chapter one the foundations of chemistry. 2 chapter outline 1. matter and energy 2. states of matter...

CHAPTER ONEThe Foundations of Chemistry

2

Chapter Outline

1. Matter and Energy2. States of Matter3. Chemical and Physical Properties 4. Chemical and Physical Changes5. Mixtures, Substances, Compounds,

and Elements6. Measurements in Chemistry7. Units of Measurement

3

Chapter Outline

8. Use of Numbers9. The Unit Factor Method

(Dimensional Analysis)10. Percentage11. Density and Specific Gravity12. Heat and Temperature13. Heat Transfer and the

Measurement of Heat

4

Matter and Energy - Vocabulary Chemistry

Science that describes matter – its properties, the changes it undergoes, and the energy changes that accompany those processes

Matter Anything that has mass and occupies space.

Energy The capacity to do work or transfer heat.

Scientific (natural) law A general statement based the observed

behavior of matter to which no exceptions are known.

5

Natural Laws

Law of Conservation of Mass Law of Conservation of Energy Law of Conservation of Mass-

Energy Einstein’s Relativity E=mc2

6

Scientific Method

Observation Hypothesis Observation or experiment Theory Observation or experiment Law

7

States of Matter

Solids

8

States of Matter

Solids Liquids

9

States of Matter

Solids Liquids Gases

10

States of Matter

Change States heating cooling

11

States of Matter Illustration of changes in state

requires energy

12

Chemical and Physical Properties Chemical Properties - chemical changes

rusting or oxidation chemical reactions

Physical Properties - physical changes changes of state density, color, solubility

Extensive Properties - depend on quantity Intensive Properties - do not depend on

quantity

13

Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements

Substance matter in which all samples have

identical composition and properties Elements

substances that cannot be decomposed into simpler substances via chemical reactions

Elemental symbols found on periodic chart

14


15

Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements Compounds

substances composed of two or more elements in a definite ratio by mass

can be decomposed into the constituent elements

Water is a compound that can be decomposed into simpler substances – hydrogen and oxygen

16


17

Mixtures, Substances, Compounds, and Elements Mixtures

composed of two or more substances homogeneous mixtures heterogeneous mixtures

18

Measurements in Chemistry

QuantityQuantity UnitUnit SymbolSymbol length meter m mass kilogram kg time second s current ampere A temperature Kelvin K amt. substance mole mol

19

Measurements in ChemistryMetric Prefixes

NameName SymbolSymbol MultiplierMultiplier mega M 106

kilo k 103

deka da 10 deci d 10-1

centi c 10-2

20

Measurements in ChemistryMetric Prefixes

NameName SymbolSymbol MultiplierMultiplier milli m 10-3

micro 10-6

nano n 10-9

pico p 10-12

femto f 10-15

21

Units of MeasurementDefinitions Mass

measure of the quantity of matter in a body

Weight measure of the gravitational

attraction for a body

22

Units of Measurement

Common Conversion Factors Length

1 m = 39.37 inches 2.54 cm = 1 inch

Volume 1 liter = 1.06 qt 1 qt = 0.946 liter

See Table 1-7 for more conversion factors

23

Use of Numbers

Exact numbers 1 dozen = 12 things for example

Accuracy how closely measured values agree

with the correct value Precision

how closely individual measurements agree with each other

24

Use of Numbers Significant figures

digits believed to be correct by the person making the measurement

Measure a mile with a 6 inch ruler vs. surveying equipment

Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures12.000000000000000 = 1 dozenbecause it is an exact number

25

Use of Numbers

Significant Figures - Rules Leading zeroes are never significant

0.000357 has three significant figures Trailing zeroes may be significant

must specify significance by how the number is written

1300 nails - counted or weighed? Use scientific notation to remove

doubt2.40 x 103 has ? significant figures

26

Use of Numbers

Scientific notation for logarithmstake the log of 2.40 x 103

log(2.40 x 103) = 3.380How many significant figures?

Imbedded zeroes are always significant3.0604 has five significant figures

27

Use of Numbers Piece of Black Paper – with rulers beside the edges

28

Use of Numbers Piece of Paper Side B – enlarged

How long is the paper to the best of your ability to measure it?

29

Use of Numbers Piece of Paper Side A – enlarged

How wide is the paper to the best of your ability to measure it?

30

Use of Numbers Determine the area of the piece of black

paper using your measured values. Compare your answer with your

classmates. Where do your answers differ in the numbers?

Significant figures rules for multiplication and division must help us determine where answers would differ.

31

Use of Numbers

Multiplication & Division rule Easier of the two rulesProduct has the smallest number of

significant figures of multipliers

32

Use of Numbers



5.22 tooff round

21766.5

31.2x

224.4

33

Use of Numbers



5.22 tooff round

21766.5

31.2x

224.4

3.9 tooff round

89648.3

41.x

2783.2

34

Use of Numbers Determine the perimeter of the piece of

black paper using your measured values. Compare your answer with your

classmates. Where do your answers differ in the numbers?

Significant figures rules for addition and subtraction must help us determine where answers would differ.

35

Use of Numbers

Addition & Subtraction ruleMore subtle than the multiplication ruleAnswer contains smallest decimal place of the

addends.

36

Use of Numbers


addends.

6.95 tooff round

9463.6

20.2

423.1

3692.3

37

Use of Numbers


addends.

6.95 tooff round

9463.6

20.2

423.1

3692.3

6.671 tooff round

6707.6

312.2

7793.8

38

The Unit Factor Method Simple but important method to

get correct answers in word problems.

Method to change from one set of units to another.

Visual illustration of the idea.

39

The Unit Factor Method

Change from a to a by obeying the following rules.

40



1. Must use colored fractions.

41



1. Must use colored fractions.2. The box on top of the fraction must

be the same color as the next fraction’s bottom box.

42


R

Fractions to choose from

R

O R

O

O

B

B

O

B

BB

B

43



R

O R

O

O

B

B

O

B

BB

B

R

OR

44



R

O R

O

O

B

B

O

B

BB

B

R

OR

O

B

45



R

O R

O

O

B

B

O

B

BB

B

R

OR

O

B

B

BB

46



R

O R

O

O

B

B

O

B

BB

B

R

OR

O

B

B

BB

47



R

O R

O

O

B

B

O

B

BB

B

R

OR

O

B

B

BB

48



R

O R

O

O

B

B

O

B

BB

B

R

OR

O

B

B

BB

49


colored fractions represent unit factors 1 ft = 12 in becomes or

Example 1-1: Express 9.32 yards in millimeters.

in 12

ft 1ft 1

in 12

50


)yd1

ft3( yd 9.32

mm ?yd 9.32

51


)ft1

in12( )

yd1

ft3( yd 9.32

mm ?yd 9.32

52


)in1

cm2.54( )

ft1

in12( )

yd1

ft3( yd 9.32

mm ?yd 9.32

53


mm 108.52)cm1

mm10( )

in1

cm2.54( )

ft1

in12( )

yd1

ft3( yd 9.32

mm ?yd 9.32

3

54


mm 108.52)cm1

mm10( )

in1

cm2.54( )

ft1

in12( )

yd1

ft3( yd 9.32

mm ?yd 9.32

3

R

OR

O

B

B

BT

B

T

55


Example 1-2: Express 627 milliliters in gallons.

You do it!

56

The Unit Factor Method Example 1-2. Express 627

milliliters in gallons.

gal 0.166gal 0.166155gal ?

)qt4

gal1( )

L1

qt1.06( )

mL1000

L1( mL 627gal ?

mL 627gal ?

57


Example 1-3: Express 3.50 (short) tons in grams.

You do it!

58


Example 1-3: Express 3.50 (short) tons in grams.

g 10 x 18.3lb

g 454

ton

lb 2000 tons3.50 g ?

g 3178000lb

g 454

ton

lb 2000 tons3.50 g ?

lb

g 454

ton

lb 2000 tons3.50 g ?

ton

lb 2000 tons3.50 g ?

tons3.50 g ?

6

59

The Unit Factor Method Area is two dimensional thus units

must be in squared terms. Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2

in ft2.

60

The Unit Factor Method Area is two dimensional thus units

must be in squared terms. Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104

cm2 in ft2.

common mistake

)cm 2.54

in 1(cm102.61ft ? 242

61


Area is two dimensional thus units must be in squared terms.

Example 1-4: Express 2.61 x 104 cm2 in ft2.

)cm 2.54

in 1(cm102.61ft ? 242

P

OR

62




2242 )cm 2.54

in 1(cm102.61ft ?

R

OR

63




22242 )in 12

ft 1()

cm 2.54

in 1(cm102.61ft ?

64




22

22242

ft 28.1ft 928.0938061

)in12

ft1()

cm2.54

in1(cm102.61ft ?

65


Volume is three dimensional thus units must be in cubic terms.

Example 1-5: Express 2.61 ft3 in cm3.

You do it!You do it!

66


Volume is three dimensional thus units must be in cubic terms.

Example 1-5: Express 2.61 ft3 in cm3.

343

3333

cm 107.39cm 73906.9696

)in 1

cm 2.54()

ft 1

in 12(ft 2.61cm ?

67

Percentage Percentage is the parts per

hundred of a sample. Example 1-6: A 335 g sample of

ore yields 29.5 g of iron. What is the percent of iron in the ore?


68

Percentage Percentage is the parts per hundred of a

sample. Example 1-6: A 335 g sample of ore

yields 29.5 g of iron. What is the percent of iron in the ore?

8.81%

100%x ore g 335

Feg 29.5

100%x ore of grams

iron of grams iron % ?

69

Density and Specific Gravity

density = mass/volume What is density? Why does ice float in liquid water?

70


density = mass/volume What is density? Why does ice float in liquid water?

H2O(l)H2O(s)

H

C

HHH

H

C

HHH

71

Density and Specific Gravity Example 1-7: Calculate the density

of a substance if 742 grams of it occupies 97.3 cm3.

Vm density

mL 3.97cm 97.3 mL 1 cm 1 33

72


Example 1-7: Calculate the density of a substance if 742 grams of it occupies 97.3 cm3.

g/mL 7.63 density mL 97.3

g 742 density

Vm density

mL 3.97cm 97.3 mL 1 cm 1 33

73


Example 1-8 Suppose you need 125 g of a corrosive liquid for a reaction. What volume do you need? liquid’s density = 1.32 g/mL


74

Density and Specific Gravity Example 1-8 Suppose you need 125 g

of a corrosive liquid for a reaction. What volume do you need? liquid’s density = 1.32 g/mL

density

mV

V

mdensity

75

Density and Specific Gravity Example 1-8 Suppose you need

125 g of a corrosive liquid for a reaction. What volume do you need? liquid’s density = 1.32 g/mL

mL 94.7 1.32

g 125V

density

mV

V

mdensity

mLg

76


Water’s density is essentially 1.00 at room T. Thus the specific gravity of a substance is

very nearly equal to its density. Specific gravity has no units.

)water(density

)substance(densityGravity Specific

77


Example 1-9: A 31.10 gram piece of chromium is dipped into a graduated cylinder that contains 5.00 mL of water. The water level rises to 9.32 mL. What is the specific gravity of chromium?

You do itYou do it

78

Density and Specific Gravity Example1-9: A 31.10 gram piece of

chromium is dipped into a graduated cylinder that contains 5.00 mL of water. The water level rises to 9.32 mL. What is the specific gravity of chromium?

mL 4.32

g 31.10 Cr ofdensity

mL 4.32

mL 5.00 - mL 9.32 Cr of Volume

79

Density and Specific Gravity Example1-9: A 31.10 gram piece of

chromium is dipped into a graduated cylinder that contains 5.00 mL of water. The water level rises to 9.32 mL. What is the specific gravity of chromium?

20.7 1.00

7.20Cr ofGravity Specific

mLg 7.20mL

g 7.19907

mL 4.32

g 31.10 Cr ofdensity

mLg

mLg

80

Density and Specific Gravity Example 1-10: A concentrated hydrochloric

acid solution is 36.31% HCl and 63.69% water by mass. The specific gravity of the solution is 1.185. What mass of pure HCl is contained in 175 mL of this solution?


81


solution g 100.00

OH g 63.69or

solution g 100.00

HCl g 36.31or

OH g 63.69

HCl g 36.31

Problem thisfrom Factors UnitPossible Some

2

2

82


L

g 1185

mL

g 1.185density

problem from 1.185Gravity Specific

83


HCl g 75.3

solution g 100.00

HCl g 36.31

mL 1

nsol' g 1.185nsol' mL 175HCl g ?

L

g 1185

mL

g 1.185density

1.185Gravity Specific

84

Heat and Temperature Heat and Temperature are not the same thing

T is a measure of the intensity of heat in a body 3 common temperature scales - all use water

as a reference

85

Heat and Temperature Heat and

Temperature are not the same thingT is a measure of the

intensity of heat in a body

3 common temperature scales - all use water as a reference

86

Heat and Temperature

MP water BP water Fahrenheit 32 oF 212 oF Celsius 0.0 oC 100 cC Kelvin 273 K 373 K

87

Relationships of the Three Temperature Scales

273KC

or

273 C K

ipsRelationsh Centigrade andKelvin

o

o

88


1.85

9

10

18

100

180

ipsRelationsh Centigrade and Fahrenheit

89


1.8

32FC

or

32C 1.8F

1.85

9

10

18

100

180

ipsRelationsh Centigrade and Fahrenheit

oo

oo

90

Relationships of the Three Temperature Scales Easy method to remember how to

convert from Centigrade to Fahrenheit.

1. Double the Centigrade temperature.

2. Subtract 10% of the doubled number.

3. Add 32.

91

Heat and Temperature Example 1-11: Convert 211oF to

degrees Celsius.

1.8

32112C

1.8

32FC

o

oo

92

Heat and Temperature Example 1-12: Express 548 K in

Celsius degrees.

275C

273485C

273KC

o

o

o

93

Heat Transfer and The Measurement of Heat

SI unit J (Joule) calorie

1 calorie = 4.184 J English unit = BTU Specific Heat

amount of heat required to raise the T of 1g of a substance by 1oC units = J/goC

94

Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat Heat capacity

amount of heat required to raise the T of 1 mole of a substance by 1oC

units = J/mol oC

Example 1-13: Calculate the amt. of heat to raise T of 200 g of water from 10.0oC to 55.0oC

95

Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat

Heat transfer equationnecessary to calculate amounts of heatamount of heat = amount of substance x

specific heat xT

T C mq

96

Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat Heat transfer equation

necessary to calculate amounts of heatamount of heat = amount substance x

specific heat xT

C)10.0C(55.0OH g 1

J 4.184OH g 200J ?

T C mq

oo

22

97

Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat Heat transfer equation

necessary to calculate amounts of heatamount of heat = amount substance x

specific heat xT

kJ 37.6 or J 103.76

C)10.0C(55.0OH g 1

J 4.184OH g 200J ?

T C mq

4

oo

22

98

Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat

Example 1-14: Calculate the amount of heat to raise the temperature of 200.0 grams of mercury from 10.0oC to 55oC. Specific heat for Hg is 0.138 J/g oC.


99

Heat Transfer and the Measurement of Heat Example 1-14: Calculate the amount of

heat to raise T of 200 g of Hg from 10.0oC to 55oC. Specific heat for Hg is 0.138 J/g oC.

Requires 30.3 times more heat for water 4.184 is 30.3 times greater than 0.138

kJ 1.24

C)10.0C(55.0CHg) g (1

J 0.138Hg g 200J ?

TCmq

ooo

100

Synthesis Question

It has been estimated that 1.0 g of seawater contains 4.0 pg of Au. The total mass of seawater in the oceans is 1.6x1012 Tg, If all of the gold in the oceans were extracted and spread evenly across the state of Georgia, which has a land area of 58,910 mile2, how tall, in feet, would the pile of Au be?Density of Au is 19.3 g/cm3. 1.0 Tg = 1012g.

101

Au g106.4)OH of g

Au g104.0O)(H of g10(1.6

OH of g 101.6)Tg

g 10( Tg) 10(1.6

12

2

12

224

224

1212

Synthesis Question

102

331533

3113

12

12

2

12

224

224

1212

mile 1cm 104.16 mile 1cm 160,934

cm 160,934in 1

cm 2.54

ft 1

in 12

mile 1

ft 5280mile 1

Aucm103.3Au g 19.3

1cmAu g106.4

Au g106.4)OH of g

Au g104.0O)(H of g10(1.6

OH of g 101.6)Tg

g 10( Tg) 10(1.6

Synthesis Question

103

ft 107.13mile 1

ft 5280mile)10(1.35

mile 58,910

mile107.96

mile107.96cm104.16

mile 1Au) cm 10(3.3

692

35

35315

3311

Synthesis Question

104

Group Activity On a typical day, a hurricane expends the

energy equivalent to the explosion of two thermonuclear weapons. A thermonuclear weapon has the explosive power of 1.0 Mton of nitroglycerin. Nitroglycerin generates 7.3 kJ of explosive power per gram of nitroglycerin. The hurricane’s energy comes from the evaporation of water that requires 2.3 kJ per gram of water evaporated. How many gallons of water does a hurricane evaporate per day?

105

End of Chapter 1

chapter one the foundations of chemistry. 2 chapter outline 1. matter and energy 2. states of matter...

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