have left a large chunk of youth population orphaned,
depending on grandparents or relatives. This increases dependency ratio heightening the
already high levels of poverty. Dropouts, skipping classes due to school fees problems
causes more stress to the traumatized young students. The issues presently have been
compounded with the recent spate of violence among a number of schools. The call for
in-school counseling has taken a intensified dimension. In their wake, students have burnt
buildings, destroyed properties and even left other maimed or dead. Parents, leaders,
teachers, religious leaders all are asking questions of what has really gone wrong. The
common area of agreement is that there is a need for counseling in schools with some
quarters calling of counseling of parents and teachers as well.
With current socio-technological changes and educational demands, counseling is
becoming a major area of concern for in-school youths. The large number of students in
schools, limited number of trained teacher counselling programmes, heavy work load,
socio-economic and technological changes all put pressure on the teachers, students,
parents and society.
No wonder, there is frequent demand for counseling to help address some of these
problems. Guidance and Counseling (GC) in Secondary schools should help the students:
plan and prepare for their work roles after Primary School, with personal growth and
development, plan and prepare for postsecondary schooling, and with their academic
achievement in Primary School. Most Kenyan students need much more than these four
major areas. They require direction, understanding, appreciation and modeling for them
to get focused in their work
The ministry of gender and children affairs states that in the last two months Kenyan
schools have experienced unprecedented spate of students' unrest. This occurrence has
elicited a barrage of attacks directed towards students. Most criticism has been
precipitated on the premise that the children are indiscipline as a result of absence of
corporal punishment. The stakeholders say that History tells us that this assumption does
not hold much water.
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The discipline of children both in school and at home is determined by many factors.
Among these factors parental upbringing lays the most important basis for the discipline
of the child. Beyond the home, the social environment plays another fundamental role in
shaping the child's character. Corporal punishment has been used for long in our society
both at home and outside the precincts of home to instill discipline. Compliance through
caning is often mistaken for discipline. However, research has shown that this form of
violent approach to discipline is counter- productive in the long run. Corporal punishment
dehumanizes the child, is brutal and instills fear in the child which inhibits the child's
normal growth and productivity.
Discipline in the Kenyan schools is far different than in the United States. Teachers in the
US are not allowed to use corporal punishment. Most proponents of corporal punishment
are losing sight of the very basic fact that approaches of instilling discipline abound in
our midst. Guidance and counseling is yet to be fully embraced in our schools yet it is
one of the best methods of reforming children. In several international treaties that
Kenya has ratified, corporal punishment has been regarded as a form of physical violence
against children. The World Health Organization defines physical abuse as the intentional
use of physical force against a child that results in or has likelihood of resulting into harm
of the child's health, survival, development or dignity, examples include hitting, beating,
kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, burning, poisoning and suffocating. The
Children Act 2001 categorizes corporal punishment as a form of violence against
children. It is against this understanding that the Act outlaws it.
Caning is a common discipline in Kenyan schools, a student to be caned would be
brought into the teacher's room, be told to lay face down on the floor, and receive three
canes to the buttocks with the other teachers watching. A couple of boys wanted to fight
each other. The deputy headmaster got wind of it and had each boy take their shirts off
and sit outside in the sun until lunch time. Most schools in Kenya, including those run by
the Government still use corporal punishment as a form of discipline. From what we have
heard this mainly consists of hitting the hand with a ruler or flexible implement. These
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have been administered for reasons such as; writing with a biro or pencil instead of
fountain pen, not covering exercise books as well as for more serious offences. We
believe that when this method is used by schools, it instills the attitude that this is an
effective form of discipline and therefore the children threaten to use it on each other.
Strangely, this is contrary to another arm of the Government, the Children’s Department,
which states that no children’s home use this method to discipline.
The attitudes and actions will certainly be different in different parts of the country and in
the wide range of homes in a single community. It must be noted that the children cared
for come from similar backgrounds, backgrounds where their welfare has not been of the
highest priority. Therefore they have learnt behaviours and ways of dealing with
situations based on their upbringing. Everyday children are assisted to resolve problems
arising from the way they speak to each other. At present the children can speak to each
other very harshly and without love. One example of this is of older children threatening
to beat younger children and boys threatening to beat girls. The room captains, children
in positions of responsibility and leadership threatening to beat children who do not do
what they’ve been told. There may as well be a physical fight and it seems the children
threaten without intention.
The question arises, whether primary school is really "free" of charge in Kenya. Yes, free
primary education began approximately 2003. But no, it's not entirely free when you
consider that parents must cover the cost of uniforms, books and supplies. Additionally,
parents who are subsistence farmers must sacrifice to send their child to school in lieu of
having him or her provide much needed labor on the family shamba (farm). For this
reason, not all Kenyan children attend school. Discipline is frequently stricter than in the
US. Although "caning" or corporal punishment is legally forbidden, it occurs. Regulation
uniforms and shoes are required of each student through Secondary School. Children are
taught to respect and obey their elders without argument, and their emotional needs or
preferences are not a focus in the way that we tend to focus on these in the US. This is
why, when we communicate with a sponsored child, there may be a problem getting
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answers to questions such as what do you like or want. It's not unusual for a child to defer
to an older student or adult for the answer to those questions.
Textbooks are government approved as they are written at an advanced level, when
compared with US texts of the same level. The Kenyan school syllabus is very ambitious.
Instruction is generally by lecture, there is no participatory, exploratory or small group
activities employed. Music, dancing, and sports after class hours are tremendously
important here, much more emphasized for all than in the US. One may be shocked to
see a child's report card, because Kenyan teachers mark very strictly and don't hand out
good grades for effort. Averages such as 70% or lower are common, even with good
students. The child also has a class ranking, based on GPA, such as "13 of 27", to which
the school attaches much importance.
On 13th September 2002, pupils from the City Seconddary School were sent home
because they burnt a dormitory and students from the University of Nairobi broke into
police station to release a colleague charged with a sexual offence. On 16th September
the University of Nairobi students rioted in violent confrontation with police. The cause
of such episodes seems to be more than just declining discipline standards but reflect
violence in the wider society served by these schools (Onyango, 2003 in Kindiki, 2004).
In October 2005, more than 400 Kabuyefwe Secondary schoolboys in Kitale went on the
rampage and burnt down the administration block. They also set the store on fire and
shattered windows of other buildings. The students were angered by
poor Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) results over the years and what
they termed as their teacher’s irregular class attendance. Other grievances included poor
diet and being denied the chance to talk to female colleagues whose school is next to
theirs (Sunday Nation, October 9, 2005).
Students of Nairobi Ridgeways Academy were forced to sit in the cold after a fire razed
their dormitory. The fire started at 3 am, after two groups of students engaged in an
argument and could not settle their differences amicably (Mathenge, 2006). Students of
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Kithangaini Secondary School in Machakos locked the head teacher in the office and
walked 25 Km to report their grievances to the Machakos District Commissioner’s
(DC’s. The students complained of an alleged invasion of ghosts in their school and high
handedness of the school principal who refused to listen to their grievances (Nzia, 2006).
A form four student from Upper Hill School in Nairobi went to court to contest his
expulsion over alleged use of drugs and the court ruled that the student be re-admitted to
the school unconditionally. The student had filed an application in court stating that both
the board and the head teacher had failed to give him an opportunity to defend himself
against the accusations. This was all despite the student’s own sworn affidavit of having
‘misbehaved’ after taking a soft drink laced with alcohol (Siele, 2007).
Such incidences may lead to the school administration’s reluctance to deal with
indiscipline cases in schools. Teachers are now reluctant to take disciplinary action
against students for fear of being sued by parents (Ngare, 2007). The chairman of
the Kenya Secondary Schools Heads Association (KSSHA) described this trend as a sad
affair because school administrators were faced with the uphill task of cracking down on
drug and alcohol abuse, plus other forms of indiscipline among students. According to
the chairman, this trend would jeopardize efforts being put in place to tackle indiscipline
and would encourage indiscipline in schools because students would break rules in the
belief that they can seek redress in court if punished (Daily Nation, October 10, 2007).
Several extreme cases of student indiscipline have been attributed to gaps in formal
counselling programme or to an ineffective counselling programme system within the
school. At prima facie, it is believed that school administration is responsible for all that
goes on in the school, be it positive or negative; and is, therefore, by extension
responsible for the level of student discipline. In essence, the school administration is
expected to promote good behaviour in the school.
School administrators control students by imposing some form of punishment, thinking
that punishment is the most effective means of deterring students from repeatedly failing
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to behave properly. Schools use policy documents such as school code of conduct which
spell out clearly school regulations or ‘ground rules’ that help the students know what is
expected of them in order to maintain a well run and organized school. School code of
conduct is important but it is a good idea to explain the rules and why they are written
because its rigid implementation may create anti-establishment. There should be love and
respect within a discipline system, before making a decision to punish, the circumstances
leading to the incidence in question must be explained in detail. Punishment should be
consistent and immediate, delaying the decision is ineffective and in many cases the
recipient may forget the reason for the punishment (Bakhda, 2004).
1.2 Statement of the Problem
School primary counsellors played a key role in primary development interventions to
provide information and guidance to students regarding personal, academic and primary
options. Primary development intervention defined as any activity that empowers people
to cope effectively with primary development tasks. However, in Malaysia less research
are aimed to examine the primary development interventions that had been implemented
by secondary school counsellors.
The Guidance Programme, like any other educational programme, requires careful and
consistent development. This ensures that the programme responds to the unique needs of
its clients. It provides benefits to students by addressing their intellectual, emotional,
social and psychological needs. For any guidance programme to meet successfully the
needs of all students, it must be developmental, preventive and remedial rather than
crisis-oriented. Further, a comprehensive and developmental guidance and counselling
programme is not only preventive but also pro-active in preventive orientation.
Consequently it must be well planned, goal-oriented and accountable. It is an integral part
of the school programme, and complements other school activities. It is important for
today’s guidance and counselling programme to be developmental, so that it assists
students who are growing up in a complex world. It should help them to develop into full
human beings, capable of maximizing their potential in all personal, educational, social
or primary-related respects.
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Despite of the existence of the school code of conduct, guidance and counselling
programmes, most schools world wide continues to experience student discipline
problems because punishment produces anger and rebellion in the students, and
frustration and a feeling of inadequacy in the school administration. Punishment is often
repeated without ever producing the desired result; that of correction and a change of
heart in the students (Sushila, 2004). In Kenya, corporal punishment was legally
abolished in schools in Kenya in 2001. Inspite of efforts made by the Government
of Kenya (GoK) in abolishing corporal punishment school discipline is deteriorating to
such a level that the school system may soon become unmanageable. For example,
research studies conducted in developed countries such as the United States (USA) and
Europe in the United Kingdom (UK), France and Spain consistently highlight similar
issues of the deteriorating scale and nature of violence and indiscipline within schools.
The Scottish secondary school teachers indicated that students persistently infringe on
school rules.
Although newspapers sometimes are biased and unauthentic, they contain important and
contemporary data which is useful in a study like this one. Therefore, Kindiki (2004)
elaboratively quoted Onyango (2003) arguing that violence in schools in Kenya is
common. There are many examples to qualify this statement. On the 13th July 1991 Saint
Kizito Mixed Secondary School in Meru, Kenya boys went on rampage in the night
raping and maiming female colleagues in a 1.00 am violent ordeal. 19 female students
died and 71 received injuries (Kenya Times, 16 July, 1991 page1 Col. 7 p2 Col. 2-6). In
May 1997, 57 students at Bombolulu Girls Secondary School perished in dormitory as a
result of fire started by other students. In 1999 four prefects were burnt in a dormitory in
Nyeri Primary School (Onyango, 2003 in Kindiki, 2004).
In November 1999, a drugged and drunk student at Sagalo Institute of Science and
Technology murdered, the school principal (East African Standard, 13 November, 1999
p2 Col. 1). In June 2000, about 3,000 pupils of Wangu, Ronald Ngala, Tom Mboya,
Ushirika and Dadora primary schools in Dadora estate in Nairobi City went on a rampage
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protesting the death of a colleague in a 6.30 a.m road accident. Pupils destroyed property,
pelted motorists with stones, looted, drank beer and set a vehicle involved in the accident
on fire (East African Standard, 6 June, 2000 pg 32 Col. 1 - 3). In July 2001 Kyanguli
Boys Secondary School in Machakos doused a dorm with 20 litres petrol and set it ablaze
in wee hours of the morning as boys slept. 67 students were roasted alive because they
wanted to force school administration to close school earlier than was scheduled (East
African Standard, Monday, April 2, 2001 in (Onyango, 2003 in Kindiki, 2004).
The issue of student discipline in secondary schools in Kenya is not just a fleeting
Concern of the last few months. The subject has long been debated and has featured
repeatedly on school as well as national agendas both in Kenya and in other countries
across the world. The Government of Kenya (GoK) is currently implementing several
measures aimed at curbing the various cases of indiscipline in learning institutions
particularly the use of guidance and counselling units in all secondary schools (MOEST,
2005). In spite of these efforts there have been several cases of student indiscipline
reported in our daily newspapers while majority of the cases go unreported.
The indiscipline perception of the general public in Kenya indicates that there is much to
be done to save our primary, secondary schools and other tertiary institutions where the
problems persist. Indeed there are cases of indiscipline on our learning institutions. The
pupils at primary levels are not spared as well. The challenge is that the approach to
tackle the device is multidimensional hence require comprehensiveness and inclusiveness
of all stakeholders. An approach that will involve parents, teachers, pupils and everyone
affected. The steps have been taken to forestall the problem but the effectiveness is yet to
be realized. There are efforts in place to help end the problem for example the Capacity
Building Programme for Key Stakeholders towards the Elimination of Corporal
Punishment and Adoption of Positive Discipline Methods programme was launched to
increase awareness on positive discipline in homes and schools and build the capacity of
teachers on alternative positive and non-violent methods of instilling discipline.
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The programme was initiated in the light of the abolition of the use of corporal
punishment in Kenyan schools and due to the increase in the cases of child corporal
punishment in schools and homes. Corporal punishment was banned in
Kenyan schools in the year 2001 through Legal Notice No. 56 of 2001. This notice
effectively repealed Legal Notice No 40 of 1972, which had introduced corporal
punishment into the Education Act. The Ministry of Education decided to ban corporal
punishment with the realization that corporal punishment was being indiscriminately
applied in schools and children were continuously suffering injuries and even death in
some instances at the hands of teachers. Apart from physical injury, the Ministry
recognizes that this kind of punishment had overall negative effects on children and
adversely affected not only their academic performance, but also their psychological well
being. Furthermore, Kenya is a signatory to the UNCRC, the ACWRC and passed the
Children Act, all of which require that the child be protected, treated with humanity and
respect for their inherent dignity.
Based on the above issues therefore the purpose of this proposal will be to explore school
teachers and pupils’ perceptions of counselling programmes in schools in Kenya. It
focuses on their needs, the problems they meet and what they think should be done to
improve the counselling situation. The study will further explore student perceptions of
their school counselling programmes. The major research questions of this study will be
Do students understand the role and function of the school counselling programmes?
What is the nature of contact between Kenyan students and school counselling
programmes? (c)What is the nature of school counselling programme support as
experienced by Kenyan students? And (d) how do Kenyan students perceive how they are
treated by their school counselling programmes. In addition perceptions of the
administration's attitudes, support from other members of staff and the school
counsellors' workload as well as their overall assessment of the programme are discussed.
1.3 Objectives of the Study
Thus the general objective of this study was to understand white collar crime against
economic development. The specific objectives were:
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(i) To determine the role of individual confidence on the Teacher/Pupil
perceptions of school disciplines
(ii) To find out the role of group confidence on the teacher/pupil perception on
discipline in schools
(iii) To determine the role of self help group on teacher/pupil perception of school
discipline
(iv) To examine the overall relationships between counselling progamme and the
teacher-pupil perception of school discipline
1.4 Research Questions
To help tackle the above objectives, research questions will be used which will cover the
areas as follows:
(i) What are the effects of individual confidence on the Teacher/Pupil perceptions
of school disciplines?
(ii) How does the group confidence affect teacher/pupil perception on discipline
in schools?
(iii) What is the effect of self help group on teacher/pupil perception of school
discipline?
(iv) What is the overall relationship between counselling progamme and the
teacher-pupil perception of school discipline?
1.5 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study will be useful to the government and the non-governmental
agencies including all the stakeholders in the education sector especially those bodies
concerned with the control and management of the discipline and career guidance and
counselling, curriculum development and quality assurance and related challenges. The
results are useful as it identify the forms of indiscipline causing factors and their effects
on the students’ academic performance and the general conduct as a responsible citizen
of this country. Therefore these entire stakeholders will benefit from the findings of this
study.
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Apart from that, results of the study will enable information technologists to develop the
tools effective and efficient for use in the department of basic and higher education. This
will ensure the success in their implementations. The corporate community will also
benefit from the findings of this proposed study where their policy formulations that will
suit the reduction of career development and guidance and counselling would result when
implemented.
School counseling is an integral part of each school’s educational program supporting a
base of academic success for each student. By design, it is developmental and focuses on
milestones that follow sequentially as preschool children become young adults.
Counseling programs contain sequential activities that are organized and implemented by
certified school counselling programmes, teachers, and administrators, in collaboration
with students, parents/guardians, and members of the local community.
1.6 Rationale of the Study
School counseling is an integral part of each school’s educational program supporting a
base of academic success for each student. By design, it is developmental and focuses on
milestones that follow sequentially as preschool children become young adults.
Counseling programs contain sequential activities that are organized and implemented by
certified school counselling programmes, teachers, and administrators, in collaboration
with students, parents/ guardians, and members of the local community. The delivery
methods of a school counseling program include: A guidance curriculum that identifies
competencies to be attained by all students at various stages of their development, and
provides activities to help them achieve these competencies, Individualized planning with
students and their parents/guardians in the areas of personal/social, academic/technical,
and career development, Responsive services of counseling, consultation, and referral
and System support functions that promote effective delivery of the school counseling
program.
The intention of this study will be essentially to generate discussions in the area of
primary/secondary school teachers' and pupils’ personal characteristics as they affect
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their beliefs about the guidance and counseling programs existing in their schools. As it is
common knowledge in the counseling world that even though much is known about the
general perception of teachers and pupils regarding school guidance and counseling
programs, little or nothing has ever been said about the personal characteristics of these
teachers and pupils in relation to their perception about the school guidance and
counseling programs in their schools. Thus, it seemed appropriate therefore to assess the
beliefs of classroom teachers regarding guidance and counselling programs in the
secondary schools. Thus, this study predicts that teachers' sex, age, and teaching major,
and nature in terms of ownership of schools would affect secondary school teachers'
beliefs about their schools' guidance and counselling programs.
1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study
1.7.1 Scope of the Study
The scope of study is a general outline of what the study covered. It defines the
parameters within which the study is relevant and valid. Scope of study is a general
outline of what the study, which can be an object, or a theory process, activity describing
either future, current or past knowledge or statements of descriptive activity, experience.
The study will be carried out in Schools within Eldoret West district in Uasin Gishu
County. Therefore in this proposed thesis, the scope will be within the area of case study,
which will be the selected schools in Eldoret West district and that all the information
collected within this area provided the basis of data presentation, analysis and
interpretation. To provide for result and findings clearly the thesis was based on the
understanding that the structured counselling programmes and the perception of primary
stakeholders.
1.7.2 Limitations of the Study
A comprehensive guidance programme should be balanced, and encompass all the four
fundamental areas of guidance, that is , personal, educational, social and vocational. It
should provide students with the assistance necessary for their maximum development.
The programme should also decide what services to offer, such as information,
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consultation, referral, counselling, placement, career follow-up and evaluation services.
The programme should use all staff members and determine their roles in it. It, therefore,
demands consultation, co-operation and co-ordination. A programme should define the
role of the guidance personnel, who should be fully informed about the programme. It
should create a teamwork approach, in which every member of staff is considered
responsible for contributing to the success of the programme.
However, the limitations of this study point out that the comprehensive framework is
missing in the offing and the steep and rugged Eldoret west district will limit effective
and accessibility of preschools in both highlands and midlands and lowlands, thus the
researcher will not be able to make tangible various visits. Hence a small number of
preschools will be selected, 10 out of 300. Also time schedule is a factor that has made
the researcher to select only a small sample population that limits an extensive survey on
the same matter.
1.8 Conceptual Framework
The study will be guided by the Comprehensive School Counseling Programs Model
developed by Idaho as a Guide for basic Education Program Development. The A school
counseling program is an integral part of the total educational system. It is pro-active,
clearly defined, accountable, and developmental by design. It includes sequential
activities organized and implemented by certified school counselling programmes,
teachers, administrators, students, parents/guardians, and community members. A school
counseling program shall include the following delivery methods: Guidance Curriculum,
Individual Student Planning, Responsive Services and System Support. The program
addresses the needs of all students within the: Academic/Technical Development
Domain, Career Development Domain, and Personal/Social Development Domain.
This model is aimed at assisting local districts in developing their own counseling
program as they help all students develop parent-approved student learning plans. This
model is one from which school districts may extract those components that best meet
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their individualized needs. The intent of the program standards is to address the education
of the whole person.
It has become apparent that more emphasis and attention to the development of the whole
person is necessary to help students become responsible, productive, and contributing
members of society. Students need to gain skills that will benefit them throughout their
lives in the various roles they choose as family members, workers, friends, and
community members. Skills such as decision-making, written and verbal counselling
programme, problem-solving, information gathering and analysis, critical thinking,
assuming personal responsibility, acquiring self-knowledge and interpersonal skills, and
analysis of one’s behavior and its impact on others are some of the life skills that
productive people need in order to continue their own development toward a strong self
identity.
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Figure 1.1: Idaho Comprehensive School Counseling Programs Model
Source: Idaho State Board Of Education Report
The purpose of a comprehensive counseling program in a school setting is to promote and
enhance the learning process. To that end, the school counseling program facilitates
student development in three broad domains: Academic/Technical Development, Career
Development, and Personal/Social Development. These standards are based on nationally
recognized standards developed by the School Counselor Association in 1997.
The Academic/Technical Development Domain covers areas such as students will
acquire the attitudes, knowledge and skills that contribute to effective life-long learning;
Students will learn strategies to achieve academic/technical success and satisfaction.
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Students will understand the relationship among education and training, personal
qualities, and the world of work; Students will understand the relationship of academics
to life in the community and at home.
The model also helps Students to acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in
relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions. At the same time
Students will employ strategies to achieve career success and satisfaction, demonstrate
skills for locating, maintaining, and advancing in a job and the understanding diversity
and transition issues in today’s workforce. Other important aspects of the model include
acquisition of attitudes, knowledge, and interpersonal skills to help them understand and
respect self and others, decision making, goal setting, and take necessary action to
achieve goals. Finally the students will understand safety and survival skills.
Each programme must be specifically designed for the clients it serves. There is,
therefore, a possibility for both similarities and differences in programmes. Effective
programmes are flexible, since this allows for adaptation to future growth and
effectiveness. Programme development not only calls for needs assessment but reflects
other characteristics of the clients, such as age, location or environment, cultural
background, sex and economic status.
Any service as comprehensive as guidance must be carefully planned if it is to meet the
desired goal. When the programme is well organized, there is no doubt that all involved
will participate to the fullest extent. The teachers should see it as their own, rather than
the headmaster’s or the guidance teacher’s programme. Their involvement is crucial right
from the start.
1.8.1 Benefits of the Guidance and Counselling Programme
Programme development is a systematic process that requires following a series of steps.
A developmental and comprehensive school guidance and counselling programme not
only benefits the students, but also the parents, teachers, administrators and the business
community. The benefits to the various groups are as follows: Students increases self-
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knowledge and how to relate effectively to others; broadens knowledge about the
changing environment; helps them reach their fullest academic potential; provides
opportunities for career exploration, planning and decision-making; provides an
opportunity for networking with services and thus establishes an effective support system
and teaches responsible behaviour. Couselling programme will as well provide parents
with support for their child’s educational and personal development; increases
opportunities for parental involvement in the education of the child and equips parents
with skills necessary to support their child. This programme will enable students to
master effectively their subjects with an understanding of the importance of each one and
provides an opportunity to work in collaboration with other teachers and parents.
It is not without the assistance of the administrators that such programme will be
successful thus the cpunselling programmes will enhances the image of the school in the
community, reduces strikes, and improves the general appearance of the school; allows
for systematic evaluation and provides a structure which can be monitored easily.
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This chapter involves systematic identification, location and analysis of the previous
studies related to the matter of investigation. It is useful chapter that entails analysis of
casual observations and opinions related t this proposed study. Chapter two, through the
literature review, will help the researcher to get a thorough understanding and insight into
past works and trends records concerning the proposed study. The literature review will
enable the researcher to identify key areas that have thoroughly been researched on the
strength of weaknesses of past researchers, and identify the gaps to be filled from these
studies.
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Our students need to be more competitive with students from other countries, is a
statement that has become a genuine concern among critics. This requires students to
attend school on a much more regular basis, attend school for longer hours and take more
academic classes. Surprisingly, very little attention, if any, was given to school guidance
and counselling programmes and services in all these efforts to revamp education. It is as
though school guidance and counseling service is a fringe benefit instead of being
directly linked with students' learning (Myrick, 1993).
Myrick (1993) remarks that learning is a consequence of the environment for better or for
worse. Teachers and students working together create a learning climate, which plays a
critical role in educational excellence. If students are to learn effectively and efficiently,
to achieve more academically and to be productive and responsible citizens, then
functional school guidance and counselling program must be part of the total school
experience.
Myrick (1993) further noted that approximately 70 percent of the 21389 teachers
surveyed in 1990 by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching rated
counselling services for students as either "fair or poor". This Myrick (1993) reports may
be attributed to the ineffective traditional guidance and counselling methods, which too
often rely on individual counselling at critical moments. Hence counsellors were seen as
administrative assistants and having too little time to counsel. Even when counselling
took place, it seemed to have little impact on students' attitude or behaviour.
This chapter will therefore discuss the literature on the following areas of the proposed
study; guidance curriculum, individual student planning, responsive services, and system
support of the counselling program in our educational sector.
2.1 The Understanding of Counselling Programmes
School counselling programmes help to make learning a positive experience for every
student. They are sensitive to individual differences. They know that a classroom
environment that is good for one child is not necessarily good for another. Counselling
19
programmes facilitate counselling programme among teachers, parents, administrators,
and students to adapt the school's environment in the best interests of each individual
student. They help individual students make the most of their school experiences and
prepare them for the future.
The history of school counseling around the world varies greatly based on how different
countries and local communities have chosen to provide academic, career, college
readiness, and personal/social skills and competencies to pupils of basic education and
their families based on economic and social capital resources and public versus private
educational settings in what is now called a school counseling program.
In the United States, the school counseling profession began as a vocational guidance
movement at the beginning of the 20th century. Jesse B. Davis is considered the first to
provide a systematic school guidance program. In 1907, he became the principal of
a Primary School and encouraged the school English teachers to use compositions and
lessons to relate career interests, develop character, and avoid behavioral problems. Many
others during this time did the same. For example, in 1908, Frank Parsons, "Father of
Vocational Guidance" established the Bureau of Vocational Guidance to assist young
people in making the transition from school to work. From the 1920s to the 1930s, school
counseling and guidance grew because of the rise of progressive education in schools.
This movement emphasized personal, social, moral development. Many schools reacted
to this movement as anti-educational, saying that schools should teach only the
fundamentals of education. This, combined with the economic hardship of the Great
Depression, led to a decline in school counseling and guidance. In the 1940s, the U.S.
used psychologists and counselling programmes to select, recruit, and train military
personnel. This propelled the counseling movement in schools by providing ways to test
students and meet their needs. Schools accepted these military tests openly. Also, Carl
Rogers' emphasis on helping relationships during this time influenced the profession of
school counseling.
20
In the 1950s the government established the Guidance and Personnel Services Section in
the Division of State and Local School Systems. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched
Sputnik I. Out of concern that the Russians were beating the U.S. in the space race, which
had military implications, and that there were not enough scientists and mathematicians,
the American government passed the National Defense Education Act, which spurred a
huge growth in vocational guidance through large amounts of funding. Since the 1960s,
the profession of school counseling has continued to grow as new legislation and new
professional developments were established to refine and further the profession and
improve education (Lapan, et. al., 1997). On January 1, 2006, congress officially declared
February 6–10 as National School Counseling Week.
The 1960s was also a time of great federal funding in the United States for land grant
colleges and universities interested in establishing and growing what are now known as
Counselor Education programs. School counseling began to shift from a focus
exclusively on career development to a focus on student personal and social issues
paralleling the rise of social justice and civil rights movements in the United States. It
was also in the late 60s and early 1970s that Norm Gysbers began the work to shift from
seeing school counselling programmes as solitary professionals into a more strategic and
systemic goal of having a comprehensive developmental school counseling program for
all students. His and his colleagues' work and research evidence showing strong
correlations between fully implemented school counseling programs and student
academic success was critical to beginning to show an evidence base for the profession
especially at the Primary School level based on their work in the state of Missouri.
Therefore owing to the need of specialization in the area of counselling, many institutions
of higher learning, in the 1992, the Department of Educational Psychology began to offer
a School Counselling education Program. This program was intended to be responsive to
the needs of teachers who wished to pursue graduate level training in counselling. Since
there continues to be a chronic shortage of counsellors with appropriate post-graduate
training to meet the demands of schools, the Counselling Psychology Faculty within the
Department developed this program so that it would be available to professionals through
21
alternate delivery means. The history of school counseling formally started at the turn of
the twentieth century, although a case can be made for tracing the foundations of
counseling and guidance principles to ancient Greece and Rome with the philosophical
teachings of Plato and Aristotle. There is also evidence to argue that some of the
techniques and skills of modern-day guidance counselling programmes were practiced by
Catholic priests in the middle Ages, as can be seen by the dedication to the concept of
confidentiality within the confessional.
The factors leading to the development of guidance and counseling in the United States
began in the 1890s with the social reform movement. The difficulties of people living in
urban slums and the widespread use of child labour outraged many. One of the
consequences was the compulsory education movement and shortly thereafter the
vocational guidance movement, which, in its early days, was concerned with guiding
people into the workforce to become productive members of society. The social and
political reformer Frank Parsons is often credited with being the father of the vocational
guidance movement. His work with the Civic Service House led to the development of
the Boston Vocation Bureau. In 1909 the Boston Vocation Bureau helped outline a
system of vocational guidance in the Boston public schools. The work of the bureau
influenced the need for and the use of vocational guidance both in the United States and
other countries. By 1918 there were documented accounts of the bureau's influence as far
away as Uruguay and China. Guidance and counseling in these early years were
considered to be mostly vocational in nature, but as the profession advanced other
personal concerns became part of the school counselor's agenda.
The United States' entry into World War I brought the need for assessment of large
groups of draftees, in large part to select appropriate people for leadership positions.
These early psychological assessments performed on large groups of people were quickly
identified as being valuable tools to be used in the educational system, thus beginning the
standardized testing movement that in the early twenty-first century is still a strong aspect
of U.S. public education. At the same time, vocational guidance was spreading
throughout the country, so that by 1918 more than 900 Primary Schools had some type of
22
vocational guidance system. In 1913 the National Vocational Guidance Association was
formed and helped legitimize and increase the number of guidance counselling
programmes. Early vocational guidance counselling programmes were often teachers
appointed to assume the extra duties of the position in addition to their regular teaching
responsibilities.
The 1920s and 1930s saw an expansion of counseling roles beyond working only with
vocational concerns. Social, personal, and educational aspects of a student's life also
needed attention. The Great Depression of the 1930s led to the restriction of funds for
counseling programs. Not until 1938, after a recommendation from a presidential
committee and the passage of the George Dean Act, which provided funds directly for the
purposes of vocational guidance counseling, did guidance counselling programmes start
to see an increase in support for their work.
After World War II a strong trend away from testing appeared. One of the main persons
indirectly responsible for this shift was the American psychologist Carl Rogers. Many in
the counseling field adopted his emphasis on "nondirective" (later called "client-
centered") counseling. Rogers published Counseling and Psychotherapy in 1942
and Client-Centered Therapy in 1951. These two works defined a new counseling theory
in complete contrast to previous theories in psychology and counseling. This new theory
minimized counselor advice-giving and stressed the creation of conditions that left the
client more in control of the counseling content.
In 1958 the National Defense Education Act (NDEA) was enacted, providing aid to
education in the United States at all levels, public and private. Instituted primarily to
stimulate the advancement of education in science, mathematics, and modern foreign
languages, NDEA also provided aid in other areas, including technical education, area
studies, geography, English as a second language, counseling and guidance, school
libraries, and educational media centers. Further support for school counseling was
spurred by the Soviet Union's launching of Sputnik and fears that other countries were
outperforming the United States in the fields of mathematics and science. Hence, by
providing appropriate funding for education, including guidance and counseling, it was
23
thought that more students would find their way into the sciences. Additionally, in the
1950s the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) was formed, furthering the
professional identity of the school counselor.
The work of C. Gilbert Wrenn, including his 1962 book The Counselor in a Changing
World, brought to light the need for more cultural sensitivity on the part of school
counselling programmes. The 1960s also brought many more counseling theories to the
field, including Frederick Perl's gestalt therapy, William Glasser's reality therapy,
Abraham Maslow and Rollo May's existential approach, and John Krumboltz's behavioral
counseling approach. It was during this time that legislative support and an amendment to
the NDEA provided funds for training and hiring school counselling programmes with an
basic emphasis.
In the 1970s the school counselor was beginning to be defined as part of a larger
program, as opposed to being the entire program. There was an emphasis on
accountability of services provided by school counselling programmes and the benefits
that could be obtained with structured evaluations. This decade also gave rise to the
special education movement. The educational and counseling needs of students with
disabilities were addressed with the passage of the Education for All Handicapped
Children Act in 1975.
The 1980s saw the development of training standards and criteria for school counseling.
This was also a time of more intense evaluation of education as whole and counseling
programs in particular. In order for schools to provide adequate educational opportunities
for individuals with disabilities, school counselling programmes were trained to adapt the
educational environment to student needs. The duties and roles of many counselling
programmes began to change considerably. Counselling programmes started finding
themselves as gatekeepers to Individualized Education Programs (IEP) and Student Study
Teams (SST) as well as consultants to special education teachers, especially after passage
of the Americans with Disabilities Act in 1990.
24
The development of national educational standards and the school reform movement of
the 1990s ignored school counseling as an integral part of a student's educational
development. The ASCA compensated partially with the development of national
standards for school counseling programs. These standards clearly defined the roles and
responsibilities of school counseling programs and showed the necessity of school
counseling for the overall educational development of every student.
The roles of a school counselor are somewhat different at various grade levels. In basic
schools, counselling programmes spend their time with children individually, in small
groups, or in classrooms–thus having some connection with every student in the school.
With the advent of systems thinking, the basic school counselor now has a working
relationship with students' families and with community social agencies. Although the
roles of school counselling programmes vary among settings, common tasks include
individual counseling, small-group counseling, large-group or classroom presentations,
involvement in school wide behavior plans for promoting positive and extinguishing
negative behaviors, and consulting with teachers, parents, and the community.
Like basic school counselling programmes, the roles of middle and Primary School
counselling programmes vary depending on the district and the school administrators.
Counselling programmes deal with a vast array of student problems personal, academic,
social, and career issues. Typically, these areas get blended together when working with a
student on any one topic; hence, it is impossible to separate the duties of a counselor on
the basis of a particular problem. Counselling programmes in middle and Primary School
have experience with all these areas and work with others in the school and community to
find resources when a need arises. It is common for a school counselor to be the first
person a student with a difficulty approaches. The school counselor then assesses the
severity of the problem in order to provide appropriate support. School administrators
sometimes assign counselling programmes such responsibilities as class scheduling,
discipline, and administration. These tasks can be integrated with the goals of school
counseling but can also dilute the time available for helping individuals.
25
2.2 Concept of Teacher/Pupil Perception
Education has been undergoing rapid change in the last several years. New modes of
learning have been espoused and new counselling programme techniques/strategies are
being encouraged as alternative methods to the traditional classroom model. However,
"the traditional view of education, a view that still prevails, holds that learners must
submit themselves to teachers" (Menges, 1977). As Menges further suggests, this view
means that the teachers' authority is not to be questioned. The underlying assumption is
that without the counselling programme of power by the teacher over the student, the
student cannot learn.
Hurt, Scott, and McCroskey (1978) suggest that in a classroom setting "a certain degree
of teacher power is always present. They continue. by suggesting that the more power is
employed by the teacher as a means of control, the more likely it will be required as a
means of control. In other words "the more it is used, the more it will need to be used.
The primary focus of this study is to determine the degree to which teachers and students
have shared perceptions of the use of power in the classroom. If there is a high degree of
shared perceptions this might illustrate that both teacher and student are aware of power
and its outcome. A low degree of shared perceptions may contribute to ineffective
counselling programme between the teacher and student. Shared perceptions, of course,
do not guarantee effective counselling programme. However, if the student doesn't like
the type of power employed by the teacher but can recognize it when it is used he/she
may be able to respond appropriately. If the student cannot recognize the type of power
communicated by the teacher, he/she is more likely to respond inappropriately. The key
is to determine if students and teachers have shared perceptions about the kinds of power
employed in a classroom. If this is determined then both teachers and students can be
taught what types of power produce certain outcomes.
Using the concepts of "identity" and "situational identity" as developed in symbolic
interactions; this article focuses on student-perceived consequences of pets’ victims’
phenomena in the Primary School setting. The consequences for self-defined pets include
experiencing the ridicule of one's peers, and greater pressure from teachers than normal
26
concerning academic performance and classroom demeanor. The consequences for class
victims are seen in marking and disciplining processes, in the development of a dislike
for teachers, in antipathy among students, and in students' empathizing with those
apparently victimized by teachers' actions. A large-scale survey of pupils' perceptions of
a good teacher in the Caribbean republic of Trinidad and Tobago is reported. An essay-
based, interpretative mode of research was used to elicit and identify constructs used by
boys and girls. The study explores similarities and differences between boys and girls in
their perceptions of a good teacher, in a society where girls achieve superior academic
performance (than boys).
2.3 Conceptual Model
Researchers have argued that the student teaching “experience” plays a significant role in
the formation of attitudes and perceptions of preserves teachers regarding their roles and
responsibilities as future practitioners. This postulate also includes those individuals who
aspire to be agriculture teachers (Briers and Byler, 1979; Byler and Byler, 1984;
Schumacher and Johnson, 1990; Schumann, 1969). Further, other investigators (Deeds,
1993; Deeds, Arrington, and Flowers, 1988; Garton and Cano, 1994; Martin and Yoder,
1985; Norris, Larke, and Briers, 1990) have opined that for prospective agriculture
teachers the cooperating teacher and the cooperating center are two of the most
significant components of the student teaching experience.
DeMoulin (1993) stated that a cooperating teacher should “foster unique teaching
concepts and give support and encouragement to preservice teachers. To this end, Garton
and Cano (1994) contended that cooperating teachers should demonstrate the “desired
teaching behaviors expected of student teachers” (p. 213). In support, Martin and Yoder
(1985) opined that an agriculture student teacher’s “success” during his or her field
experience hinged “on the general supervisory climate in the department and on the
educational leadership abilities of the cooperating teacher. Deeds and Barrick (1986) and
Byler and Byler (1984) found that the behaviors of agriculture cooperating teachers and
programmatic qualities of cooperating
27
2.3.1 Factors Affecting Implementation
Programme implementation refers to the execution of programme strategies. The tasks
required to follow the strategy are detailed and carried out. In addition, programme
development considers the skills and knowledge needed by the implementers. Staff
development opportunities are looked at to ensure that the implementers are well
equipped to play their roles. It is when the programme strategies are implemented, and
monitored. Formative evaluation techniques are important here. Staff competence is
taken into account, and enables the leadership to decide whether team teaching will be
used or not.
It is important to consider the human, financial and political resources at the
implementation stage. Human resources include the counsellor/student ratio, and the
number of committee members and teachers who actually offer their services. Financial
resources include the school budget for Guidance and Counselling, other sources of
finance, and the adequacy of Guidance facilities. Finally, political resources are related to
policies and procedures, resistant staff members, implementation guidelines and
administrative support. It is important to consider all these aspects at the implementation
stage as they determine the direction of the programme. Although good programmes may
exist on paper they may not yield the desired results. The implementation stage
determines the effectiveness of a programme.
It is important to have a good counsellor/student ratio. This will depend on the
organization of guidance services in a given school. It will depend on whether there is a
part-time or full-time guidance teacher/school counsellor. Despite the large numbers that
guidance teachers/school counsellors work with, they are expected to implement the
programme, and ensure that its goals are achieved. It is important that thought be given to
the provision of a suitable ratio, as too many students can prevent the counsellor/guidance
teacher from giving good service. For someone to carry out duties efficiently, he needs to
have a clear job description. The roles and functions of guidance personnel must be
clearly outlined as this allows them to use their education and talents to good purpose.
28
(N.B: Policy Guidelines for the Implementation of Guidance and Counselling in
Botswana’s Education System).
All implementers should have clearly defined roles, as this enables administrators to
understand the skills required when recruiting staff. Professionals, para-professionals and
support staff should have the competence to run well-balanced and comprehensive
guidance programmes. For any programme to achieve success its implementers should be
helped to reach their full professional potential. The programme leader should be
personally suitable, and educationally prepared, to assume the leadership role, and should
have a professional and productive relationship with students.
For a programme to be sustainable, financial resources are needed. It is, therefore
important to determine the cost so that a feasible budget can be drawn up. This avoids
unnecessary over-expenditure and disappointment. A budget enables the programme
leader to operate within defined funding limits. It is important to explore other possible
funding opportunities or sources. Non-governmental organizations and donor agencies
such as SIDA, USAID and UNESCO, may be willing to fund certain activities. Such
organizations may want to fund activities such as career resource centres, video
production, life skills programmes, research, and many others. There is a need to explore
such opportunities. Although such organizations may not fund an entire programme, they
often provide the necessary support, which goes a long way towards supplementing state
funds.
The provision of such funds requires a detailed project proposal and a plan of action.
When writing the proposal and plan, the programme leader must only emphasize the
areas of interest to the sponsor. There is a risk of including other areas since there might
be a fear that the funds may be diverted. A report is required on the use of donated funds.
Programme activities determine the materials and equipment required. It is important for
the programme leader to ensure that all these are readily available. The materials chosen
will help the students/pupils to attain the outcomes identified at the planning stage. Apart
from materials, it is also necessary to ensure that there are adequate facilities and
equipment. Such facilities include counselling rooms, and resource rooms. For example,
29
students will use the counselling service when an adequate, comfortable and private room
is available for counselling. The availability of the necessary facilities also has a positive
impact on teachers and parents. They attach value to the programme when financial
support and recognition are given.
The four components of guidance demand proper facilities for effective implementation.
Functional physical facilities are necessary, and they should provide adequate space,
privacy and accessibility, which are the corner stones of a good quality guidance
programme. A guidance centre would be an appropriate location for services. Such a
centre can be used for individual activities which enable students to work on their own, or
with teachers and/or parents. The identification of the resources helps determine the
financial implications of programme implementation. Adequate financial support is
crucial, since the services provided are related to the costs available. Programme
outcomes should match costs.
The policies and procedures governing the implementation of a programme should be
well known to the implementors. An understanding policy will enable the programme
leader to deal with resistance and matters of shared responsibility. For instance, in the
case of Botswana, the Guidance teacher works with the Teaching Service Management
Department, the Secondary Education Department, and the Department of Curriculum
Development and Evaluation. It is, therefore, necessary for these departments to work
together when redeploying Guidance Teachers. The understanding of policy ensures
shared responsibility when the need arises. It also gives implementers the ability to
distinguish between issues. When guidance teachers involve other beneficiaries, it is
important that they know and understand their responsibilities, to avoid any clash of
interest. Guidance teachers should know the appropriate links and channels of
counselling programme on various issues affecting their clients. Inability to connect, and
to refer issues to relevant beneficiaries, may retard progress.
Guidance teachers must understand their role, as a lack of understanding may adversely
affect the programme. Open counselling programme in programme implementation is
30
essential, and goes a long way towards ensuring that their concerns and fears about the
implementation of the programme are addressed. Implementation calls for the
programme leader to commend those who make a conscious effort to give support, and
ensure that the programme moves in the right direction. This is an effective strategy, as it
motivates them to work toward the achievement of positive results.
2.4 Review of Past Studies
Myrick (1993) remarks that learning is a consequence of the environment for better or for
worse. Teachers and students working together create a learning climate, which plays a
critical role in educational excellence. If students are to learn effectively and efficiently,
to achieve more academically and to be productive and responsible citizens, then
functional school guidance and counselling program must be part of the total school
experience.
Myrick (1993) further noted that approximately 70 percent of the 21389 teachers
surveyed in 1990 by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching rated
counselling services for students as either "fair or poor". This Myrick (1993) reports may
be attributed to the ineffective traditional guidance and counselling methods, which too
often rely on individual counselling at critical moments. Hence counsellors were seen as
administrative assistants and having too little time to counsel. Even when counselling
took place, it seemed to have little impact on students' attitude or behaviour.
Teachers' perception of school counsellors have been neglected and virtually ignored.
However, a few authors who have studied this, report that most teachers perceive
counsellors as a positive contribution to the school instructional programs (Aluede and
Imonikhe, 2002; Quarto, 1999). In Ireland for example, O'Brien, Tuite, McDonogh and
Deffely (1982, as cited in O'Leary, 1990) reported areas of mutual interests to both
guidance counsellors and their teaching colleagues. Ninety-five percent of the
respondents held the opinion that the counsellor should participate in the teachers'
discussions of classroom experiences; eighty-five percent of their research participants
believed that counsellors should use teachers as a career information resource. Overall,
31
the study points to the possibility of integrating career information with the role of the
subject teacher. The study further advocated that new methods and techniques could be
devised whereby the counsellor coordinates the subject teaching staff, as a team of people
who can effectively fulfill many of the career information needs of the students.
Schmidt (1993) revealed that counsellors and teachers use classroom guidance activities
to encourage positive self-concept development and alter behaviours for improving
school success. These classroom activities are integrated with daily lessons or designated
as specially planned presentations. It is worthy of mention that no school counselling
program is successful without the support and assistance of the teachers in the school
(Schmidt, 1993). The teacher is the most important professional in the school setting
(Gibson and Mitchell, 2003).
Teachers are a vital link in the integration of affective education into the curriculum.
They are the first line helpers in the school counselling program and are the referral
sources for students in need of additional assistance. Thus, teachers' support and
participation are very vital to any program that involves students. Hence, teachers feel
that they have responsibilities in the school counselling programs beyond those
performed in the classrooms (Gibson and Mitchell, 2003). Thus, counsellors' roles and
functions continue to be an ongoing discussion in the literature even though they have
been in existence for more than a decade and specifically designated by American School
Counseling Association (ASCA) (Stower, 2003). The role of the school counsellor has
been studied, examined, defined and redefined by abundance of literature (Brott and
Myers, 1999; Stower, 2003). However, the actual, ideal and perceived roles of school
counsellors differ in meaning among researchers.
Few people can make or break the school counselling programs like the teachers.
Teachers serve as excellent referral sources for children in need of counseling services. In
addition, teachers are valuable sources of information for need assessment and program
evaluation. Their input is vital to understanding the needs of a school community as well
as the effectiveness of the school counselling program interventions (Ripley, Erford,
32
Dahir and Eschbach, 2003). For school guidance program to flourish, cooperation
between school counselling programmes and teachers is paramount. According to Nugget
(1990), next to counselling programmes, school teachers are the most important
component in implementing a successful school guidance program. By and large,
teachers are the key adult figure in the average pupil's school day. They are the most
influential figures, be it positive or negative to the average student.
This is particularly true at the elementary level, where children spend the majority of
their day in one classroom. Thus, without teachers' support and involvement,
developmental guidance won't work. As teachers represent the first line of defence in
identifying special needs, they are the key advisors to the children and represent the best
hope of personalization of learning. Therefore, teamwork between teachers and
counselling programmes is a necessity for any guidance program to thrive (Stelzer,
2003). Furthermore, Nugget (1990) reported that teachers were the most crucial allies in a
counselor attempt to deliver a successful guidance program. As teachers spend more time
with the students than any other school staff member. Therefore, they are most apt to
influence kids both individually and collectively.
Adams (2000) reports the need for teachers and counsellors to work as a team for
coordination of intervention efforts. Activities that received high ranks included the areas
of individual and small group planning, as well as, specific areas in personal, educational
and career decisions (Hughey, Gysbers and Starr, 1993). Specific strengths cited by
numerous teachers were caring attitude of counsellors and the fact that they were readily
accessible, as well as, the college planning time spent with the students (Hughey, et al.,
1993). On the type of school in relation to guidance and counselling programs, teachers
perceived private (sectarian) schools to have the best implementation of guidance
services, followed by public (state) schools and private (non-sectarian) schools
respectively. In addition, teachers' perception of counselling services showed differences
between public (state) schools and private (sectarian) schools. Furthermore, teachers
perceived significant difference in testing services between public (state) schools and
private (non-sectarian) schools. Overall implementation of the services was perceived by
33
teachers to have differed between private (national) schools and private (sectarian)
schools (Mabalot, 1995).
Researchers have neglected minority students’ likes, dislikes, and preferred
characteristics of school counselling programmes. Furthermore, research concerning the
relationship between school counselling programmes and Kenya students is scarce. In
addition, the research that has been conducted concerning Kenya perceptions of their
school counselor, which are mostly negative, needs to be carefully examined since some
of these studies have focused upon Kenya students who (a) have dropped out of school
(Ortiz and Guss, 1995), (b) are involved in dropout prevention programs (Ochoa, 1994),
or (c) have been in community violence prevention programs (Jose-Kampfner, 1994).
Each of these Kenya samples represents students who would not be considered to be
mainstreaming, positively functioning students. With the growing Kenya Primary School
student population and the lack of research aimed at understanding the perceptions of and
needs of Kenya students, it is also important to understand students’ perceptions of their
school counselor in relation to (a) factors that facilitate students’ help seeking behaviors,
(b) academic support, (c) personal problems, and (d) students needs.
West, Kayser, Overton, and Saltmarsh (1991) conducted a study that examined student
perceptions that inhibit the initiation of counseling and found that students most
frequently reported that they (a) do not like to tell a stranger about personal things, (b) are
afraid counselling programmes will break confidentiality, (c) believed that school
counselling programmes did not have time, (d) would be embarrassed to reveal real
issues, and (e) perceived the school counselor to be busy or unavailable. West et al.,
(1991) suggested that client preparation and orientation are vital indicators of
understanding what services are available, what counseling actually is, and the benefits of
counseling. West et al., (1991) also found two major qualities of the school counselor,
trustworthiness and competence, which facilitated help seeking behaviors among
students. It seems that students’ perceptions of their school counselor do impact their
ability or willingness to seek help. Although that study was important in terms of
understanding student perceptions, it neglected the examination of student race and
34
ethnicity, and how students’ race and ethnicity may impact their perceptions of their
school counselling programmes and how this may inhibit the initiation of counseling.
Examining Kenya students’ perceptions of their school counselor will aid the school
counseling profession in developing a better understanding of Kenya student inhibitions
of seeking school counseling services. In order to provide equitable services to the Kenya
Primary School student population, it is important to understand similarities and
differences between them and students of other racial backgrounds so that outreach and
services can be provided within an appropriate cultural context.
School counselling programmes play a vital role in providing academic support and
checking graduation requirements. In a study conducted at an alternative school,
Saunders and Saunders (2001) surveyed alternative school students’ perceptions of their
experiences and interactions with their former school counselor. Saunders and Saunders
(2001) found that students rated their former school counselling programmes highest on
the item “My counselor provided academic guidance when I had questions about my
classes.” In contrast, Davila (2003) found that Puerto Rican students had negative
experiences with their Primary School counselor concerning academic support issues.
Kenya college bound students in this qualitative study expressed (a) negative experiences
with their school counselor, and (b) lacked academic planning and guidance from their
school counselor.
Students also expressed frustration and disappointment concerning their lack of career
exploration and planning, as well as college preparation Students seek guidance from
school counselling programmes for a variety of reasons, including help with personal
problems. Saunders and Saunders (2001) found that alternative school students ranked
their former school counselling programmes lowest on items “My counselor helped me to
deal with personal problems (family or other problems)” and “I felt comfortable going to
talk to my counselor last year.” Students did not perceive their former school counselling
programmes as being very approachable or helpful in helping students deal with their
personal and family problems (Saunders and Saunders, 2001). Similarly, Kampfner-Jose
(1994) found that Kenya students were aware that they needed someone to talk to about
35
their personal problems and disappointed by the lack of support services. Students in this
study understood the role of the school counselor and wanted someone to talk to about
their personal problems. However, students believed that school counselling programmes
did not have time to listen to them. More research is needed to understand Kenya student
perceptions of their school counselor. School counselling programmes may play an
important role in dropout prevention. Ochoa (1994) interviewed Kenya students
concerning drop-out prevention services. Forty-two percent of students interviewed
indicated that they were not getting the help they needed from school counselling
programmes or that the school counselor was unavailable (Ochoa, 1994). One participant
in that study stated that there was a need for more counselling programmes.
Similarly, Ortiz and Guss (1995) found that none of the participants in their study of
Primary School drop outs were referred to counseling. When asked why they thought
they were not referred, participants explained that school counselling programmes fix
schedules and that they believed that the school counselor would not know how to help
them (Ortiz and Guss, 1995). It seems some Kenya students are not aware of the services
that school counselling programmes can provide (i.e., academic, social, career, or dropout
prevention) (Ortiz and Guss, 1995), and some Kenya students are acutely aware of their
needs (i.e., academic, social, and career), even when their needs go unmet (Ochoa, 1994).
Although the American School Counselor Association has clear standards of school
counseling services for all students (ASCA, 2006), previous researchers (Ochoa, 1994;
Ortiz and Guss, 1995) indicated that Kenya students are being neglected in terms of
adequate school counseling services.
The lack of positive interactions with the school counselor, perceptions that the school
counselor was not concerned, and lack of understanding concerning the role of the school
counselor is disheartening. These findings demonstrate (a) the critical role school
counselling programmes can play in dropout prevention, and (b) the need for school
counselling programmes to not only address student needs, but to make more time for
36
students. Previous findings concerning student perceptions, and more specifically,
negative Kenya students’ perception of their school counselor, led to the current study.
2.4 Summary of Literature
The Kenya population is growing so rapidly Census Bureau (2009) predicted that the
Kenya’s population will double from 12.5% to 24.4% by the year 2050. With a trend-
setting increase in the student population, and with many students experiencing difficult
circumstances such as poverty (Census Bureau, 2000; Barth, 2010), high teenage
pregnancy rates, high incidence of dropping out (National Center for Educational
Statistics [NCES], 2003; Barth, 2001), and low post-secondary educational attainment
(Pew Hispanic Center, 2004; NCES, 2003), school counselling programmes need to be
well prepared to guide and care for students. School counselling programmes play a
critical role in the lives of Primary School students.
37
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
The review of literature has produced reoccurring themes emphasizing the importance of
Counselling Programmes on Teacher/Pupils’ Perception in our schools. Teacher/Pupils’
Perception is a critical component in preparing counselling curriculum.
This chapter highlights the procedures that will be followed in conducting the study.
That is the techniques proposed for obtaining data, the steps involved in conducting the
study. It is sub-divided into Research design, target population, sample size and
sampling methods, data collection instruments, data analysis and the validity and
reliability of the instruments. The main purpose of this section is to identify the indicators
that will represent the characteristics hypothesized upon in Counselling Programmes as a
whole. In order to test the outlined hypotheses, the data collection and the selection
criteria to be used are described in detail, explaining the time period, the population and
the sample. This is further done to increase the external validity of the study and to guide
the reader when going into the statistical part of the thesis.
3.1 Research Design
The researcher will employ the case study design. Case study is an intensive, descriptive
and holistic analysis of a single entity or a bounded case. Case study will enable the
researcher to study the area selected entity in depth in order to gain insight into the larger
cases and secondly, to describe and explain rather than predict a phenomenon. This type
of design uses smaller samples for depth analysis. A descriptive case study design will
employ both quantitative and qualitative research methods. A descriptive method collects
information by interview and administering a questionnaire to a sample population,
(Orodno, 2003). An extensive research, rapid data collection, and ability to understand
the population. The researcher will collect information in a standard form from a group of
respondents in the sampled population.
The rationale for choosing qualitative research methodology is directly connected to the
nature of the populations being studied and the underlying goals of the research (to gain
38
an understanding of how students’ perceive their school counselor). Because this study
will focus upon school students’ and teachers’ perceptions, beliefs, and values, the
authors felt it will be important to employ qualitative research methods, including using a
standardized open-ended interview (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996).
This study will be an exploratory and inductive in nature. The researcher will
acknowledge the importance of culture informing qualitative research (Constantine and
Sue, 2005) and the primary researcher used the following interviewing behaviours:
respected the culture of the group being studied, respected the individual being
interviewed, and asked the same question in different ways (including translating
questions into Swahili) (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996).
The researchers will fulfill numerous roles preparing and implementing this study. The
role of the primary researcher was to build rapport with the interviewees. The researcher
provided a comfortable, non threatening atmosphere. Prior to the interview, the
researcher spent three days at the Primary School preparing for the study and obtained
permission from the principle to conduct this study. The researcher also met with
participants and explained the study. Parental/guardian and student informed consent
forms were disseminated at this time.
The researcher’s experience as a school counselor played a vital role during the
interviews. As a result of working in the state in which the interviews took place, the
researcher was familiar with the Primary School diploma requirements. This
understanding reflected that the interviewer understood the students’ experiences. In
addition, the interviewer was able to ask more in depth questions as a result of her
knowledge and experience as a former school counselor. The primary investigator is
conversational in Swahili. This assisted in interpreting the interview questions,
interpreting student responses, and assisting the students when they were stuck.
39
3.2 Study Area
This study will be conducted at a traditional public primary school located in Eldoret
West district. Of the 1169 students enrolled and targeted, 45.3 % of students will be
identified as are in need of counseling services, and qualified for guidance and counseling
programmes. In addition, 7.8% of students will be identified as limited in English
proficiency. The most recent drop-out rate data available indicated that there were 75
dropout events in 2003–2004.
3.3 Target Population
The study targets all the primary schools in Eldoret West District focusing mainly on
teachers and pupils. There are over 300 primary schools in the district. The researcher
will select 10 primary schools with a population of over 120 teachers and 8000 pupils in
total. The composition of the population will include head teachers, and teachers and
pupils of upper classes. This population will be involved in the study because it is directly
involved in the development of counseling and discipline cases in the primary schools
and any other programs that curriculum stipulates. Apart from that this population
directly influencing the success of guidance and counseling programmes and so is an
essential population for this study. The study will target all students of primary schools of
standards 5, 6, 7 and 8 being the key victims of counseling.
3.4 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure
A total of 300 pupils and 100 teachers will be selected to participate in this study,
representing standards 5, 6, 7 and 8. This is the area mostly affected by indiscipline in
schools and normally plan strikes and destruction of property. Eight male and eight
female will be selected for each grade level. The demographic characteristics of the
participants will include 50 male teachers and 50 female teachers. The teachers' majors
will be spread in the sample as follows: Social Sciences, Arts, Sciences, and general
Education. Ages of participants will range from 10 to 18-years-old. All students reported
speaking both English and Swahili with varying degrees of proficiency. Four students
reported that their parent or guardian could speak both English and Swahili, while four
students reported that their parent or guardian spoke Swahili only.
40
3.5 Data Collection Procedure
Because of the sensitive nature of the data being collected and the obvious potential for
providing socially desirable responses, it was deemed that anonymity of responses must
be absolutely assured. Consequently, no personal information was requested from either
the teachers or the students. However, it was necessary to be able to pair student
responses with those of their teacher. Thus, each teacher was asked to select a five-digit
number at random and to record it on her/his response form. They were asked to request
that each of their students place the same number on each of their forms.
Teachers will be selected and asked to participate. Those that will agree will be sent the
appropriate forms with instructions for their completion and return. No follow-up
correspondence to increase return rate was employed because the anonymous responses
did not permit knowledge of who had returned materials and who had not. Copies of the
questionnaire were administered to classroom teachers in schools where there are school
counsellors. The questionnaire was personally administered by current investigators with
the assistance of school counsellors in the last week before the midterm break of the third
term in the 2009/10. At the end of mid-break, the current investigators personally went
round the schools with the assistance of the school counsellors retrieved the duly filled
copies. At the time of collection, 216 copies were duly filled and are used for the
analyses.
Participants will be interviewed by the primary investigator using a 29-item semi
structured interview protocol. Questions will be created by the primary researcher based
on a review of the literature concerning the role of the school counseling programmes
(ASCA, 2006), teachers’/students’ perceptions of their school counseling programmes
(Baruth, and Manning, 1992; Davila, 2003: Jose Kampfner, 1994; Ortiz and Guss, 1995),
alternative school students’ perceptions of their school counselor (Saunders and
Saunders, 2001), and the general population of student perceptions of their school
counseling programmes (West, et al, 1991). The primary researcher and the supervisor
will meet as many times as possible to gain consensus on the interview questions. All
interviews will be audio taped and the duration of interviews will be 30-70 minutes. The
41
data will be collected by the primary investigator will not contain any identifying
information or any link to participants. Parental and guardian informed consent and
student assent will be obtained from all students prior to interviews. Informed consent
forms will be two sided, with one side written in English and the other side written in
Swahili.
Examining attendance will be critical due to end-of-course testing that will occur at the
end of every term as well as mid term exam addition, the teachers will be met to ensure
that: students would not miss any important classroom time, and teachers will be
adequately prepared and understood the reasons students will be selected. Students will
not be invited to participate in this study during a class that requires state testing, which
enabled identification and selection of participants. Students will be selected based on
their class levels, and gender. Students that met the criteria based on their availability of
an elective course, grade level, and gender will then be reviewed by the staff member
responsible for attendance. Reputation-based selection (deMarrais and Lapan, 2004) will
be used as the staff member recommended students based on the number of absences for
the semester. Students with the least number of absences were invited to participate.
3.6 Research Instruments
The data collection instruments are tools used to collect information from the intended
target population (sample size). The most commonly used tools include questionnaires,
interview schedules, observational forms, and documents analysis. A questionnaire,
entitled Teachers Beliefs about School Guidance and Counselling Programs Inventory
(TBSGCPI), was employed in the collection of data for this study. This version will be a
modification of Gibson's (1990) Teachers' opinions about School Counseling and
Guidance Programs Survey. The modification of the scale became necessary because of
the peculiarities of counselling practices, especially the differences in the US and
Nigeria's cultural idiosyncrasies.
The current instrument was made up of two sections: Section A sought personal
information of the teachers, such as, Age, Sex, Relationship status, Teaching major, and
42
ownership of schools where they are presently teaching. Sections B of the instrument will
be made of items raised on a four-point Likert type scale with responses ranging from
strongly agree to strongly disagree. This section was specially designed to tap
information from the teachers on their beliefs about school guidance and counselling
programs existing in their schools.
The instrument will be content validated by four persons, two professors of guidance and
counseling with specialization in school counselling, and two practicing school
counsellors. Based on their corrections / modifications on the instrument, especially to
suite the Nigerian situation, the final version of the instrument was drawn The study will
use the following research instruments in data collection. They include questionnaire,
participatory observation, interview schedule, and document analysis. These are
discussed below.
3.6.1 Questionnaire
This is a collection of items to which a respondent is expected to react in writing;
designed questions in form format will be distributed to the respondents. This method
collects a lot of information over a short period of time. The method is suitable when the
information needed can be easily described in writing and if time is limited. In this study,
the respondents will be given enough time to complete the questionnaires before
returning them back for analysis of the collected data. The questionnaires will include
both structured and semi structured questions. This will allow the respondents to give
their opinions where necessary.
The questionnaires will be in three parts, the first part will be seeking information on the
preschools teaching methods, the next part will obtain the information on specific
preschool teacher attributes that influence the choice of teaching methods. The third part
will seek to answer the role of administration and ownership of the preschools on the
choice of teaching methods. The Likert scale will be useful in analyzing data in questions
that directly involve the feelings and attitudes of the respondents. Another method that
will be used is cross tabulation, an essential technique in tabulating frequencies and
43
occurrences of some variables. When analyzing qualitative data, especially from
observation and interviews, the quasi-judicial method will be crucial because it offers a
systematic procedure, which uses rational argument to interpret empirical evidence,
(Mugenda and Mugenda 1999).
Respondents will be assured confidentiality that their identities will be secured and
collection of information will be from the point of view of the respondents. Secondary
data collection methods (early childhood reports in the educational offices, lesson plans,
reports in the head teachers offices): The researcher will use this method so as to
critically examine recorded information related to the issue under investigation .This
method is will enable the researcher to obtain unobtrusive information at the pleasure of
the researcher and without interruption.
This method will enable the researcher to obtain the language and words of the
informants and access data at his convenient time. It also enables the researcher to obtain
data that are thoughtful in that the informants have given attention to compiling them;
and save time /expense in transcribing.
3.6.2 Interview Schedule
This study will also employ the use of interviews as part of the data collection process.
This method will be specifically used on collecting information from the head teachers.
Structured and semi-structured interview questions will be designed for this exercise.
Structured interviews will be used on the selected respondents where respondents failed
to have satisfactory interviews.
Like questionnaires, after selecting a problem, a measuring instrument will be
constructed. A valiant will be constructed to an interview schedule, that is, a series of
questions to ask the respondents. The reason for use of interviews is that they are easy to
administer in that questions are already prepared. They also allowed a great deal of
information to be gathered in a short period of time. Interviews also eliminate many
sources of bias common to other instrument like observations. This is because questions
44
that will be asked will be confidential between the researcher and the respondent. Above
all the data collected through interviews will be highly amenable to statistical
manipulation. Te arrangement of events on questions asked and answers obtained will
allow easy tabulation and correlation statistically.
3.7 Pilot Study
The researcher will carry out a preliminary survey of a similar population to the target
population of this study. This will be done before the main study is carried out. The
researcher will visits to the sampled preschools that will not actually participate in the
actual survey and make preliminary observations of the target groups. Observations
during the survey will be useful in making provisional impressions about the situations
prevailing in this setting. The questionnaires will administered to two members in each
group. Along with questionnaires there will be interview schedules that will be conducted
to one teacher and one a head teacher.
3.7.1 Validity and Reliability of instruments
Kerlinger (1953) argue that validity of an instrument is demonstrated when that
instrument performs its designed purpose. Validity answers the question; ‘are the findings
true?’ In this study instruments will be availed to selected experienced researchers and
lecturers. The study also used randomization of sampling techniques to create equivalent
representative samples that are essentially similar in all the relevant variables that could
influence dependent variable.
3.8 Data Analysis
Audio tapes of all the interviews will be transcribed by the primary investigator.
Transcripts will be copied and given to the supervisor. Transcripts will be reviewed and
examined independently and the authors will then code conceptual categories, which later
will be emerged into specific themes (Fraenkel and Wallen, 1996). The researcher meets
the supervisor twice to compare conceptual categories and themes and five specific
themes will be selected by consensus based upon discussion. The academic, school
counseling experiences, and gender diversity between the authors will allow for varying
45
perspectives concerning the analysis of data. Differential interpretations and perceptions
from the researcher of the participants’ comments will allow for triangulation for specific
themes. In addition, the primary investigator will keep a reflective journal of field notes
that she will initiate at the inception of the research idea. The reflective journal contained
will be both descriptive and reflective notes of the research process as suggested by
Bogdan and Biklen, (1992).
All data analyses will be performed with the assistance of the SAS statistical package.
Data for individual subjects will be punched separately and teacher and student data
paired by means of the MERGE procedure available in this statistical package. The data
analysis included several procedures: Alpha reliability estimates were computed for the
PPM responses for both teachers and students; Means for PPM and RPM responses for
both teachers and students were computed; These means were tested (t-test for related
samples) to determine significance of differences between teacher and student samples;
Canonical correlational analyses were separately computed for the PPM and RPM data as
tests of overall association between teacher and student responses and Simple correlation
analyses for each power base were performed on the PPM and RPM data as tests of
specific association between teacher and student responses
46
References
Adams, J.R. (2000). An examination of reasons for teacher-initiated contact with the
school counselor by family structure, gender and race. Abstract retrieved March 27, 2001
from Dissertation Abstract on-line 61-05A (No AA 19972042).
Aluede, O. O. (2000). The realities of guidance and counseling services in Nigerian
secondary schools: Issues and strategies. Guidance and Counselling, 15(2), 22-26.
Aluede, O. O. and Imonikhe, J. S. (2002). Secondary schools students' and teachers'
perception of the roles of the school counselor. Guidance and Counselling, 17, 46-50.
Aluede, O., Afen-Akpaida, J. E., and Adomeh, I. O. C (2004). Some thoughts about the
future of guidance and counseling in Nigeria. Education, 125, 296-305.
Brott, P.E., and Myers, J.E. (1999). Development of professional school counselor
identity: A grounded theory. Professional School Counseling, 2, 339-351.
Egbochuku, E.O. and Iyamu, E. O.S (2000). Teachers' and students' perception of
guidance and counseling services in Nigerian secondary schools. Journal of Nigerian
Educational Research Association, 14, 50-56.
Federal Government of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education (4 Edition). Abuja,
Nigeria: Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council.
Gibson, R.L. (1990). Teachers' opinions of Primary School counseling and guidance
program: Then and now. The School Counselor, 37, 248-255.
Gibson, R.L., and Mitchell, M.H. (2003). Introduction to counseling and guidance (sixth
edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Inc.
Hughey, K.F., Gysbers, N.C., and Starr, M.(1993). Evaluating comprehensive school
guidance program: Assessing the perception of students, parents and teachers. The
School Counsellor, 41, 31-35.
Luk-Fong, Y.Y., and Lung, C.L.(n.d.) Guidance and counselling services in Hong Kong
secondary schools: Profiles and possibilities. Retrieved on September 21, 2004
47
Appendix I: Work Schedule and Budgeted Expenditure
Activity
PERIOD 2011-2012
M A M J J A S O N D J FProposal DevelopmentLiterature ReviewProposal Presentation and DefenseReconnaissance SurveyActual Data CollectionData Classification, Organization, and Keying in ComputerData Presentation and Analysis (Chapter Four)Writing Chapter FiveEditing the Whole DocumentPrinting of ThesisThesis Correction, binding final submissionPresentation and Defense of Thesis
Budget
ITEM TOTAL AMOUNT(Kshs)Stationery 30,000Non-Consumables 137,000Transportation 4000Accommodation 6000Meals 3000Miscellaneous Expenses 10000
Total 190,000
48
Appendix A: Interview Schedule Questions
1. What is your school counselling programmes type?
2. Describe what your school counselling programme does?
3. What qualities do you feel are important for school counselling programmes to have?
4. Does your school counselling programme possess these qualities?
5. What do you like about your school counselling programme?
6. What do you dislike about your school counselling programme?
7. What characteristics would make your school counselling programme more
approachable?
8. Have you met or talked with your school counselling programme this year?
9. How has your school counselling programme made it a pint to see you this year?
10. How has your school counselling programme helped you this year?
11. How has your school counselling programme helped you throughout the school year?
12. Is there anything that keeps you from meeting with your school counselling
programme?
13. How are you supported by your school counselling programme?
14. What expectations does your school counselling programme have of you?
15. How does your school counselling programme treat you?
16. Do you feel that your school counselling programme genuinely cares about you or
cares about what is going on in your life?
17. How does your school counselling programme communicate to you that he/she wants
you to be successful?
18. Has your school counselling programme discussed college or future plans with you
this year?
19. What has helped you to stay in school?
20. Do you get information sent home in the language your parents can read?
21. What is your country of origin?
22. How long have you been in the KENYA?
23. How long have you been attending this Primary School?
24. What language(s) do you speak?
25. What language(s) do your parent(s)/guardian speak?
49
26. Are language differences an issue?
27. Would you prefer that your school counselling programme speak English or Swahili
to you?
28. Would you prefer that your school counselling programme speak English or Swahili
to your parents?
29. Is there anything else that you feel is important for me to know about your
experiences with your school counselling programme?
50