chapter one - amazon s3...the zambian copperbelt (figure 2) lies within the north-directed...

PETROLOGY STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND THE INFLUENCE OF THE LUFUBU ON THE ORE FORMATION AT MUFULIRA MINE Page 1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The copper deposits at Mufulira are distinguished from many deposits in the Copperbelt by their

characteristic of being comprised of three stacked orebodies. These three orebodies are named

A, B and C which coincides with the sedimentary packet within which they are each hosted. Of

these, the C ores are the most areally extensive followed by the B and then the A ores. The ore

generally occurs within basins between Basement ridges, but in places is found to drape over

these ridges (Brandt, et al., 1961). The areas of the Mufulira deposit have been named, from

East to West, the Eastern, Central and Western Basins respectively, which are separated from

each other by Basement highs. No economical ores occur within the Basement rocks at

Mufulira, however, some low grade Chalcopyrite is known to occur in veins within the Basement

highs. Historically, the A ores have been the highest grade, but to-date these have been of

limited areal extent.

The Eastern basin ores are of the greatest aggregate thickness, particularly since the A and B ores

are dominantly restricted to this region. The effect of the Basement topography is evident in the

thickness of the C ores. Where the A and B ores extend over the highs, they appear less affected

by any presence of Basement topography.

In general, the distribution of the ore in all three orebodies is stratigraphically controlled, in that

the distribution of economical ores coincides with the stratigraphic limits of the host facies.

The ore sulfides occur dominantly within the interstices between sedimentary mineral grains as

disseminations, blebs and irregular masses. The ores show a preference for medium- to fine-

grained quartzite host rocks, and are less prevalent in finer-grained siltstones and mostly do not

occur within dolomitic rocks rich in biotite or chlorite. The ores are comprised of the sulfides

chalcocite, bornite, chalcopyrite and pyrite which are often concentrated along bedding planes.


In May 2011, the Department of Geology at Mopani Copper Mine in Mufulira identified the

need to carry out an investigation in the Basement formation of the deeps area (below 1340

meter level) within the central part known as Muf-central. This is a new work area that has never

been investigated. In mapping and doing the investigation within the Basement, mineralisation in

the overlying C ore body would be projected and predicted. This report seeks to address this

need and to outline the findings of the work carried out between 9th June and 9

th August 2011.

1.2 Objectives of the project

The main objectives of the study include the following:

To determine the petrology and structural geology of the Basement rocks also known as

the Lufubu system.

To investigate how the Basement formation relates with the ore formations.

To outline the Basement – footwall contact.

To explain the presence of the vein hosted mineralisation within the Basement.

This was going to be achieved by doing an intensive underground mapping exercise which was

going to help with the structural geology of the Basement. Sampling of the Basement rocks for

the purpose of making thin sections and assaying so that grades within the Basement could be

determined. To achieve this work, literature review was also done which helped in understanding

the mine area.

1.3 Location and access

The study area is located in the town of Mufulira which, lies within the Copperbelt Province of

Zambia which is in the Southern part of Africa as shown in figure 1 below. From Lusaka the

capital city of Zambia, Mufulira is accessed by the Great North Road, via Ndola. It precisely 385

km from the Lusaka.


Figure 1: Showing the Location of the study area in Southern Africa, Zambia. After Cailteux et

al. (1994),

1.4 Mine history of Mufulira Mine Mufulira Mine is in the Nkana Concession, in the Rhodesian, or southern part of the Central

African Copperbelt (Fig. 1). When Anton Gray visited the current mine location, in August,

1927, several trenches and shallow pits had been dug. No documentation was done by earlier

small scale miners who first discovered copper.

In June 1928, the first drill-hole on the property, put down by the Rhodesian Selection Trust,

was completed. This hole encountered ore at a depth of about 100 meters, and since then twenty-

nine holes have been drilled in ore, the deepest of which struck the lode at 1000 meters. These

holes covered a strike length of two kilometers, and indicated ore bodies of 116 000 000 tons,

averaging 4.4 per cent copper. In 1934 mining was commenced upon the sinking of the shaft.

1.5 Previous work A number of workers have worked and reported quiet a lot about Mufulira Mine. Mendelson

(1961) described the Geology of the Zambian Copperbelt and his book is one of the major

STUDY

AREA


references on the Zambian Copperbelt as he spent much of his time in this region. In 1993,

Mineral Resources Development Limited (MRDL) made a visit to the Zambian Copperbelt and

the Mufulira Mine. While being shown representative sequences of drill core, MRDL geologist

Borden Putnam noted algal features which were going unrecognized and unlogged. MRDL was

prompted to initiate a study to review the geological concept-model for the Mufulira deposit to

investigate the presence of algal and other shallow-water facies in the district, and to determine

their relationship to ore. Ultimately, it was hoped that the study would target areas for

exploration.

In 1982 WG Garlick carried out an investigation on the erosion of the folded copper rich arenite

and the filling of a rolled-up algal mat. The following were the conclusions of the study.

1. Deposition of algal sediment was probably very slow, but preservation of algal flaps,

protruding above the sediment-water interface during formation of the cylinder was probably due

to the non oxidizing nature of the marine water, i.e., anoxic conditions.

2. Precipitation of copper sulfide was spasmodic, possibly correlated with intermittent inflow of

copper-bearing terrestrial waters into the lagoon. The copper sulfide is syngenetic although the

present mineral composition is a result of diagenesis and metamorphism. The intermittent inflow

of copper-bearing water resulted in superposed layers of sediment with greatly varied copper

content as finely disseminated sulfides from under 1 percent copper to over 10 percent, but

dissemination as long any individual layer are as consistent as the distribution of the detrital

grains of quartz and feldspar.

3. The mineralization of the richer copper sulfide Layers apparently had a cementing effect, so

that these were disrupted and injected by low-grade carbonaceous dikelets. Extensive continuity

of the richer and poorer layers, even when only a few millimeters thick, is typical of the

sediments outside the cylinder and indicates co-precipitation of sulfides with sedimentation.

1.6 Present work The present work which was carried out at Mufulira Mine involved desk study which gave the

basic information of the Mine and the work which was done, also consultations from supervisors

to come up with meaningful information on the project.


During underground visits, investigation of the Basement – footwall contact was carried out at

the five levels that is 1357ml, 1373ml, 1390ml, 1407ml and 1440ml.

Underground mapping was done to get structural information ranging from shear zones, veins,

joints and to investigate areas of mineralisation within the Basement rocks. Mineralised samples

from the calcite-quartz veins which occurred within the Basement rocks were assayed for the

purpose of obtaining grades. Sampling was also done for the purpose of making thin sections

which helped in understanding the lithologies of the mine.

Following the underground mapping exercise, data was plotted on plans and section and a

Digitized Terrain Model (DTM) was made using Surpac Minex, a mining and geological model.


CHAPTER TWO

GEOLOGY OF THE COPPERBELT

This encompasses the Regional Tectonic Setting of the Zambian Copperbelt and the stratigraphic

succession from the Basement Complex to the Katangan Sequence.

2.1 Regional Tectonic setting

The Zambian Copperbelt (Figure 2) lies within the north-directed thrust-and-fold arc The

Lufilian Arc which is central African Arcuate Belt and is bounded by Bangweulu Block in the

North East, Irumide Belt in the East and Zambezi Belt in the south. It is more than 150 km wide

and stretches for about 700 km from Mwinilunga in the west (Brock, 1961; Steven, 2000) to the

Bangweulu Block. The Copperbelt is situated along an 700km long structural trend of the folded

and thrusted Katangan sediments called the Lufilian arc (Figure 2), extending from Angola in the

west, through to Congo D. R and Zambia in the east. Most of the Zambian copper mines are

concentrated in the last 200km of this fold arc. The NW-SE trending Kafue anticline is the

dominant structural feature of the Copperbelt as shown in figure 2. The Katangan sediments are

contained in the two syncline structures flanking this anticline on the east and west (see figure 3

below).


Figure 2: Tectonic Setting of the Copperbelt (modified after Porada, 1989).

The Copperbelt consist of the Basement Complex which is overlain by Neo-Proterozoic

sediments of the Katangan Supergroup, which host the bulk of stratiform copper-cobalt deposits

of Zambia.

The Katangan rocks were subjected to low-grade regional metamorphism of the higher

greenschist facies. The metamorphic grade increases southwards across the Copperbelt. The

overall effect of the metamorphism was the recrystallization of the constituent minerals and a

destruction of sedimentary textures. The regional picture is of metamorphic temperatures in the

order of about 200˚C - 400˚C with about 6 Kbars pressure (Bowen and Gunatilaka, 1977).

The Katangan supracrustal sedimentary succession is 5–10 km thick and commonly sub-divided

into three major lithostratigraphic units (Francois, 1974, 1995); Roan, Nguba (formerly Lower

Kundelungu) and Kundelungu (formerly Upper Kundelungu) Groups. Most of the Zambian

Copperbelt copper mineral deposits occur in the Lower Roan in proximity to Basement domes

and especially the Kafue Anticline.

STUDY AREA


The Copperbelt has two main sedimentary basins. These are the Roan-Muliashi Basin at

Luanshya that contains the Roan, Muliashi and Baluba Orebodies and the other basin is actually

an aggregate of several interconnected synclines. The Lower Roan is seen to stretch continuously

from south of Kalulushi through the mines at Chibuluma, Nkana, Chambishi, round to Mimbula,

Nchanga, and Chililabombwe (Mendelson 1961).

2.2 STRATIGRAPHIC SUCCESSION OF THE COPPERBELT

2.2.1 Basement Complex

The Basement Complex rocks formed the land surface on which the sediments of the Katanga

Supergroup were deposited and possibly supplied some of the sedimentary material to form the

Katanga Supergroup. The Basement Complex is the oldest Unit and consists of the pre-Katangan

Lufubu Group, the Muva Group and the older granites and comprises the core of the structurally

important Kafue Anticline (Mendelsohn, 1961). The Kibaran orogenic phase caused a

compression of the Muva sediments into long northeasterly trending folds (Mendelsohn,

1961).The Lufubu Schists which were intruded by granites form part of the Basement Complex

composed of mainly mica schist and quartzites. There are a number of large granite masses in the

Basement varying widely in colour, textures, structure, composition and general relationship to

other rocks which were intruded (Mendelsohn, 1961). The Nchanga red granite is composed of

biotite, quartz, microcline, plagioclase, garnet, epidote and chalcopyrite mineralisation. The

Basement quartzite is a greenish Chloritic quartzite grey-green in colour. The Muva Supergroup

lies unconformably on the Lufubu Schists Group and its intrusive granite is considered to have

been subjected to deformation during the Kibaran-Irumide Orogeny, which is dated 1310 million

years (Cahen, 1974).

The figure 3 below shows the Geology of the copperbelt. The stratigraphic succession is from the

Basement Complex to the Nguba group (formerly Kundelungu) as indicated in the legend.

Mineralisation occurs on either sides of the Kafue anticline in the lower roan.


Figure 3: Geological map of the Zambian Copperbelt showing rocks of the Basement Complex

and the Katanga sequences. ( After Mineral Resource Development., 1993)

2.2.2 Katanga Supergroup

The Katanga sediments overlie the Basement Complex with an irregular unconformity and reach

up to 10,000m in thickness. The lower part of the Katanga is well exposed in the Roan, while the

poorly mineralised upper formations are mainly confined to the central parts of the synclinal

basins (Bowen and Gunatilaka, 1977).

The first sediments were terrestrial talus screes, boulder conglomerates and aeolian sands. These

were followed by near shore sediments of a northeastward transgressing sea, consisting of beach

gravels, deltaic sands, and local algal bioherms passing seaward into sands and muds. The

copper-cobalt sulphide deposits are restricted to these near shore sediments.

Most of the Lower Roan arenites and argillites contain carbonates and sulphates. The Lower

Roan sediments gradually pass into the dolomite-rich Upper Roan and the carbonaceous shales

of the Mwashia, then a 150m thick fluvioglacial conglomerate of granite, quartz, quartzite, and


dolomite with some shale fragments in a massive argillaceous matrix representing the base of the

Nguba. The Nguba is overlain by the Kakontwe Limestone and Dolomite, which is in turn

overlain by 500m thick shale. These are separated by a Tillite marking the boundary between the

Nguba and the Kundelungu.

2.2.2 (a) Roan Group

The Roan Group is the lower unit of the Katanga succession and is divided into the Lower Roan

and the Upper Roan Groups. The Roan Group unconformably overlies the Basement and

represents the first phase of the initial uplift and rifting which resulted in the deposition of

texturally immature proximally derived coarse conglomerates at the base. This was followed by a

marine transgression and sedimentation of sub-arkosic sandstones, and rare siltstones deposited

in fluvial, alluvial fan, aeolian and fan-delta environments. Shallow marine sediments which are

a mixed carbonate platform-hypersaline lagoon evaporate environment, traditionally demarcate

the boundary between the Lower Roan and the Upper Roan Group by the predominance of

carbonate strata (e.g. Gray, 1932; Mendelsohn, 1961). The Upper Roan Group is characterized

by laterally extensive, meter-scale, upward fining cycles of sandstone, siltstone, shales, dolomite,

algal dolomite and local nodular anhydrite.

2.2.2 (b) Nguba Group

Deposition of the Nguba Group (formerly Lower Kundelungu) commenced with a Glaciogenic

diamictite (the Grand Conglomérate) approximately 10 to 100 meters. In the upward deepening

sequence and overlying the Conglomérate are dolostones, shales, siltstones carbonates, and

mudstones. The Nguba is exposed in the core of the Lufukwe Anticline and probably correlates

with the 750Ma sturtian glacial deposits (Kampunzu et al., 2005).

2.2.2 (c) Kundelungu Group

Overlying Nguba is the Kundelungu Group (formely Upper Kundelungu) that commences with a

wide spread tectonically induced conglomerate of up to 50 m thick (`Petit Conglomerate‘)

containing abundant fragments of Kankotwe Limestone in the Copperbelt region. This was

previously been interpreted as a glacio-marine or glacio-fluvial deposit, but is now regarded as a

unit of tectonically triggered mud-flow deposit (Cahen, 1978). This conglomerate is followed by


sandstones, siltstones, and shale with a few tens of meters thick of limestone near the base. The

Kundelungu subgroup terminates with a distinctive purple arkose.

The table 1 below shows the summary of the stratigraphy of the Basement complex and the

Katanga succession of the Zambian Copperbelt.

Table 1: Generalized Stratigraphic Sequence of the Basement Complex and the Katanga in the

Zambian Copperbelt.

ERA SUPER GP GROUP SUBGROUP FORMATION ROCK UNITS

NEO-PROTEROZOIC

KATANGA

KUDELUNGU

KUNDELUNGU

(U KUDELUNGU)

BIANONGULAGOMBELA

Argilaceous/Arkose Sst

Dol Stst,Tillites (Petit Conglomerate)

NGUBA

(L KUNDELUNGU)

BUNKEYAKAKONTWE

MUOMBE

Dolomitic Shales, Pelites,

Kakontwe Lst ,Dolomite and Shales

Tillites(Grand Conglom)

MWASHIA

Carbonaceous Shales,

Siltstone, DolomiteGabbroic sills

ROAN

UPPER ROAN KILILABOMBWE(BANCROFT)

Dolomite, Quartzite, Argillite

Shales and Dolomites Siltstone and Siltstone

LOWER ROANKITWE

MINDOLO

Laminated Argillaceous,

Siltstone, Dolostones, Shales, Course Arkoses,

Argillaceous Siltstone,

Bedded Quartzites Conglomerate at the base

BASEMENT

COMPLEX

MUVARUDACEOUS QUARTZITE

SCHIST

Quartzite

ConglomerateSchist

BASEMENT LUFUBU SCHISTGRANITE

Micaceous Quartzite,

SchistGranites and Amphibolites

Modified after Cailteux J.L.H. (2004)


CHAPTER THREE

3.0 GEOLOGY OF THE MUFULIRA MINE AREA This encompasses the geology of the Mufulira Mina Area, from the Basement Complex to the

Katangan Sequence and the Kirilabombwe fold structure.

3.1 General Geology

The rocks of the Mufulira Mine area belong to the Katanga Supergroup, They occur on the

eastern limb of Kafue Anticline. They range from the Basement Complex the lowest unit which

is unconformably overlain by Roan Group, Nguba and Kundelungu sediments as shown in figure

6. The surface geology of Mufulira Mine area is shown in figure 5 below. The rocks are mainly

arenaceous in nature but some, especially in the higher stratigraphic successions above the Ore

body, are predominately dolomitic with interbedded shale and argillite units.

Figure 4: Geological Map of Mufulira Mine Area showing rocks of the Basement Complex and

the Katanga sequences.


3.2 STRATIGRAPHY

3.2.1 Basement Complex

The Basement Complex comprises schists, quartzites and granites intrusions. The quartzites are

chararcterised by a strong presence of chlorite which is responsible for the greenish colour

observed in the Basement quartzites. Also present is the Muliashi Porphyry which has large

round microcline porphyroblasts simulating pebbles in a quartzite matrix of oligoclase, biotite

and epidote. The schists are dark in colour with micas visible in a hand specimen. They are also

characterized by the presence of high biotite content.

3.2.2 KATANGA SUPERGROUP

3.2.2.1 Lower Roan group

The Lower Roan lies unconformably on the Basement complex and consists of the Footwall Unit

quartzite and Hangingwall Units. The formations which belong to this Group are the banded shale

and dolomites, arenaceous to conglomeratic lithologies, quartzites, conglomerates, argillites and

impure dolomitic quartzite.

A. Footwall Formation

This formation forms the base of the Lower Roan Group and comprises the Basal Conglomerate,

feldspathic Quartzite, the Banded Shale and argillaceous quartzite. This unit is 50 to 100 ft thick. It

is interrupted by lenses of grit and sandstone. The unit is also characterized by the presence of

crossbeds.

B. “C” quartzite This is the basal part of the ore sequence, and is on average 6 to 19m thick, comprised of

quartzite, which is locally varies in colour from a very dark grey colour on the western end of the

strata to very light grey colour on the eastern end. The dark colour is attributed to large amounts

of introduced carbon rich clays+pyrite±magnetite. This unit is rarely cross-bedded. The

dominant sulfide is chalcopyrite and overall this lens averages approximately 3 percent Cu. In

the study area it covers a strike length of 400km


C. Hangingwall Formations of the “C” ore body Just overlying the ―C‖ ore is the ―Mudseam‖: This thin dolomitic siltstone separates the C and B

beds and ranges to 1.5m in thickness, but is usually only about 0.5m thick, and is an excellent

marker bed. Overlying the dolomitic siltstone are banded units. These are the banded shales and

dolomites and the banded shales and quartzites. They are subsequently overlain by the inter B/C

quartzite.

D. The “B” quartzite.

This quartzite is 9 to 20m thick and resembles the C and D. The unit varies from having none to

being totally greywacke. These have been abundance of bornite and have average grades less

than the A lens. B and C ore lenses are locally contiguous.

E. Hangingwall formations of the “B” ore body

The lower dolomite is the first formation in the hanging wall of the ―B‖ quartzite. This is

proceeded by the shale, locally refered to as the ―Massive shale‖. The shale is overlain by the

banded shales and quartzites. The inter A/B beds end the hanging wall units of the ―B‖ orebody.

All these unit are between 7.6 to 20m thick. The inter A/B beds are sporadically to poorly

mineralized and are locally dominated by chalcocite especially near the base of the A unit.

F. The “A” quartzite

This is the least extensive and the uppermost orebody at Mufulira mine. The quartzite is 9 to

23.7m thick and resembles the B, C and D quartzites. This unit contains numerous cavities,

developed after dissolution of anhydrite. The contact with the overlying unit is poorly defined. It

is dominated by chalcocite and grade to approximately 10 percent Cu in the chalcocite-rich

areas.

G. Hangingwall of the “A” quartzite The ―A‖ quartzite is overlain by the lower argillaceous quartzite. The rest of the units which

make up the rest of the lower roan formations are the 90‘ dolomite, the grity quartzite and finally

the highly competent glassy quartzite.


3.2.2.2 Upper Roan group Upper Roan Subgroup is dominated by chemically precipitated and clastically reworked (mainly

dolomitic) carbonate rocks and evaporites (anhydrite and gypsum), with few siliciclastic rocks.

At Mufulira mine evaporates are interbeded with dolomites, thus referred to as ―Intermediate

Dolomite and anhydrites‖. This is the major aquifer at the mine. Overlying the aquifer are shale

and finally the upper dolomite.

3.2.2.3 The Nguba group

The Nguioyhuba Group rests on an erosional unconformity on Upper Roan Group rocks, and

passes conformably into the Grand Conglomerate in places (Cahen, 1978; Wendorff, 2002b). It

consists mainly of carbonates and shales, but contains a thin pyroclastic unit with associated

stratiform banded magnetite/haematite iron formations, which form a regional stratigraphic

marker (Lefebvre, 1978, 1975; Cailteux et al., 2005).

3.2.2.4 Kundelungu group The Nguba is overlain by Kundelungu which is a second sequence of diamictite (Petit

Conglomerate) and is then overlain by carbonates, siltstones, mudstones following in the

sequence. Stratiform breccias, Petit Conglomerate, is regarded as a tectonic conglomerate, and

related to nappe emplacement along former evaporitic horizons during Lufilian deformation

(François, 1974; Cailteux and Kampunzu, 1999) upon which the youngest Kundelungu strata

were deposited.

The stratigraphic succession of Mufulira mine area is as shown in the table 2. The succession is

from the Basement to the Lower Roan and then the Upper Roan. These three major units in the

stratigraphy have their lithological units as described in chapter 3.


Table 2: Stratigraphic Succession of Mufulira Mine‘s lower roan formation.

Special project by Hastings

Lupapulo.


3.3 Structure of the orebody The orebodies at Mufulira mine as alluded to earlier are a stratiform type of deposit. The mine falls

in the syncline known as the Mufulira synclinorium. The orebodies have a northwest southeast

trend and dip at 450 to the northeast. There is folding observed through 62/63 boundary. Logging of

drill hole has shown that both the sub Kantanga and ore formations are folded together. See fig 6.

Figure 5: shows the folding in section through 62/63 boundary.


CHAPTER FOUR

4.1 METHODOLOGY

The study methodology included the incorporation of existing information from the mine in

Mufulira, researches and papers written by previous workers. The information on the geology of

Mufulira mine area acted as the base for the study and was part of the desk study. Mining

methods used at the study area as well as mining terminology were also adopted.

Underground mapping was done in areas of exposure. The major areas of interest were areas

where the Basement units and the Basement footwall contact were well exposed. Such areas

included haulages, footwall drive and most important the cross cuts from the Basement to the ore

formations. It was in these crosscuts that the Basement footwall contact was mapped.

Underground mapping involved measuring of dips joints, veins, mapping of the footwall

Basement contacts and sampling. Samples were collected and these were mainly the muva

quartzite and the Lufubu schist for the purpose of studying the petrology of the Basement rocks.

The ‗C‘ ore body was also sampled along strike. This was for the purpose of studying the mica

content along the ‗C‘ so as to establish a trend which would help in understanding the possible

direction of the paleo currents which deposited the ―C‖ quartzite.


CHAPTER FIVE

5.1STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY

5.1.1 The pre-Katanga surface

The structural geology of the Basement rocks was studied firstly by determining the surface of

the Lufubu rocks in the pre-Katanga times. This was done by mapping the Basement-footwall

contact and plotting the information on the mine plans and sections. A model was then made

using the software (Surpac). The results of this work were that the pre-Katanga surface was very

ragged and hilly. A ridge seems to be prominent down dip and is responsible for the paleo-highs

that characterize the pre-Katanga surface.

Figure 6: (A) The digitized model showing the pre-Katanga surface.


Figure 6: (B) The digitized model showing the pre-Katanga surface and the developments at

different sub levels of mining.

5.1.2 Veins Veins were mapped within the Basement rocks. These were calcite-quartz veins and were

observed mainly within the areas where the Lufubu schist was present. The veins were very

prominent and hosted some chalcopyrite in places. In the study area, they remained restricted to

the Basement rocks. However, away from the study area, in the eastern direction, the veins were

seen to cut across the footwall formation into the mineralised lithologies. This was particularly in

block 62.

Within the Basement paleo highs, the veins were observed to be smaller and more systematic as

compared to the paleo lows. The veins in this area could have been formed as a result of the

deformation that could have affected the pre-Katanga rocks. They form near S shaped vein lets in

an en-echelon manner. Veins formed in such a manner are indicators of a sense of shear

66m

Hastings 2011


deformation. (See figure 8) This is as a result of brittle ductile deformation.

Figure 7: Calcite quartz veins at 1407 meter level (blocks 56/57 boundary) and a hand specimen

(insert) showing Chalcopyrite mineralisation at 0.8% Total Copper.


Figure 8: Shear sense indicator veins at 1423 meter level (block 56)

5.1.3 Joints Joints were mapped within the Basement formation. They appeared to have been concentrated in

55 and 56 blocks. The dip and dip directions of the joints were measured and the data plotted on

a stereo net. There were a total of four sets with two sets being major while the other two sets

were minor sets. For the major sets, the first was dipping to the east with an average dip angle of

400, the second major set with a SE-NW trend and dipping to the northeast at about 50

0. The

minor sets dip to the SE and the SW at very shallow angles.

The Lufilian arc is known to have suffered intense shearing, folding and thrusting. The

deformation episodes responsible for such deformations could have caused the formation of the

joints.


Figure 9: (A) A plot of fisher concentration of the Joints showing two major sets (Circled), and

(B) A stereoplot of the poles for the Joints.

A

B

I

II

III

IV


Figure 10: (A) Showing surfaces of Discontinuities in the Basement quartzite in situ. (B) A

surface of discontinuity hosting micas in the Basement quartzite (core).

From the analysis of the joints underground, it was observed that one set was intersecting another

set. This implies that the set which appeared to have been intersecting another set is the younger

one. From the fisher concentration in figure 9 (A), the younger joint set of the two sets is actually

set II. The joints in set II appeared to be intersecting the joints in set I as observed during my

studies of the joints underground. Set II joints generally had a steeper angle of dip and were

fewer than the joints of set I.

The observed East-West trend in the joint sets II and III could be attributed to the extensional D2

deformation suffered by the external fold thrust belt of the Lufilian arc. According to Daly 1986,

the structures of the fold thrust belt were a result of two kinematic phases. An early D1 east-

northeast directed and a later D2 northerly directed phase. I therefore wish to attribute the trend

of the joint sets II and III to the later D2 deformation event. This is because of the observed

perpendicular relationship between the trend of the joints and the direction of the extensional

forces that caused the thrusting and folding. While sets I and IV could have been caused by D1

ENE directed extensional forces referred to by Daly (1986).

A B


CHAPTER SIX

6.0 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE BASEMENT PELEO HIGHS AND THE

MINERALISATION IN THE “C” QUARTZITE. The relationship between the Lufubu Basement and the immediate overlying Katanga beds, the

―C‖ quartzite (―C‖ ore body) can be analysed in terms of the mineral distribution within the ―C‖

ore body and the structure of the copper bearing ―C‖ ore body. It must be noted at this point that

the Basement formation does not show any influence on the upper two orebodies, that is the ―B‖

quartzite and the ―A‖ quartzite.

6.1 The structural relationship

The influence of the Lufubu rocks on the overlying Katanga beds is evidenced by the structural

orientation of the Katanga beds where the Lufubu Basement paleo highs occur. Generally the

beds overlying the hills of the Basement were observed to be thinner in this zone (55 and 56

block). In the region were the Basements rocks are in contact with the ―C‖ mineralisation the

footwall quartzite is observed to be missing. Where it occurs, it equally a very thin layer of rock

This is most likely to be as a result of non deposition of the foot wall formation. Down the south

east flank of the Basement high, the ―C‖ quartzite once again thickens. On average, the thickness

of the ―C‖ orebody where the highs occur is about 2 meters. This is in contrast with the thickness

of the same orebody away from the Basement highs which averages at 11 meters.

Due to the structural influence of the Basement on the ―C‖ orebody, it was observed that the

strike of the ―C‖ quartzite was not persistent along the known general strike of the ore bodies .

This is purely as a result of the doming effect on the overlying ―C‖ orebody. See figure 12.

6.2 The mineralogical relationship

Mineralogicallly, the Basement highs are of economic importance. Where they occur,

mineralisation was observed to be of poor grade. At Mufulira‘s Mopani Copper Mine, the cut off

grade for the ore is 2%. However the mineralisation of the ―C‖ in these zones averages around

1.5%, which is below the cut off grade. The study showed that the total copper mineralisation


down the right flank of the paleo high within the ―C‖ quartzite is greater than the mineralisation

elsewhere within the ore body. It was 3.5% total copper on average. See figure 12 below.

6.2.1 Distribution of mineralisation in the “C” quartzite.

Where the Basement highs come in contact with the ―C‖ quartzite, as shown in figure 11 below,

there seems to be generally a pyritic zone occurring in the zone above the hill. This is generally

surrounded by a concentric zone of chalcopyrite and bornite.

Figure 11: Distribution of sulphide mineralisation across the paleo highs in section. (After Brandt

1962)

The mineralization is often asymmetrically distributed across the ridges, suggesting the ridges

acted as a barrier to flow of the ore forming fluids. Where local perpendicular offsets in the


ridges occur, the mineralization may drape over the ridges and extend down-flank on the other

side.

Figure 12: A plan showing the thickness, mineralisation and the effect of the paleo high on the

strike of the ―C‖ ore body.

Two different

strike directions


CHAPTER SEVEN

7.0 THE PETROLOGY OF THE BASEMENT ROCKS The study area was characterised by the presence of Schists and Quartzites. Away from the study

area, granites have been reported west of the mine also called Muf-west.

The Lufubu schists and the intrusive granitoids are unconformably overlain by quartzites and

schists of the Muva Supergroup (Garlick, 1961b). The Muva metasediments have a maximum

age of 1941 ± 40 Ma, which is the age of the youngest detrital zircon dated by Rainaud et al.

(2003) from these sediments. Jackson (1932) called the Lufubu schists of the Mufulira area the

‗‗Basement Schist Series‘‘, consisting of garnetiferous chlorite schists, quartz-mica schists and

biotite gneisses, which he regarded as being metasedimentary in origin and Archaean in age.

Mendelsohn (1961b) described the Lufubu schists as mica schists, quartzites and gneisses with

minor metamorphosed carbonates, conglomerates, subgraywackes and arkoses, extensively

intruded by granites. He regarded the majority of the Lufubu schists as metasediments with the

possibility of some minor metavolcanics. Unconformably overlying the Lufubu schists are the

Muva metasediments, which consist of deformed quartzites, metaconglomerates and metapelitic

schists.

A sample of the Lufubu schist was collected from the Mufulira Mine by Rainauld et al (2005),

on the eastern flank of the Kafue anticline. This was a blastoporphyritic metavolcanic derived

from a hornblende-quartz porphyry in which they observed that the fine-grained matrix and

amphibole-phenocrysts are replaced by intergrowths of epidote, biotite, chlorite, quartz

magnetite and sphene. They also did whole-rock geochemistry on the Lufubu schists from the

Mwambashi B prospect in the Chambishi basin, Baluba Mine near Luanshya, the Kafue River

south of Mufulira and from Kinsenda in the DRC. Samples were analysed for both major and

trace elements and were examined petrographically for their mineralogical and textural

characteristics. All samples exhibited porphyritic textures with fine-grained matrices of

metamorphic sericite. Lufubu schist compositions are presented in a Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y diagram

(Winchester and Floyd, 1977) which showed that these rocks plot in the andesite/rhyodacite–

dacite/trachyandesite/alkali basalt domain (see figure 13). The sample suite had characteristics

consistent with a metavolcanic origin. The same samples were further analysed and results


plotted in the AFM geochemical discrimination diagram of Irvine and Baragar (1971). All

analyses showed enrichments in the alkalis Na2O+K2O compared to FeO, and they plot in the

calc-alkaline field (see figure 14). Because these rocks may have suffered mobility of major

elements during metamorphism, the AFM plot can only be used to suggest that the data are

consistent with the Lufubu schists being mainly calc-alkaline metavolcanic rocks. The Lufubu

schist metavolcanic rocks, together with subordinate metasedimentary rocks such as quartzites

and marbles, are regarded as having formed in a subduction related magmatic arc.

Fig.13 Zr/TiO2 vs Nb/Y geochemical classification diagram (Winchester and Floyd, 1977) for

the Lufubu schists. Filled squares Lufubu schists from Mufulira; filled circles—Lufubu schists

from Kafue River, south of Mufulira; diamond—Lufubu schists from Kinsenda;

Fig14. AFM diagram (Irvine and Baragar, 1971) of the Lufubu schists. Filled squares—Lufubu

schists from Mufulira; filled circles—Lufubu schists from Kafue River, south of Mufulira;


diamond—Lufubu schists from Kinsenda; empty square—BN53/1 from the Mwambashi B

prospect in the Chambishi basin; half filled squares—host rocks of the Samba

7.1 Petrography

7.1.1 The Basement Quartzite

The hand specimen of the Basement quartzite shows a dark gray fine grained and well

compacted rock type. It is characterised by bands of green minerals in places and within the fine

grained matrix. Notable in the hand specimen are quartz grains, muscovite flakes and chlorite.

The petrographic analysis done on the Lufubu rocks at the University of Zambia‘s school of

mines laboratory showed that the quartzite samples collected from the Basement is composed of

quartz, chlorite, epidote, and sericite. I therefore wish to call it a chloritic quartzite. See fig 15

below.

Plate 1: A photomicrograph of the Basement Quartzite.

Chlo

ri

Qt

z


Figure 15: The quartzite in the core rack showing a large green band of chlorite.

7.1.2 The Basement schist (Lufubu schist)

The Lufubu schist is a very dark, fine grained and poorly foliated rock. It is characterised by

biotite, muscovite, epidote, chlorite, quartz and sericite.

This is similar to the findings of Rainauld et al 2005. I do not fully agree with Jackson (1932)

who described the Lufubu schist as a ganertferous chlorite schist and quartz mica schist. The

amount of chlorite in the schist is not as much to warrant the name chlorite schist. There is more

of biotite than chlorite as can be observed in plate 3. The chlorite is more in abundance in the

quartzite than in the schist.

A green chloritic band


Plate 2: A photomicrograph showing Chlorite, Epidote, Sericite and Quartz in the Lufubu schist.

Plate 3: A photomicrograph showing Biotite and Chlorite in the Lufubu schist.

Ser

Qzt

Chl

Opaque minerals

Bio

Chl

Opaque

minerals

Epidote


Plate 4: A photomicrograph showing Biotite, Muscovite Chlorite and Sericite in the Lufubu

schist.

7.1.3 Metamorphism in the Basement rocks

From the mineral assemblages discussed above, it becomes imperative to analyse the

metamorphism of the Basement rocks.

Regional metamorphism affected the Lufilian arc. It increases in grade from lower Greenschist

facies to higher greenschist facies over most of the mine areas, then to the lower epidote-

amphibolite facies to the southwest of the fold belt.

The Basement was previously subjected locally to higher temperatures and pressures than the

overlying Katanga sediments, yet evidence of high grade metamorphism are rare. Mendelson

1961 recognised that the Basement had undergone long lasting pervasive retrograde

metamorphism during the folding of the cover. Biotite and Sericite are both characteristic of the

Lufubu and Muva argillaceous.

Characterising the Lufubu schist at Mufulira mine as shown in plates 2, 3 and 4 above are the

minerals biotite, muscovite, sericite, chlorite and epidote. From this mineral assemblage it can be

Muscovite

Sericite

Bio

Qzt C


concluded that the rocks were deformed to Greenschist facies. The greenschist facies is at

medium pressure and temperature. The facies is named for the typical schistose texture of the

rocks and green colour of the minerals chlorite, epidote and actinolite. Characteristic mineral

assemblages are:

chlorite + albite + epidote ± actinolite, quartz

7.1.4 Metamorphic veins and the mineralisation During folding, the more competent lithologies were fractured and the openings were filled by

minerals crystallising from connate and metamorphic fluids squeezed from the adjacent wall

rock. In the study area, the veins are characterised by the presence of anhydrides the minerals

quartz and calcite as shown in figure 8 (A) of chapter 5. Apart from the two major minerals, the

veins were observed to host copper mineralisation in the form of Chalcopyrite. When assayed for

copper, the total copper content from one of the samples collected at 1407ml gave 0.8% copper.

Therefore it can be concluded that the mineralisation in the Basement‘s veins is not of economic

significance.

Generally there is variation in the mineral content of the veins according to the grade of

metamorphism. In the study area, feldspar is practically absent. Albite crystals have been

recorded in less than a dozen veins. Anhydrite, calcite and quartz are the common in all veins,

and in terms of copper mineralisation in the veins, bornite and chalcopyrite are ubiquitous.

7.1.5 Geotechnical

Geotechnically, the Basement rocks have a good competence. They have an average RQD of

86.6%. this was established from the core which was drilled during the drilling for geotechnical

data of a pilot hole near the location of the planed new shaft. The only major detriment which i

thought could be hazard was the presence of platy minerals in the discontinuities. Micas were

observed to occur within the joint of the Basement quartzite. These can easily cause slope failure

depending on the angle of slope, as blocks of rocks are susceptible to sliding at steep angles of

dip for discontinuities. See figure 16 showing core of the basement rocks in core racks. Micas

are very visible and distinguishable in these discontinuities.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schisthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texture_%28geology%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorite_grouphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidotehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinolitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartz


Figure 16: Showing discontinuities lined by micas in the quartzites.


CHAPTER 8

8.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The pre Katanga topography is of great significance to the study of the pattern of mineralisation

in the Katanga beds of the Mufulira synclinorium. It determined the characteristics of the strata

which were to be eventually deposited on it and the distribution of the copper in the same.

This exercise brought out the nature of the surface of deposition of the Katanga beds. From the

mapping exercise which was followed by digitization of the results, it was eminent that the pre

Katanga surface was ragged and uneven. This came to light after having carried out a detailed

mapping of the Basement-footwall quartzite contact within the study area. The model which was

produced in the mining and geology software (Surpac minex) helped to visualize the possible

topography before the deposition of the Katanga beds. With that established, the study was

focused on the Katanga beds which were deposited on the ragged Basement. Where the

topography was high, it was observed that the footwall quartzite was either extremely thin (


accumulating down the hills could have been affected by compaction over the hills forcing them

to migtrae down the hills.

Owing to the fact an unconformity occurs between the Katanga sediments and the Basement

rocks, it is possible that the pre Katanga surface could have suffered normal geological processes

prior to the deposition of the Katanga beds. The observed veins in the peak regions of the

Basement rocks could have been pre Cambrian fractures which characterized the Basement

rocks. The open fractures could have allowed circulating metal bearing fluids to fill them. The

circulating non metal bearing fluids rendered a high possibility of weathering of these schists.

Upon the introduction of the metal bearing fluids to the weathered schists, part of the minerals

accumulated in these fractures as veins.

However a more plausible theory by Fleischer R., 1967 is one postulating that the tectonic

forces that affected the sediments over the hills could have caused great stress during folding. In

the process the more rigid rocks of the Basement could have fractured in the peak regions. The

produced waters of metamorphism and connate waters could have carried some minerals with

them into the fractured areas. The rest of the copper bearing fluids could have migrated downhill,

accounting for the accumulation of the copper at the SE flank of the hills. The quartz calcite

veins observed in the peak areas of the Lufubu rocks could have formed that way. Inside these

openings, the environment was a low pressure and alkaline environment. This is the only

possibility for the deposition of the calcium carbonate crystals. Otherwise the precipitation of

calcium carbonate would not occur.

The petrographic studies have shown that rocks were affected by a greenschist facies

metamorphic grade. This is characterized by the minerals chlorite, albite and epidote for volcanic

rocks. Thin sections of the rocks sampled reveal the presence of the minerals chlorite, biotite,

epidote, sericite and muscovite. The metamorphic grade observed is in conformity to the findings

of many other workers who have worked in the Lufilian arc. The establishment of the protolith

of the Basement rocks was beyond the scope of this exercise. However findings by Rainauld et al

(2005), were that the Basement schists are of calc alkaline volcanic rocks in origin.


The change in the strike of the ―C‖ quartzite where the Basement highs occurs is an important

factor in the day to day mining operations. The knowledge of the location of the highs can help

in planning of future developments. A mining geologist can easily predict any future changes in

the strike of the ore body as mining progresses from the highs. Since over the Basement highs

mineralisation is of poor grade, exploration in these areas would not have to be intensified as a

way of saving resources and time. Of great importance to Mopani Copper Mine (MCM) are

capital projects involving haulages and declines. The development of these projects is carried out

in the Basement rocks as they are deemed competent and of high RQD. The immediate overlying

lithology the footwall quartzite is arkosic. This means that it is susceptible to weathering as

feldspars are readily attacked by water. Therefore the footwall quartzite is not ideal for

placement of capital projects. So the establishment of the Basement-footwall contact is vital for

the mine, as this will ensure that the capital projects of the mine are confined to the right

lithology which happens to be the Basement formation. This is a direct application of the results

of this work.

8.1 Conclusion. This influence of the Basement rocks on the ore formation of Mufulira mine is such that the

ridges also known as Basement highs have impoverished the overlying ―C‖ quartzite. The grades

are sub economic and as such not mined out. The strike of the ―C‖ quartzite is equally altered

where the highs occur. The Basement rocks are of calc alkaline volcanic origin and

metamorphosed to the greenschist facies.


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APPENDIX A

No Range of Core Recovery RQD (%)

1 103.40-106.40 3.05 97.0

2 106.40-109.40 3.00 86.7

3 109.40-112.40 3.02 96.0

4 112.40-115.40 3.00 87.7

5 115.40-118.40 3.02 81.7

6 118.40-121.40 2.53 71.0

7 121.40-124.40 2.94 99.7

8 124.40-127.40 3.00 96.0

9 127.40-130.40 3.05 92.7

10 130.40-133.40 3.04 97.0

11 133.40-136.40 3.05 100.0

12 136.40-139.40 2.96 87.0

13 139.40-142.40 3.00 30.3

14 142.40-145.40 2.96 59.7

15 145.40-148.40 3.00 92.0

16 148.40-151.40 2.98 96.0

17 151.40-154.40 2.93 93.7

18 154.40-157.40 3.08 90.0

19 157.40-160.40 2.93 90.0

20 160.40-163.40 2.96 72.0

21 163.40-166.40 2.92 81.0

22 166.40-169.40 2.62 64.3

23 169.40-172.40 1.00 64.3

24 172.40-175.40 2.90 24.3

25 175.40-176.40 0.85 72.3

26 176.40-177.40 1.22 56.0

27 177.40-180.40 2.96 100.0

28 180.40-183.40 2.68 99.7

29 183.40-186.40 3.00 99.3

30 186.40-189.40 2.90 80.3

31 189.40-192.40 3.00 78.3

32 192.40-195.40 3.00 93.0

33 195.40-198.40 2.92 83.3

34 198.40-201.40 2.98 91.0


35 201.40-204.40 3.00 93.3

36 204.40-207.40 2.90 76.7

37 207.40-210.40 3.00 92.3

38 210.40-213.40 2.96 98.0

39 213.40-216.40 3.02 100.0

40 216.40-219.40 2.86 87.3

41 219.40-222.40 3.00 95.3

42 222.40-225.40 2.98 87.7

43 225.40-228.40 3.00 83.3

44 228.40-231.40 2.83 90.0

45 231.40-234.40 3.11 95.3

46 234.40-237.40 3.00 98.7

47 237.40-240.40 3.00 83.3

48 240.40-243.40 2.86 84.7

49 243.40-246.40 3.00 82.7

50 246.40-249.40 3.00 58.7

51 249.40-252.40 2.92 83.0

52 252.40-255.40 2.93 98.0

53 255.40-258.40 2.94 85.3

54 258.40-261.40 3.00 86.3

55 261.40-264.40 3.00 85.7

56 264.40-267.40 3.00 91.7

57 267.40-270.40 3.00 93.3

58 270.40-273.40 3.00 95.3

59 273.40-276.40 2.94 92.7

60 276.40-279.40 2.93 92.0

61 279.40-282.40 2.90 83.3

62 282.40-285.40 2.87 88.7

63 285.40-288.40 2.95 95.3

64 288.40-291.40 3.03 100.0

65 291.40-294.40 2.92 91.0

66 294.40-297.40 2.97 82.7

67 297.40-300.40 3.05 95.0

68 300.40-303.40 2.87 92.7

69 303.40-306.40 3.03 88.3

70 306.40-309.40 2.94 97.0

71 309.40-312.40 2.72 83.3

72 312.40-315.40 3.28 97.7

73 315.40-318.40 3.00 84.7


74 318.40-321.40 3.00 95.7

75 321.40-324.40 2.88 85.7

76 324.40-327.40 2.89 98.0

77 327.40-330.40 2.88 65.3

78 330.40-331.40 0.84 26.0

79 331.40-333.40 2.27 87.5

80 333.40-336.40 2.93 94.3

81 336.40-337.90 1.63 99.4

82 337.90-339.40 1.33 88.0

83 339.40-342.40 2.84 95.3

84 342.40-345.40 3.11 100.0

85 345.40-348.40 2.94 97.0

86 348.40-351.40 2.95 85.0

87 351.40-354.40 3.00 97.0

88 354.40-357.40 3.00 88.0

89 357.40-360.40 2.92 88.3

90 360.40-363.40 3.00 100.0

91 363.40-366.40 3.00 98.0

92 366.40-369.40 3.00 93.3

93 369.40-372.40 3.00 94.7

94 372.40-375.40 2.85 80.0

chapter one - amazon s3...the zambian copperbelt (figure 2) lies within the north-directed...

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