Chapter One

The Human body: An Orientation

Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body parts and their relationships to each other. Deals with body parts.

Physiology is the study of the function of the body parts.

Topics of Anatomy

Gross Anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with the naked eye.

Microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that are too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Ex. Cytology= the study of cells Histology= the study of tissues

Specialized Branches

1. Pathology= The study of structural changes due to diseases.

2. Radiology=The study of the body with the help of x-ray.

3. Molecular biology= The study of molecular molecules.

4. Radiography (X-Rays)-the use of X-rays to produce images of the internal structures of the human body. This technique is excellent for discovering fractures; however, organs often appear as a blur on X-rays.

5. Computed Tomography Scanning (CT Scan)-the use of X-rays and computers to produce 3- dimensional images of body structures. It is used to detect kidney stones and tumors.

6. Xenon CT-CT brain scan enhanced with Xenon gas which allows for tracing blood flow. This is used to identify strokes.

7. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)-an instrument used to examine blood vessels before and after a dye has been injected into the bloodstream. This is used to detect blocked blood vessels.

8. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)-the use of radioactive particles to produce images of internal organs. This can provide some indication of organ function as well as structure.

9. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)-the use of radio waves and magnets to produce 3-dimensional images of internal structures. It is not used on pregnant women or individuals that have a pacemaker due to the use of magnets.

10. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction(DSR)-specialized X-ray machine that produces 3-dimensional moving images of internal structures. This is excellent for examining the heart, blood vessels, and the lungs.

11. Ultrasound-sound waves are forced into the body where they are reflected by various organs and tissues. These reflected sound waves are used to produce images of internal structures.

a. Sonogram-the images produced by an ultrasound. b. These are often used to follow the development of a fetus

during pregnancy.

Word Bytes

-tomy = cutting dorse = back append = to hang -stasis = standing still cardi- = heart pleur- = rib cran = helmet

pariet = wall homeo = same peri = around nas = nose orb = circle meta = change -logy = the study of pelv = basin

Medical Careers

Epidemiology

ActivitiesInvestigate and describe the causes and distribution of diseases, disabilities, and other health outcomes. They also develop methods of disease prevention and control.

OutlookFaster-than-average-job growth Median Income$56,670 per year in 2006 Work Context & ConditionsUsually work indoors, in a laboratory or university. Accuracy and follow through are very important. Biological and medical scientists usually work regular hours in offices or laboratories and usually are not exposed to unsafe or unhealthy conditions. Minimum Education RequirementsMaster's Degree SkillsCritical Thinking, Active Listening, Writing, Time Management, Mathematics, Active Learning, Complex Problem Solving, Reading Comprehension, Speaking, Science AbilitiesOral Expression, Deductive Reasoning, Problem Sensitivity, Written Comprehension, Inductive Reasoning, Written Expression, Oral Comprehension

Nuclear Medicine

Nuclear medicine technologists operate cameras that detect and map the radioactive drug in a patient’s body to create diagnostic images. After explaining test procedures to patients, technologists prepare a dosage of the radiopharmaceutical and administer it by mouth, injection, inhalation, or other means. They position patients and start a gamma scintillation camera, or “scanner,” which creates images of the distribution of a radiopharmaceutical as it localizes in, and emits signals from, the patient’s body. The images are produced on a computer screen or on film for a physician to interpret.

Levels of Structural Organization

1. Atoms 2. Molecules 3. Cells 4. Tissue 5. Organ 6. Organ System 7. Organism

Body

Systems

Organs & Fluids

Cells and Fluids

Chemical Elements

How the Body is Made Up

Chemical Elements

Smallest building blocks of life

What is the most important chemical element in bones?

Other facts:– Calcium – essential for bone strength– Iron – major component of blood cells– Silicon – growth and development of bones, cartilage and

tissue

The Periodic Table

Water Molecule

Just like body systems, chemical elements have to work together.

Oxygen and Hydrogen combine or work together to make a water molecule.

The body is made up of…

…Chemical elements, which bond together to form…

…Cells, which come together to form…

…Organs, which work together to create…

…Body systems…

…Which in turn is the HUMAN BODY

The human Body

Body Parts

Organs Fluids

Work together to form: BODY SYSTEM

Our body systems work together to keep us healthy and help us live

Cells

Chemical Elements

Overview

Internal Body Parts (Organs)

Maintaining Life

A. Necessary Life functions– 1. Maintain separate internal and external

boundaries.– 2. Movement.– 3. Responsiveness.

– A. Seek water for thirst– B. Move hand from hot stove.

– 4. Digestion.

– 5. Metabolism. Obtaining energy from food and assimilating new

molecules

– 6. Excretion.– A. Rid body of toxic waste.

– 7. Reproduction.– 8. Growth.– 9. Respiration

– A. Using O2 to release energy from food.

B. Survival Needs– 1. Nutrients needed for chemical reactions used for energy

and cell building.– 2. Oxygen needed for breakdown of glucose.– 3. Water needed for secretions, excretions, metabolism,

and transport. Most abundant substance in body.

– 4. Normal body temperature needed for chemical reactions.

Heat=The product of metabolic processes– 5. Pressure: needed for gas exchange in the lungs

(atmospheric pressure), and blood pressure.

Homeostasis

A. Homeostasis=The ability of the body to maintain a constant internal environment, regardless of environmental changes.– 1. Each cell of the body is surrounded by a small

amount of fluid, and the normal functions of each cell depend on the maintenance of its fluid environment with in a narrow range of conditions.

– 2. Conditions are called variables. (values that change)

A. Ex. Body temperature

B. Components:– 1. Variable: The factor or event that can change.– 2. Receptor: Structure that monitors changes in

the environment and sends info to control center.– 3. Control center: Structures that determines the

set point for a variable, analyzes input, and coordinates an appropriate response.

– 4. Effector: Structures that carries out the response directed by the control center.

C. Example of homeostasis:

1. The excretory system makes sure that toxins are not surrounding a cell. It will make sure it is taken away through the blood stream to the kidneys to be filtered and exit the body.

2. Disruption of this process can result in disease or death.

C. Negative feedback:– 1. Most homeostatic controls are negative feedback.– 2. Changes in a way that causes the initial factor to change

(opposite).– 3. Usually the nervous and endocrine systems are involved

in negative feedback mechanisms.– 4. the purpose is to prevent sudden, severe changes in the

body.– 5. End result=body corrects condition that is occurring

D. An example of negative feedback:– Too cold=body shivers, muscles contract, vessels constrict.– Too hot=body sweats, vessels dilate, fast heart beat.– Too much sugar in blood=body produces insulin, insulin

breaks down sugar.– Too little sugar in blood=body produces glucagon, triggers

liver to break up long starch molecules into sugar that go back into bloodstream.

D. Positive feedback– 1. Causes a change in the same direction as the

original change. Ex: Childbirth

Ex. Of Positive Feedback = blood clotting

Ex. Of Postive feedback = arthritis, lupus.

1. The immune system works too good and healthy tissue is destroyed.

The language of Anatomy

A. Anatomical Position– 1. Frontal

Plane=Separates front and back.

– 2. Sagittal Plane=Separates left from right.

– 3. Transverse plane=Separates top from bottom.

– 4. Oblique section – cuts made diagonally

Directional Terms

4. Anterior= Ventral=front

5. Posterior= Dorsal= Back

6. Lateral=The sides 7. Medial=Middle

Relative Positions

1. proximal= nearest to body attachment– Closer to the origin of the body or point of

attachment of a limb to the body trunk.– Ex. The elbow is proximal to the wrist.

2. distal= furthest from body attachment– Further from the origin of a body part or the point

of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.– Ex. The knee is distal to the thigh.

3. superficial=toward the surface– Ex. The skin is superficial to the muscle.

4. deep= toward the core of the body– Ex. The lungs are deep to the skin.

5. prone=lie face down

6. supine=lie face up– Remember this by saying: “soup in navel”

7. Superior=above– Toward the head or upper part of the body.– Ex. The head is superior to the abdomen

8. Inferior=below– Away from the head or toward the lower part of

the body.– Ex. The navel is inferior to the chin.

9. Anterior=Ventral– Toward the front of the body.

Ex. The breastbone is anterior to the spine.

10. Posterior=Dorsal– Toward or at the back of the body; behind.

Ex. The heart is posterior to the breastbone.

True or False

1. The mouth is superior to the nose. 2. The stomach is inferior to the diaphragm. 3. The trachea is anterior to the spinal cord. 4. The heart is medial to the lungs. 5. The hand is proximal to the elbow. 6. Blood in deep blood vessels give color to

the skin.

Answers

1. F 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. F 6. F

Quiz on relative positions:

1. The elbow is _________ to the fingers. 2. The sternum is _______ to the ribs. 3. The feet are ________ to the head. 4. The wrist is ________ to the shoulder. 5. The stomach is more _______ then your skin. 6. The eyes are ______ to your nose. 7. the neck is _______ to the hips. 8. the skin is ___________ to the fat layer.

Answers:

1. proximal 2. medial 3. inferior 4. distal 5. deep 6. lateral 7. superior 8. superficial

Where will you find the following afflictions?

1. carpal tunnel syndrome 2. bucal abcess 3. digital dislocation 4. mammary tumor 5. nasal hemorrhage 6. abdominal cancer 7. sacral fracture

Answers

1. wrist 2. cheek 3. finger 4. breast 5. nose 6. stomach 7. tailbone

B. Regions:– 1. Axial= includes the head, neck and trunk.– 2. Appendicular= consists of the upper and lower

limbs.

Regional Terms

Regional Terms

Abdominal-the portion of the trunk below the diaphragm and above the pelvis.

Acromial- point of the should Antebrachial- forearm Antecubital- front of elbow

Axillary-armpit area. Brachial-proximal portion of the upper arm. Buccal-cheek region. Carpal-wrist.

Calcaneal- heel Cephalic-head. Cervical-neck region. Costal-near the ribs.

Cranial-skull. Crural- leg

Cutaneous-skin. Digital- fingers or toes Dorsum- back Femoral- thigh

Frontal-forehead. Gluteal-buttock region. Hallux- toe Inguinal- groin Lumbar-lower back. Mammary-breast region Manus- hand. Occipital- back of head Oral-mouth. Orbital-eyes. Otic-ears. Palmar-palms of the hand. Patellar- Anterior of knee Pectoral-chest region.

Pedal- foot Perineal- around anus Peroneal- side of leg Plantar-sole of the foot. Popliteal- back of knee Pubic- genital area Sacral- between hips Sternal-midline of the thorax region. Sural- calf

Tarsal-instep of the foot. Umbilical-navel region. Vertebral-pertaining to the backbone

Quiz: What region of the body will you find the following?

1. leg? ______________ 2. foot? ______________ 3. gential region? ______________ 4. toes? ______________ 5. wrist? _____________

6. fingers? ______________ 7. knee cap area? ___________

8. ankle? _____________ 9. thumb? ___________ 10. palm? _______________

Answers:

1. crural 8. tarsal 2. pedal 9. pollex 3. pubic 10. palmar 4. digital 5. carpal 6. digital 7. patella

Quiz: What region of the body will you find the following conditions?

1. Pelvic inflammation?___________ 2. Acromial bruise? ___________ 3. Axillary rash? __________ 4. Cervical vertebrae fracture? ________ 5. Antebrachial contusion? ___________ 6. Antecubital ringworm? ____________

7. Oral infection? _________ 8. A nasal blockage? __________ 9. A brachial cut? ____________ 10. Abdominal pain? ___________

Answers:

1. pelvis 8. nose 2. shoulder point 9. arm 3. arm pit 10. abdomen 4. neck 5. forearm 6. front of elbow 7. mouth

Quiz: What do the following regional terms mean?

1. Perineal? _________________ 2. Plantar? _________________ 3. Femoral? ________________ 4. Brachial? __________________ 5. Calcaneal? _________________ 6. Dorsum? __________________ 7. Lumbar? _________________

8. Popliteal? ____________ 9. Olecranial? ______________ 10. Gluteal? ______________ 11. Sacral? _____________ 12. Sural? ________________

Answers:

1. anus or genitalia 8. back of 2. sole knee 3. thigh 9. back of 4. arm elbow 5. heel 10. butt 6. back 11. between hips 7. loin 12. calf

Quiz: Name the following regions of the body.

1. umbilical ___________ 2. thoracic ___________ 3. frontal ____________ 4. sternal ___________ 5. mammary ___________ 6. mental _____________ 7. buccal _____________

8. coxal ____________ 9. inguinal ____________ 10. orbital _____________

Answers:

1. navel 8. hip 2. chest 9. groin 3. forehead 10. eye 4. breastbone 5. breast 6. chin 7. cheek

Body Cavities

A. Body cavities are spaces within the body that are closed to the outside and contain the internal organs.

– 1. Dorsal cavity houses the cranial (skull, brain) cavity and the vertebral (vertebral column and spinal cord) cavity.

– 2. Ventral cavity contains the thoracic (lungs, heart, mediastinum) and abdominopelvic (abdominal and pelvic organs) cavities.

– Abdomino= stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, small and large intestines.

– Pelvic= reproductive organs.

Other Body Cavities

– 3. Oral and digestive cavities=mouth through the digestive system to the anus. Teeth , tongue.

– 4. Nasal cavity within the nose.

5. Orbital cavities house the eyes.

6. Middle ear cavities. Bones of the ear.

7. Synovial cavities found in all moveable joints.

Membranes

A. Serous membranes=cover the inner walls of the ventral cavity and outer surfaces of organs.

B. Parietal membranes=lines the body cavities walls.

C. Visceral membranes=covers the outer surface of organs.

Serous Membranes – there are 3 types of serous membranes each containing a 3 part structure:

1. Parietal membrane – lines the cavity wall 2. Parietal space – a thin cavity filled with serous fluid that

lubricates 3. Visceral membrane – covers or surrounds the organ

3 types 4. Pericardium – serous membranes surrounding the heart 5. Pleura – serous membranes surrounding the lungs 6. Peritoneum – serous membranes surrounding

Abdominopelvic

Pericardial Membranes

Example of lungs:

Serous Membranes of the LUNGS: 1. The membrane on the surface of the lung is

called visceral pleura. 2. The membrane that lines the cavity in which

the lungs are located is called parietal pleura. 3. The space between these two membranes is

called the pleural cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid.

Example of the heart:

Serous Membranes of the HEART: , 1. The membrane on the surface of the heart is

called visceral pericardium. 2. The membrane that lines the cavity in which

the heart is located is called parietal pericardium. 3. The space between these two membranes is

called the pericardial cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid

Example of the abdomen:

Serous Membranes of the ABDOMINAL ORGANS: 1. The membrane on the surface of the liver,

stomach, etc. is called visceral peritoneum. 2. The membrane that lines the abdominal

cavity is called parietal peritoneum. 3. The space between these two membranes is

called the peritoneal cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid.

Paritoneal Cavity

Pleural and Pericardial Cavity

Abdominopelvic Regions

Abdominopelvic Quadrants

The Systems

Integumentary System

1. Forms the external body covering. Regulates body temperature.

2. Protects deeper tissue from injury. 3. Synthesizes vitamin D. 4. Site of cutaneous receptors such as pain

and pressure. 5.Contains the skin, hair, nails, sweat and oil

glands, sensory glands.

Skin

Nutrients and oxygen are distributed by the blood

Metabolic wastes are eliminated by the urinary and respiratory systems

Integumentary Video

Skeletal System

1. Protects and supports the body systems. 2. Provides a framework the muscles use to

cause movement. 3. Blood cells are formed within bones. 4. Stores minerals. 5. Contains the bones, ligaments, and

cartilage.

Muscular System

1. Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression.

2. Maintains posture. 3. Produces heat.

Cat Neck and Chest Muscles

Muscle Cells

Skeletal and Muscular Video

Nervous System

1. Fast-acting control system of the body. 2. Responds to internal and external

changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.

3. Contain the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs.

Nervous Video

Endocrine System

1. Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use by the body cells.

2. Contain the pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, thymus gland.

The Endocrine System

Endocrine Video

Cardiovascular System

1. Blood vessels transport blood which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste.

2. The heart pumps blood. 3. Contain the heart, arteries, veins,

capillaries, and blood.

The Heart/Blood Vessels

Blood Cells

White Blood Cell

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells transport oxygen around the body and white blood cells help protect us against infections.

Cardiovascular Video

Lymphatic/Immunity System

1. Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to the blood.

2. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. 3. House white blood cells (lymphocytes). 4. The immune response mounts the attack against

foreign substances in the body. 5. Contain the lymphatic vessels, fluid, nodes,

thymus gland and spleen.

Lymphatic System

Lymphatic System

Respiratory System

1. Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.

2. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

3. Contain the lungs, nasal cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi.

Respiratory System

Digestive System

1. Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.

2. Contain the mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small and large intestines.

Liver Cells

Digestive System

Urinary System

1. Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body.

2. Regulates water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance of the blood.

3. contain the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra

Urinary System

Reproductive Systems

1. Overall function of production of offspring. 2. Testis produce sperm and male sex

hormones. Ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.

3. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. Structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of a fetus. Mammary glands produce milk for the newborn.

Reproductive Systems