[330]

CHAPTER SIX

AN OVERVIEW : COMPARATIVE APPROACHES

Introduction

Having explored the main perspectives that determine the practice and performance

of the three dance styles, it’s time we attempted a comparison between them. A

comparison can bring into light significant elements that may have elluded our

attention during the isolated study of each style. It can also develop our understanding

of the known elements into new directions, helping us to redefine the role of these

female dance styles in the context of Asian Performing Arts.

From the point of view of their origin, these three dance styles have emerged in the

17th -

18th

centuries in three different countries of Asia, namely, India, Indonesia and

Japan. This makes them relatively recent if compared to other dance and theatre forms

belonging to the same performing traditions. It also means that these styles did not

emerged from point zero, but already had in matters of philosophy and aesthetics, as

well as in matters of thematic content and technique, a pretty rich base on which they

could step. In addition, the 17th

century in Asia, was a period that could accommodate

artistic creation. It was an era of progress in all fields during which new ideals came

to replace the old medieval values and during which the three regions of Manipur,

Java and Kamigata experienced an opening to the rest of the countries they belong

and to other countries of Asia. An era of relative peace and political stability for all

three countries in question, it was conducive to the flourishing of arts and to the

rigorous expression of aesthetic ideals. The royal courts were the nurseries of intense

artistic activity as they offered patronage to an elite of painters, musicians, dancers

and poets who had the opportunity to live and create in an interactive environment.

[331]

Thus, it is not surprising that bedhaya is seen through the aesthetic views expressed

by court musicians and poets regarding their own art.

The dance styles studied here were mainly developed by gifted individuals who

received the patronage of the royal court and in turn, reflected the refinement, the

elegance and the pursuit of aesthetic ideals characteristic of courtly life. However,

aesthetic perfection and pleasure of the senses were not the sole preoccupation of the

devoted dancers and choreographers who set the principles for each style. These

gifted individuals lived in the precincts of the palace surrounded by the all-powerful

and religiously charged person of the king and they were themselves devoted to the

religious and philosophical traditions of the court at that time. This explains why,

their artistic creations aimed not only at the delight of the senses but beyond, at the

delight of the soul.

[332]

6.1 Female dance styles: aesthetic and spiritual correlations

In modern times, the transition of dance from the court or the temple to the theatre

has led to the viewing of any dance form as a type of entertainment and very little, if

something at all, is known about its background which can also be rather complex.

For instance, classical dances in Asia are not only appreciated for their

performance value, nor are they necessarily experienced as a means whereby

an individual dancer may impress the spectators. In fact, the external, technical

aspects of dance are inextricably linked to its inner aspects and express them to a

great extent. This implies that without a proper understanding of the inner aspects of

dance, the mere study of its technique, however detailed this might be, will,

unavoidably, lack in depth. That is why, in the study of these dance styles, there has

been a conscious attempt to consider the religious, philosophical and aesthetic aspects

first, followed by the more external, tangible aspects of the dance performance.

Because, it is in the close alignment of their philosophy and aesthetics with their

thematic content and technique that lies ther distinct beauty.

From an historical point of view, there is no proof of any direct population

exchange between the three geographical areas in which these dance styles flourished.

Evidence points at the journey of Indian and Buddhist monks from India to countries

of South-East Asia, but not from Manipur which was a state isolated even from the

rest of the Indian subcontinent till the 17th

century. Even if some kind of mixing of

populations had taken place, there are no records. On the other hand, Manipuris,

Javanese and Japanese belong to a common race - the indo-mongoloid - and

although each group has a culture of its own, they do share a number of common

characteristics, detectable in their body type, features and way of life. The discussion

on the technical aspect of the dances will consider this common heritage.

[333]

But even if we ignore the historical and ethnological perspectives and we take a look

through a wider spectrum, we will notice that Manipuri, Bedhaya and Mai have all

flourished on the Asian soil. As such they share a common attitude towards art in the

variety of its expressions, an attitude that is inextricably related to a world view

proper to this land. More particularly, dance and all form of arts in Asia, have

originally been integral parts of early rites. And though with the time, Asian art came

progressively out from the sphere of religion, it never lost its function of mediator

between this material world and the metaphysical realm of the spirit. In this sense, art

in the East is not art for its own sake but a medium and a path for realising eternal

truths.

[334]

6.2 A common philosophical quest

What brings these three dance styles on a common platform at first place, is their

adherence to a common philosophical quest, ontological as well as a metaphysical.

Though the methods and ways of the religious movements that have exercised their

influence on the dance practice may vary, the essence of their teachings is somewhat

similar.

Manipuri is influenced by Bengal Vaishnavism, a religion of devotion or bhakti,

intense love for the divine personified in Lord Krishna. The path of bhakti calls for

surrender of one’s ego which is the barrier separating us from God. Through a

theistic path, the devotee seeks to experience oneness with the divine, overcoming any

false idea of seperatedness. On the other hand, Kashmir Shaivism is more speculative,

more philosophical. But it also advocate surrender, surrender of the false idea of the

ego which has its source in ignorance. Ignorance, which is the false sense of a

separate self, is cause of bongage and can be brought to an end by the realisation of

the one undivided self existing in all living beings. We can see the influence of this

philosophy in the esoteric analysis of the bedhaya choreography, which silences

desire and the sense of duality (presented by the opposition of the dancers) and

reaches the realisation of unity (represented by the harmonious formations of the

dancers in the last part of the performance.) In Zen Buddhism, there is absence of

both the theistic element of devotion and of the philosophical element of speculation.

However, Zen meditation on emptiness and the transcience of all phenomena

expresses the same concern : realisation of the essence of the one undivided reality.

[335]

Further, these paths commonly hold that the state of consciousness to be attained is

already naturally there. It does not have to be cerated afresh; it is only covered by a

veil and we are thus unable to recognise it even when we see it. Thus the sought after

enlightenement is not but a process of uncovering or discovering. As such, it can be

seen as a reverse movement of going back to our original nature. Translated in an

attitude of the spirit, it is ‘turning our eyes inward’, which accounts for the introvert

nature of these dance styles. Because the self, which is full and perfect by its very

nature, is revealed in all its richness when the ‘veil’ is removed. All yogic practices

aim at this and dance is no exeption.In the concluding part of Maharas, the gopis

dance in a circle with Krishna being in the middle of it. And while they are swirling

and dancing around him, each one feels Him dancing with her, in what is known as

eka gopi eka shyam, signifying that moment of the tearing of the veil of duality and

the realisation of the identity with Krishna. The Bedhaya choreography is occupied

with the same quest. The patterns formed by the dancers show this process of

realisation, beginning with the depiction of our state of ignorance and conflict to

proceed resolving the conflict and attaining the harmony that lies in the realisation of

our true self. In Kamigata Mai, this process is experienced as the negation of

everything that exists, since nothing is permanent, in order to discover the original

unity of all phenomena. In all the three cases, this realisation is possible not in the

negation of the objective world - which may be practically impossible - but in the

renounciation of our strenuous attachement to it. This is best exemplified in an

attitude of self-surrender,

‘If pratyabijnacxciii

is viewed as the dissolution of the ego, then it approaches the

theistic conception of self-surrender . In theistic devotion (bhakti), the individual self

(jīva) is required to surrender itself to God. But what is most significant in Tantric

[336]

sādhanā is not God but the act of surrender itself. There can be surrender even

without conceiving of a God to whom to surrender. In that case surrender is just the

silencing or extinction (nirvāna) of the ego. In Buddhism we find self-surrender or

self-renunciation without God. This can be called the surrender of the path of

knowledge (jñana-mārga), analogous to the surrender of the path of devotion (bhakti-

mārga).’cxciv

For the dancer, this religious attitude of self-surrender translates into an

attitude of humbleness and restraint characterised by the absence of any attempt of

self projection.

In harmony with their strong religious and philosophical background these dance

styles have an instructive character. In Manipuri Vaishnavism, dance and music are

used in order to express the sacred sentiment, bhakti , that unites the devotees with the

Lord. However, this devotional love is not only a spontaneous outpour of

emotion. At the same time it is the highest form of yogic discipline or

sadhana. Because bhakti is not just a stage of emotionalism; it is thorough discipline

and training of one's will and the mind, a preparation for the intuitive realization of

God through intense love and affection for Him. In the Javanese context now and

according to the esoteric Yogyakarta dance philosophy, Joged mataram, the art

of classical Javanese dance should induce a number of desirable mental

qualities such as : concentration (sewiji), conducting dynamic impulses into

movement (greged), self-confidence (sengguh) and perseverance (ora mingkuh).

Court dancers and musicians believe that the practicing of bedhaya

compositions is an ‘act of worship’. It is a way of performing ‘ semèdi ’ -

(often equivalent to ‘sembahyanh’, divine service or worship) - the Javanese

form of the Sanskrit word ‘samadhi’ meaning both religious concentration and

its result, mystical union. In Japan, the Zen arts like painting, calligraphy, are called

[337]

‘ways’ or dō, paths through which one can cultivate spiritual values such as inner

concentration produced by meditation and tranquillity conducive to the realisation of

the emptiness of all phenomena. An emptiness which is not nothingness, but a symbol

of inexhaustibility embodying the primordial essence of the ineffable and formless

absolute.

The above considerations create an equally appropriate context for highlightening the

fact that these dance forms are reserved to female dancers (with Manipuri lāsya

danced by female dancers) who also played the role of priestesses in the early rites

related to agricultural festivals and cults of fertility. According to historical and

mythological records, in all three countries of India, Indonesia and Japan, female

dancers ( the maibi of Lai Hārāoba and the miko of Shinto rites for example) used to

preside in a dance performance involving trance and possession by spirits. These

young dancers, below the age of puberty, served as physical receptacles for the

invoked deity which would possess them and manifest him/herself through them

revealing his/her will once the dancers would reach an advanced state of trance. A

young girl was chosen because she was far more receptive, privileged with the gift of

motherhood, having a womb who could summon the cosmic forces the same way it

could welcome and nourish new life. Being the one who could connect herself with

the spiritual world, she represented the community and served as a bridge between

this world and the other. The possession of the female priestess by the spirit or the

deity was the culmination of the ritual, a moment symbolically called her ‘marriage’

to the spirit, the lāi of Lai Hārāoba. By marriage it is meant her union with the spirit, a

union which is not only spiritual, but also physical since she is ‘physically’ possessed

by it. The female priestess represents the entire community and thus this union blesses

all the people and the land.

[338]

These ritualistic dances that now belong to the folk tradition are the spontaneous

expressions of an indigenous culture while the female styles studied here, are classical

forms, refined products of a long fermentation of philosophical, religious and

aesthetic ideals. However, what brings these two dance performances together is the

undisputable presence of the female dancer not only as an entertainer but as a

mediator for her audience of the experience of the subtler dimension of the spirit.

[339]

6.3 Aesthetics – experiencing the essence of undivided reality

If Asian art has a spiritual dimension, it is nonetheless related to the palpable

media of the body, the clay, the chords, the paint, it belongs to the tangible world of

forms, colours and shapes and is subject to our immediate perception of it. In it,

philosophy is closely aligned with aesthetics and views based on a critical theorisation

of art are in perfect harmony with the spiritual principles informing it.

The first thing we realize when we begin to study Asian dance is its

universality. The concept of art in Asia is not anthropocentric but cosmocentric.

Governing the entire view of arts and aesthetics in Asia, this traditional concept

translates a vision of the world according to which man is only a part of a vast

intelligent universe, and his destiny depends entirely on his harmonious relation

with it. According to the Indian philosophy, there is a perfect correspondence

between man and the cosmos. In Samkhya the human body is said to be composed of

the panchabutas, the five elements that constitute the universe. In that sense, man

is not but a miniature of the universe. The system of correspondences between

macrocosm and microcosm, linking the gross and the subtle, central to the

philosophy of the Vedas paves the way for the highest spiritual experience of

unity which is the ultimate aim of every yogi on his spiritual path.

However, this experience of unity between the individual and the universal is also

linked with the Indian view of creative process and aesthetic experience. The

postulation of being as pure unity and non-differentiation explaining the

profound correlation of objective and subjective aspects of reality, culminates

in the aesthetic theory of unified experience of rasa. The multiplicity of the

phenomenal world dissolves itself in the unity of the universal being, Brahma

[340]

through the impersonalisation of the emotive states. The artist like the yogi, is

able of transcending all levels of experience and attain the state of bliss,

ananda.

Indian aesthetics have been dominated by the concept of rasa as explained by

Bharata in relation to the theatrical performance in his Natyashastra. Abhinavagupta,

being a philosopher and adept of the Kashmir school of Shaivism, deepened this

concept - that he considered in a different context, that of poetry - till he reached the

equation of two levels of experience, viewed from philosophers and poets before him

as distinct, the aesthetic and the spiritual. Abinavagupta exploring the philosophical

depth of the concept, bridged the gap between aesthetic and religious experience.

To understand his approach we’d better take the original meaning of the greek

term aisthētikos which is ‘of sense perception’ instead of the english term ‘aesthetics’

which stands for the study of the basis of evaluating objects designated as ‘artistic’.

Thus, ‘When we say that ‘rasas are perceived (we are using language loosely)…for

rasa is the process of perception ( pratīyamāna eva hi rasah) itself….’ cxcv

This

conveys the idea here of a special kind of perception, of paying full attention in the

present. To see things as they are without precognition or judgment is therefore to

perceive aesthetically. To see things as they are, is to perceive the one absolute reality

behind them of which we are a small part and experience oneness with it. For

Abhinavagupta, aesthetic enjoyment and mystical experience are intimately

connected, for through works of art a person reconnects with the fundamental oneness

of all things, what the Upanisads call, the Absolute. But that Absolute resides within

oneself. As a person fully experiences an aesthetic work, one merges with the object

of contemplation, identifying completely with it, and experiences his or her pure self,

or “highest self.” In Patanjali’s Yoga sutras, the ultimate state of samadhi is described

[341]

as the state in which there is no experience of duality between the observer, who is the

subject of the experience, and the observed - which is its object. This coincides with

the experience of the one undivided self. This experience of the self, ātmānubhūti

coincides with the rasa experience rasānubhūti and is called svātmaparāmarsa,

contact with one’s own self. In the words of Masson and Patwardhan, “ for the

duration of the aesthetic experience the normal waking “I” is suspended . . . all

normal emotions are gone . . . we experience sheer undifferentiated bliss . . . for we

have come into direct contact with the deepest recesses of our own unconscious where

the memory of a primeval unity between man and the universe is still strong.

Inadvertently . . . we have arrived at the same inner terrain as that occupied by the

mystic. cxcvi

In the Javanese context, the term ‘Rasa’ is equally present and must have to from

India together with the Hindu and Buddhist priests and the scared language of the

vedic hymns, Sanskrit. Here again, in the concept of rasa is located the link relating

Javanese art to mystic traditions. Javanese musicians use the word rasa, translated in

Javanese as ‘emotion’, ‘taste’ or ‘essence’ in order to translate the feelings, the

intentions and ideas that a dance performance, a song or a poem can communicate.

Concerning the word ‘rasa’ itself, the Javanese must have combined the original

Sanskrit meanings associated with "rasa" ("taste, flavor, essence, enjoyment,

sentiment, disposition, meaning, etc.") and "ráhásyá" ("secret, mystery") within their

use of the term "rasa".

Bedhaya dances are qualified as ‘kelangenan dalem’, royal entertainment, or

rather delight. According to Clara Papenhuijzen ‘ the beauty and rapture created

by this ‘ kelangenan dalem’ are a result of the combination of various sensual

impressions : of the harmonious mingling of stylized sounds, movements,

[342]

colours and perfumes’ cxcvii

. Thus it is a delight which has to do with perception, it

originates in the pleasure of the visible, the tangible. However this rapture is so

intense that the aesthetic experience deepens to reach subtler levels of consciousness,

‘..It is a kind of swooning sensation, in which the subject is completely

absorbed by and becomes lost in its object, the appeal of which is so

overwhelming that everything else sinks into nothingness and oblivion. All

intellectual activity ceases; the perception of the object itself becomes vague,

and in the experience of oneness that blurs the distinction between subject and

object, consciousness of the self vanishes too’. cxcviii

Zoetmuld characterizes this

as the quest of mystical unity through the path of beauty. The aesthetic

experience described thus, based on the experience of unity of the self and the

abolition of the distinction between object and subject that this entails, coincides

perfectly with that of Abhinavagupta.

This deepening of the aesthetic experience is equally signified by the extended range

of meanings the word ‘rasa’ is capable of assuming. In Indonesian the word rasa

means "feeling," both in the physical and emotional sense; it also means "intuitive

feeling." In Javanese "rasa" is not only a term applied to sensory experiences,

implying a particular aesthetic effect, but also a cognitive organ, used actively within

mystic practices. If mind is the tool through which we register and process

information received through the five senses from the outer world, alam lahiriyah,

rasa is the tool through which we apprehend inner realities, alam batiniyah. In

Sumarah meditation practice, as stillness and concentration deepen, one is more able

to ignore the thoughts constantly rushing through one’s head, while focusing

awareness on a deeper, stiller, nonverbal part of oneself. Gradually, it is thought, the

practitioner becomes aware of another level of being, termed rasa sejati, which

[343]

Stange defines as ‘the absolute or true feeling [or] . . . mystical awareness of the

fundamental vibration or energy within all life.’ cxcix

When this occurs, according to

the members of Sumarah, one is able to perceive a fundamental truth: that all people,

even all things, are essentially one. Since in the phenomenal world, there appear to be

distinctions between the material and spiritual, the Javanese identify two aspects of

reality: lahir and batin. Because of the fundamental unity of all things, lahir and batin

are not really opposite, but merely different expressions of reality. They are ultimately

identical. One attains spiritual empowerment by grasping the essential oneness of all

things. That understanding, called rasa in the text, is the ultimate reality, the absolute

truth. One who has attained that knowledge has grasped the ultimate of rasa that is

Reality. In the Indian context the experience of Rasa was the experience of the one

undifferentiated self which takes place when vanishes the illusory duality between

observer and observed, subject and object of the aesthetic experience. On the Javanese

context, it is the same idea. The experience of rasa, rasa sejati hapens when the

perception of the opposites, of the external and inner realities, lahir and batin

disappears and there is realisation of the essential oneness of all things, in other

words, experience of the one undifferentiated self.

Coming to the Japanese context now, according to Zeami, ‘Yūgen is considered to be

the mark of supreme elegance in all of the arts and accomplishments.’ It is that

‘supreme form of beauty…which is the ultimate goal and the essential element of all

aesthetic experience’cc

, thus the external manifested, perceivable beauty of the form.

Nevertheless, it is ‘the beauty not merely of appearance but of the spirit; it is inner

beauty manifesting itself outwards.’cci

An analysis of the term of gives us the

meaning of "cloudy impenetrability," "obscurity," "unknowability," "mystery,"

“beyond intellectual calculability”, but not "utter darkness." An object so designated

[344]

is not subject to dialectical analysis or to a clear definition. It is not at all presentable

to our -intellect as this or that, but this does not mean that the object is altogether

beyond the reach of human experience. It is hidden behind the clouds, but not entirely

out of sight, for we feel its presence, its secret message being transmitted through the

darkness however impenetrable to the intellect.

Yūgen denotes the beauty of the form where beauty is the very thing which

qualifies in that things’s own realised or presentative state of being. As such it is

connected with the "inner essence," hidden under a veil of outward visibility, of the

action on stage, of the actor. It expresses the Zen Buddhist ideals of distancing oneself

from the outer world and the ability to penetrate through the veil of everyday life into

the deep non-differentiated essence of all phenomena.

The aesthetic concepts of Rasa and Yūgen thus translate an aesthetic experience

which, at the same time, is a spiritual experience. They translate an imperceptible

movement from the external manifested reality, characterised by the beauty of the

outer form towards its inner essence which is the one undifferentiated self of all

things. This is a gradual movement of self realisation in which, the spectator loses his

individuality, becomes one with the object of his experience and enjoys unity of the

self.

[345]

6.4 Links to Yoga and Tantra

The creative process in all the arts, being activity, may be explained in terms of

vedic sacrifice or yajna. As the one becomes many through the primordial act of

sacrifice, the lost unity may be regained through the same sacrificial act freeing the

self from the spatial and temporal limitations. Thus as Dr. Kapila Vatsyayan has

put it in her book on Indian Classical Dance, the traditional artist in ancient

India considered artistic creation not as a mere medium of entertainment but as

the supreme means of realization of the absolute. His artistic discipline was

meant to lead him to a supreme state of harmony and to the recognition of his

true self. The artistic activity was considered as a dedicated activity, a

sacrificial offering. The problem before the artist, therefore, was not that of

entertaining a given audience by reflecting life as it is, but of suggesting,

revealing or recreating through finite forms and symbols a vision suggestive of

the infinite universal being.

As we saw, though the philosophical and religious traditions that influenced each of

these dance styles are different in their methods, they have all originated in India and

their end, though expressed in different terms, coincides with the essential teachings

of the sacred texts of Hinduism, the Upanishads : abolition of the illusion of duality,

realisation of the true nature of the reality and the one undivided self. In terms of

aesthetics, the states in which the spectator experiences Rasa and Yūgen are not just

filled with delight or aesthetic pleasure. They are states in which, the spectator or

observer becomes one with the spectacle - here the dance and what is portrayed by it,

he loses his narrow sense of individuality in it and experiences the ‘higher self’, the

‘essence of reality’.

[346]

Thus in the Indian and Asian contexts, dance is viewed as a form of yoga. The word

‘yoga’ comes from the root yuj which means ‘to join’, and in its spiritual sense, it is

that process by which the human spirit is brought into near and conscious communion

with, or is merged in, the divine spirit, according as the nature of the human spirit is

held to be separate from (dvaita, visishtadvaita) or one with (advaita) the divine

spirit. Yoga is that process by which the identity of the two jivatman, the individual

self and paramatman, the universal self —which identity ever exists, in fact—is

realised by the yogin or practitioner of yoga. It is so realised because the spirit has

then pierced through the veil of illusion, maya which as mind and matter obscures this

knowledge from itself. The means by which this is achieved is the yoga process which

liberates the individual soul or jiva from maya. For this to happen, the awakening of

kundalini is required.

Kundalini is the power, in the form of a coiled serpent, residing in muladhara

chakra, the first of the seven chakras, the subtle centres of energy in our human body,

the other six being svadhishthan, manipur, anahat, visuddhi, ajna and sahasrara.

(Figure 106). All sadhana or spiritual practices in the form of japa (reciting sacred

syllables or mantra), meditation, singing devotional songs or kirtan and prayer as well

as all development of virtues, and observance of austerities like truth, non-violence

and continence are at best calculated only to awaken this serpent-power and make it to

pass through all the succeeding chakras beginning from svadhishthana to sahasrara.

This latter otherwise called as the thousand-petalled lotus, is the seat of Sadahsiva or

the Parabrahman, the divine consciousness separated from whom the kundalini or

shakti lies at muladhara chakra, and to unite with whom the kundalini passes through

all the chakras, as explained above, confering liberation on the aspirant.

[347]

In turn, Kundalini yoga actually belongs to tantric sadhana, which gives a detailed

description about this serpent-power and the chakra, as mentioned above. Shakti is the

female energy that resides in the body of men and women in the form of kundalini,

and the entire tantric practice aims at awakening her, and making her to unite with

Consciousness visualized as the male Lord, Sadasiva, residing in the sahasrara

chakra. Tantra in its purest form, describes both the process and methodologies for

the resolution of all conflicts of opposites, of all forms of dualities as we would say in

terms of yoga. From earliest times, the symbology used has been based on the

interpenetration of what is, metaphorically, referred to as Shakti and Shiva, energy

and consciousness, male and female.

According to Tantra, Shakti is usually the main deity worshipped, and the universe is

regarded as the divine play of Shakti and Shiva. Rather than a single coherent system,

Tantra is an accumulation of practices and ideas which has among its characteristics

the use of ritual, the use of the mundane to access the supra mundane and the

identification of the microcosm with the macrocosm. The Tantric practitioner seeks to

use the prana or energy that flows through the universe - including one's own body -

to attain purposeful goals.

There are two schools of Tantra the left-hand and the right-hand Tantra. In left-hand

Tantra, ritual sexual intercourse was employed, not for pleasure but as a way of

entering into the underlying processes and structure of the universe. Tantric monks of

this school used female partners to represent goddesses. These maithuna practices

were highly symbolic. When enacted as enjoined by the tantras, the ritual culminates

in a sublime experience of infinite awareness, by both participants. The Tantras

specify that sex has three distinct and separate purposes—procreation, pleasure, and

[348]

liberation. Those seeking liberation eschew frictional orgasm for a higher form of

ecstasy, as the couple participating in the ritual, lock in a static embrace. Several

sexual rituals are recommended and practiced. These involve elaborate and

meticulous preparatory and purificatory rites. The act balances energies coursing

within ida and pingala, channels of subtle energy or prana in the subtle bodies of both

participants. The sushumna nadi is awakened and kundalini rises upwards within it.

This eventually culminates in samadhi wherein the respective individualities of each

of the participants are completely dissolved in the unity of cosmic consciousness.

Those who practice Tantra understand the act on multiple levels. The male and

female participants are conjoined physically and represent Shiva and Shakti, the male

and female principles. Beyond the physical, a subtle fusion of Shiva and Shakti

energies takes place resulting in a united energy field. On an individual level, each

participant experiences a fusion of one's own Shiva and Shakti energies.

[349]

A mystic allegory

Yogic as well as tantric practices use the human body as an instrument for attaining

spiritual heights, the body itself is considered as a vehicle for reaching levels of

higher consciousness. Among all forms of artistic expression, dance is the most

directly related to body movement. Since we talked about yoga and dance, a

discussion could naturally follow of how on a practical level these three dances are a

kind of yogic practice, considering the different body postures, the mudras used, the

control of breath. However, the present study does not look at it from the purely

practical point of view which would require a detailed study of the technique of these

dances in terms of hatha-yoga. This could nevertheless constitute the topic of a future

research in the field. Rather, the link to Yoga and Tantra is traced in the thematic

content of the dances.

It cannot go unnoticed that the dance styles discussed here are ‘haunted’ by a

recurrent motif – that of a heroine (the female dancer ) in love. In Manipuri lāsya,

Rādha yearns for Krishna, in Bedhaya Kanjeng Ratu Kidul for the Sultan, and in Mai

a common woman for her lost lover. This love is not platonic, on the contrary, it is a

burning passion that has already been consummated in the fire of physical love. The

heroine agonises and yearns for her beloved as she reminiscences their intense

moments together. The songs of the dances abound with expressions of mundane

passion. In the following extracts, one can sense the direct or indirect allusion to

displays of physical love.

[350]

From Gītagovinda :

‘Consent to my love; let elixir pour from your face!

To end our separation I bare my chest of the silk that bars your breast.

Nārāyaņa is faithful now. Love me Rādhikā!

………

‘Offer your lips’nectar to revive a dying slave, Rādhā!

His obsessed mind and listless body burn in love’s isolation’.

From the liturgy of Bedhaya Pensindhèn,

‘ The second part of the text

gave rise to sweet rapture

they felt inspired to make love

the sweeteness of embracing

aroused harmonious mutual love

as the gods Kamajaya and Ratih

Then they united, full of affection

and had intercourse

after they had been lying down

the king went away

[351]

taking leave to return to the land

and she who resides in the water...’ ccii

From Jiuta Kurokami,

‘It is the pillow

We shared that night …“ you are mine ”, he said..’cciii

And from Jiuta Yuki,

‘I’m only sorry that

I still can’t think of

My former lover as sinful...’ cciv

From these selected extracts, it is made clear that the love between the heroine and

the absent hero has been more than platonic. At first glance, this does not pose any

difficulties. As stated in the introduction, female dance, lāsya, was crafted to express

the erotic sentiment of love, shringara. Thus, a text song having as its central theme a

woman’s love is not unexpected. The problem occurs when we try to reconcile this

love with the spiritual content of these dance styles because, for an orthodox mind, it

is hardly possible to assume that a dance with an apparently sensual content has a

spiritual message to convey. And how can we explain the fact that what we consider

to be the theistic verses of Jayadeva’s Gītagovinda, a sacred hymn that used to be

sung in a number of temples as a part of ritual serviceccv

abound with scenes of

physical passion? Facing this dilemma, either we have to dismiss the idea of these

[352]

dances having a spiritual content or accept that the line boundaries between sacred

and profane are not as rigid as they seem ot be.

To resolve this tension, we will refer back to Vaishnavism and to the Krishna-Gopi

story. Before Jayadeva and his Gītagovinda, Rādha was almost inexistent in Sanskrit

literature. It was Jayadeva who elevated her to the status of Krishna’s consort.

Krishna could not be portrayed as an impersonal transcendental God. He had to

be portrayed as symbolizing, in the tradition of Hindu mythology, the cosmic

unity of purusha and prakrti. Together with his consort, Krishna was complete.

Alone, he was nirasa, devoid of rasa.

As we saw in the introductory part of this study, in the Natyashastra, the divinity has

a female form. She’s the goddess Parvatī, which is also a shakti, the manifested

energy of her male counterpart, God Shiva, the embodiment of the divine

consciousness on a cosmic as well as on an individual level. The union of Shiva and

Shakti, Krishna and Rādhā is the goal of yogic as well as tantric practices. Besides,

some scholars like Chandrabali Pandey, trace the origin of Rādhā to the tantric

tradition. They believe that initially Rādha had no relation with Krishna and his life.

She was a mere female companion in tantric sadhana. According to the Buddhist

Grihyasamaja Tantra for conducting vidyavrata rituals, it was necessary to take a

sixteen-year old girl as partner. She was called Sadhika or Radhika. In the medieval

tantric Vaishnava Sahajiya cult, Rādhā again manifests herself in the tantric form. S.

Dasgupta says: ‘The sahaja sadhana of Vaishnavas grew mainly with the philosophy

of Rādhā and Krishna and their eternal love in the land of eternity’. We have already

seen that in Tantra, sexual union is seen as a medium to spiritual liberation. The male

and female participants are conjoined physically and represent Shiva and Shakti, the

[353]

male and female principles. It eventually culminates in samadhi wherein the

respective individualities of each of the participants are completely dissolved in the

unity of cosmic consciousness.

‘In Sahaja Vaishnavism, love was conceived as sahaja. This sahaja or the absolute

playfully divides into two – the lover and the beloved, the enjoyer and the enjoyed, as

Krishna and Rādhā. This playful division of the one into two is for nothing but for

self-realisation. In terms of Sahajiyas, the sahaja manifests into two currents : rasa

(love) and rati ( the exciting cause of love and the support of love) which are currents

represented by Krishna and Rādhā. Again, it is held that man and woman on earth

are but physical representations of Krishna and Rādhā, or rasa and rati in Gokola; in

the corporeal forms man and woman represent rupa or the external manifestation of

Krishna and Rādhā, who reside, so to speak, in every man and woman as swarupa or

the true spiritual self. The sadhana comprises first of realisation of swarupa in rupa

and after this realisation, the pair should unite in love. The realisation of infinite bliss

that follows from such union is the highest spiritual gain.’ ccvi

Seen in this light, allusions or actual references to sexual intercourse present in the

text songs of all the three styles are real as well as allegorical. It is, nevertheless, quite

unrealistic to imagine that Jayadeva composing his Gītagovinda, was intentionally

shaping his verses in a way to express the fundamentals of tantric philosophy of life.

However, throughout the centuries, the philosophy and practices of Yoga, Tantra,

Buddhism, etc., have been internalised to that extent that they became parts of the

collective psyche only to emerge through symbols, images and metaphors in all forms

of art, one of which is dance. Further, the relation between male and female can also

be explained with reference to the context of bhakti philosophy. The term ‘bhakti’

,meaning ‘devotion’ in Sanskrit, signifies an active involvement by the devotee in

[354]

divine worship. The practice of bhakti emphasises devotion above ritual. Bhakti is

commonly represented in terms of human relationships, most importantly beloved-

lover, friend-friend, parent-child, and master-servant. In the present context, it is the

first of these relations that is mostly given expression. Thus, the female heroine

symbolises the devotee or in yogic terms the jivatma, the individual soul longing to

reunite with the beloved, paramatma, the universal soul. The attitude of self-

surrender, equal to the renunciation of the ego, as the bhakta merges with his object of

adoration and becomes one with it. "Devotion" as an English translation for bhakti

doesn't fully convey two important aspects of bhakti. One is the sense of participation

and "mutual indwelling" that is central to the relationship between the devotee and

God as practiced in bhakti. The other is the intense feeling that is more typically

associated with the English word "love".

Considering the influence of yogic and tantric practices which have been part of the

religious currents that influenced these dance forms, we can assume that this recurrent

motif of erotic love intensified by the longing for the beloved who is absent, is in fact

a mystic allegory for the yearning of the individual soul to unite with its source. In

Bengal Vaishnavism, Rādhā’s passionate love for Krishna is an allegory for the

yearning of the human soul for God. As for the reference to their physical union, it

can be justified if seen in the light of tantric practices and philosophy according to

which spiritual liberation comes with the union of the opposites, the male and female

energies in the human body which can also be extended to the union of a man with a

woman. What is observed here, is an approaching of Bhakti with Yoga and Tantra in

an attempt to provide multiple points of view that do not, admittedly, contradict each

other.

[355]

6.5 Lore of love in separation

It seems that this approaching that took place in the female dance styles did not

happen by chance. For the Vaishnava bhaktas, known for their identification

with the gopi in her devotion to Krishna, bhakti has a feminine face. The

gopis of Vrindavan together with Rādhā are considered to be the supreme

bhaktas. Immersed in their love for Krishna, they are only capable of total

self-surender (prapatti) which is the first and foremost condition of bhakti. This

conception of the prominent Vaishnavas as the incarnations of the chief gopis

of Vrindavan is based probably on the concept which regards Krishna as the

sole male and maintains that worshippers can fully realize passionate devotion

only when they conceive themselves as females. Bhakti extols possessing and

being possessed by God. For it, love is where the fullest possession, the closest touch

of all, takes place. For bhakti is preeminently feminine in its orientation, and the

erotic love for Krishna is envisioned entirely from the woman's point of view.

In Manipuri the beloved is Krishna, in Bedhaya the Sultan who is worshipped as

God on earth, while in Kamigata mai the object of the heroine’s love is a common

man. It is obvious that in the first two the hero despite his human form, is divine as

well and this makes it easier for us to understand the symbolic aspect of these dance

forms. On the other hand, in Kamigata mai, the hero is a man, and his affair with the

heroine is a mundane love relation not accepting any theistic or metaphysical

connotations whatsoever. Nevertheless, all three cases have to do with love in

separation since the heroine is separated from the beloved and the intense longing this

situation causes to her. This separation is epitomised in Rādhā’s yearning for Krishna,

in Kajeng Ratu’s longing for the sultan, a Buddhist nun’s love; their entire life

consists of a `holy yearning', an intense desire.

[356]

According to the Natyashastra and Vaishnavite poetics the three heroines

experience viraha, the state of love in separation. Viraha bhaki or love in separation

is defined for the devotees as ‘the intolerable, intense agony of being separated from

their Beloved’ ccvii

, is considered even higher than the state of separation in union.

Because when in Maharas Krishna disappears from the gopies, in the fire of their

longing, they experience total surrender and total oneness with Krishna. This state of

separation creates such a strong yearning that union is experienced more completely

and totally than if the beloved were actually present. Therefore, viraha has positive

connotations; instead of making love pathetic, it intensifies it,

‘ The pathetic sentiment relates to a condition of despair owing to the affliction

under a curse, separation from dear ones, loss of wealth, death or captivity,

while the Erotic sentiment based on separation rates to a condition of retaining

optimism arising out of yearning and anxiety. Hence the pathetic sentiment, and

the erotic sentiment in separation differ from each other.’ ccviii

In Manipuri and Bedhaya dances the love in separation theme functions positively as

it reflects the devotional aspect of these dances. However, Kamigata mai is not a

devotional dance, it is not a dance dedicated to a deity or performed as a ritual during

a ceremony despite the fact that many Mai performances take place in Buddhist

temples. Here, the love theme, so recurrent in Jiuta songs, works negatively and

serves as a catalyst for the understanding of the insignificance and impermanence of

our human condition in harmony with the Zen philosophy. Like death, unfulfilled love

brings the realization of the ephemeral nature of our existence and, by extension, of

all worldly phenomena.

[357]

The heroine in love

In all the three dance styles, the dancer plays the role of the lovelorn nayika. In

Manipuri, it is Rādhā, Krishna’s consort and as such a deity in her own right. She is

beautiful, full of grace benevolent. Jayadeva, in the very first poem of the first canto

of his Geeta Govinda, calls Rādhā as Sri, the goddess of beauty, success and wealth.

Later, he refers to her by her divine names such as Padmavati, Kamala, Lakshmi and

Chandi.ccix

In Bedhaya dance, she is Kanjeng Ratu Kidul, a deity who, unlike Rādha,

can also have the face of a violent destructive deity. She is assimilated to Dewi Sri

who is Lakshmi but also to Nyai Blorong and isa deity who has to be appeased and

satisfied, similar to all tantric goddesses. In contrast with Manipuri and Bedhaya, in

Kamigata Mai the nayika is a simple woman, not a deity but a simple woman,

sometimes a Buddhist nun.

But apart form their status as goddeses of the Hindu and Javanese pantheon, here they

are just heroines expressing an aspect that is very much human. They are all the

nayika who is stigmatised by the illicit nature of her love. Not only Rādhā is a married

woman belonging to another man, but her love for Krishna does violate fundamental

rules and norms of the society. She is parakiya, another-man's woman, and her liaison

with Krishna, whatever its symbolism in mystical allegory is, in human terms, plainly

adulterous. Kajeng Ratu Kidul, being a spirit queen and a chthonic deity, cannot

follow her beloved, who is a mortal king, to the kingdom of Java on earth. Her place

belongs for ever to the dark ocean waters. The heroine of Mai Yuki, is now a Buddhist

nun. Neither as a geisha she could unite herself with her beloved, nor as a Buddhist

nun, having renounced to the world, she can do it now. Therefore, the heroine’s

liaison, which is - let’s not forget it- an allegory for man’s longing for the divine, is

presented as both impossible and illicit.

[358]

But then, how can it be, that love for God supposed to be pure and sincere, is

shown here as illicit and forbidden ? The answer is again one that surpasses our

intellectual calculations since it is situated outside the sphere of reason. If orthodox

poetics depreciates love to a married woman, she is according to Vaishnava

ideals, the highest type of heroine. She forms the central theme of the later

Parakiya doctrine of the school, in which the love of the mistress for her lover

becomes the universally accepted symbol of the soul’s passionate devotion to

God. Rādhā is simply the personification of mahabhava, that ‘great emotional state'

that is heedless of social proprieties and unbounded by conventions. The nayika

being someone else’s wife, is bound by the worldly laws and conventions. The

heroine of bedhaya is bound by the laws of nature, as a spirit queen she cannot

physically be with her beloved. And the Buddhist nun is bound by her vows. Yet all

three yearn for their beloved. Because the love they are yearning for, is more than

physical; it is mystic, transcendental, and as such it defies the norms of society. That

is the reason why it is portrayed as unconventional.

[359]

6.6 Affinities in movement and expression

An understanding of the subtler aesthetic and philosophical aspects of the dance

performance opens the way for a better understanding of its external aspects, those of

music, technique, histrionic expression, costume.

Beginning with the space of the performance, Manipuri leelas have been

traditionally enacted in the square enclosed by four pillars mandapa of the Vaishnava

temples in Manipuri. Bedhaya dances take place in the pendhapa of the kraton of

Surakarta and Yogyakarta. Mai used to be performed in a closed room during zashiki,

a type of closed social gathering. Since the space of the performance was originally

defined and restricted, this has been reflected to the dancer’s movements which match

their elegance with minimalism and restraint. Moreover, since the traditional

performances of Manipuri and Bedhaya are directly related to the rituals of the temple

and the royal court, they are obviously much more elaborated than that of Mai and are

preceded by purificatory rites and offerings to deities.

However, the passage from the temple or the court to the stage has led to a

considerable number of changes. In Manipuri, it has led to the creation of solo dance

items for the stage created mostly by the legendary Guru Bipin Singh and the Jhaveri

sisters back in the 60s and 70s, in Bedhaya, a lot of improvisations and the creation of

new versions of the original composition which is, however performed unchanged

every year in the Surakarta kraton. For Mai, the passage was just one from private

gatherings to larger audience.

[360]

Considering the music accompaniment of these dances, it is relatively simple.

Manipuri and Bedhaya have in common the importance of the percussion instruments.

The pung in Manipuri and the gong in Bedhaya serve as time keepers for the dance

performance as they punctuate the musical phrases that correspond to dance sections.

The dancers can count their movement on the strokes of the pung or the gong. In Mai

there is no percussion instrument and the role of punctuation is played by the

changing pitch of the singer’s voice. Apart from the occasional use of flute, there is

no melodic instrument in none of the dances, melody being the affair of the singer or

the choir. The accompanying song is thus melodic, slow, lyrical, stretched with a

languishing voice in harmony with the mood of the dance. While in Bedhaya, there is

a choir, in Manipuri and Mai, it is a single individual who sings. In Mai, it is the

shamisen player who sings.

Moving to the technique part, these dance are characterized by the total harmony of

form and thematic content. The female style of dance is crafted to suit the theme

of pure and unconditional love as this was described in chapter one, ‘for whatever in

this world is white, pure, bright and beautiful is appreciated in terms of the

dominant state of love (shringara)…” The flow of emotion can be felt in the

dancers’ movements, which are soft and continuous and in the lyricism emanating

from the entire body in motion. The use of limbs is subdued and controlled. The self

restraint of the body matched by the softness and humbleness of the spirit is

translated into an attitude of tranquil surrender characterised by the absence of

ostentation.

[361]

In Chapter five, while discussing the use of body in Japanese dance, it was noticed

that the idea we make of our body is influenced by our culture. However, except from

culture, the factor race plays an equally important role. Japanese, Javanese and

Manipuri women belong to the indo-mongoloid race and share a number of common

characteristics. Generally speaking, women belonging to this ethnic group have a

short, thin, delicate body frame. They are gifted with a narrow waist and small hips.

Moreover, the observation of the ordinary use of the body in daily activities can give

us valuable information about its specific use in dance. Observe, for example a

Manipuri lady heading for the market with a fruit basket placed on her head or a

Javanese lady carrying offerings to the local temple. Both of them walk with the spine

straight, without moving their hips, with their feet, torso and head on a straight line.

At the moment of bending for placing the basket on the ground, they usually bent

from the knees keeping their feet close together and the back straight. It is exactly this

body posture that a Javanese, Manipuri or Japanese dancer assumes while dancing.

This point becomes clear if we consider the same for women of another body type,

South Indian women for example, having a stronger body frame, larger hips and

strong legs to support it. These women will rather place the basket on one side of their

hip, by breaking their torso, and while bending they will open their knees apart. Now,

in Bharatnatyam, the main classical dance style of South India, the basic posture is

that of sitting on the knees which are wide open on the two sides, known as aramandi.

The torso breaks in many of the movements. This dance requires a broad and strong

waist supported by flat feet soles since in tattadavus, the basic steps, the dancer taps

her feet on the ground which would have been difficult – but not impossible - for a

woman of a different body type.

[362]

Further, the three dance forms being female styles, have movements that are graceful,

soft and controlled. While dancing, the entire body is at work without an emphasis on

any part of it. That is why teaching in these styles happens in a kinaesthetic way, the

teacher performs the entire dance and the students follow the movements. Young

students are not instructed the practice of simple basic steps or units of movements

but they start by performing a complete basic choreography. The learning occurs

through direct imitation during practice time. Manipuri dance differs in this as efforts

for systematisation and classification of movement have led to an increasing

preference for the teaching of basic units of movements.

In the three dance styles, the feet are kept together without being lifted from the

ground. As observed, this gives a sense of affinity with the earth and the impression

that the dancer is ‘stuck’ on the ground. The body is always lowered from the knees

that are kept joint together, without ever bending the upper part of the body. This can

be better illustrated by taking a look of the still frames below.

[363]

Lifting the feet from the ground and allowing the feet soles to be seen is considered

highly inappropriate and offensive in the environment of the royal court and the

temple. In Kamigata Mai, this would be more or less the same, since traditionally it is

[364]

performed in a small enclosed area with the guests sitting very close to the area of the

performance. Moreover, in all three dance styles, the costume worn by the dancer

maintains and reinforces her posture. The Manipuri phanek and the Javanese sinjang

are pieces of unstitched cloth that are tied around the waist and all along the feet,

allowing a minimum movement of the feet. The kimono is like a heavy robe which is

also tied above the waist practically disabling feet movement. Nevertheless, the

restriction of leg and torso movements is balanced by what has been described as

‘dancing without moving’, involving the flexing of the body in three parts : from feet

to knees, from knees to neck, and then neck and head, what is referred to by the

Sanskrit term ‘tribhangi’ (bending in three parts). As we saw for Japanese dance, this

gives an impression of asymmetric movement that defies gravity. Below are

characteristic examples from each style.

[365]

[366]

Among the dancers of all the three styles, the Manipuri dancer exhibits maximum

freedom while moving and covers relatively more space than the dancers of the other

two styles. Manipuri lāsya is of two kinds, simitanga and sphuritanga. In both the

dancer is able to cover the space with slips and turns but in the second, she can do it in

a medium thus faster tempo. In Manipuri lāsya the movements melt into one another

following a vertical (ipom) as well as an horizontal axis. Bedhaya and Mai are more

static. In Javanese dance the movement is mostly vertical, the dancer assumes a basic

posture and moves up and down by sinking on her knees and again rising up, or

assumes a posture with the feet slightly apart and swings from side to side in what

looks like the wave of the sea. A Mai dancer too, moves mostly on a vertical level,

since there is a lot of lowering the body towards and raising it from the ground – only

this takes place quite slowly and in many counts while in Javanese dance it is as

relatively rapid movement, sometimes taking the form of a jerk. In adition the Mai

dancer moves diagonally, what is not often seen in the other two dance styles as many

turn sequences begin diagonally. The movements forth and back are also minimal in

their capacity to cover space since in Bedhaya as well as in Mai, it is one step at a

time and the spinning movements (araibi) present in Manipuri are absent. In Bedhaya

and Mai the dancer is able to cover a longer distance by simply walking but this

announces a changing of place or direction rather than covering space while dancing.

The restrained use of scenic place is reinforced by the use of feet which is generally

quite subdued.

[367]

{Fundamental diagonal position in Mai }

In all three styles the body movement is undulating, the dancer’s body moving up

and down or swinging from side to side like the waves of the sea. This movement

needs a lot of inner control as it is in fact realised not by pulling the upper body as it

might be seen from outside, but by manipulating the area around the navel, an area

that corresponds to the centre of energy in our subtle body, the Manipuri chakra.

Dance teachers in all the three styles emphasise cultivation of awareness on this part

of the body while performing the slightest move.

In the absence of too many leg and feet movements, the hands and fingers play a

rather important role in the female dance styles; they embody the grace and softness

of the dancer. Hand movements are continuous, one movement melting into another

in an uninterrupted flow. The wrist is very important as its flexibility enables the

continuity and flow of hand movements. Also it opens infinite possibilities to the use

of the fan and the kimono sleeves in Mai and that of the sampur in Bedhaya.

[368]

The use of mudras is seen only in Manipuri and Bedhaya dances. In Manipuri

samdamsa mudra is used in pure dance as well as in abhinaya. A number of single and

double hand gestures are used in abhinaya as described in the respective part of

chapter 3. In Bedhaya dance, the fingers are locked in mudras that remind us more of

hand gestures used in Shaiva and Buddhist rituals. However, they are simply

decoractive as in Bedhaya there is no abhinaya part. In Mai, the fingers are genrally

kept relaxed in what could be described as a ‘pataka’ hasta, according to the

classification of hand gestures in the Indians hastras, with the difference that the

thumb is kept in front of the other fingers. In comparison to the other two styles, the

hands are raised more as the kimono sleeves are apart of the performance and their

movements are more linear than curvy. In fact only the palms and fingers are seen as

the rest of the arm is covered by sleeves.

The head moves quite delicately without any abrupt movements in all three dances,

following the movement of the hands, at times following them, at times bent on the

other side but with the eyes following the hand movements. In the three dances the

eyes are generally either kept lowered or look straight - not towards a particular point

but in the infinite -, avoiding any direct contact with the audience, manifesting an

attitude of inner concentration, devotion and self-surrender as seen below.

[369]

In these dance styles the costume is quite important as it helps to maintain the feet

and knees together and enhances the awareness of the torso as it embraces it tightly.

Moreover, in Bedhaya and Kamigata mai, the costume is an integral part of the dance

composition. The Bedhaya dancer beautifully handles the sampur drawing circles on

the air and ‘throws’ elegantly with a move of her feet the rear portion of her sinjang

imitating a bird and its tail, in her forward and backward moves. The Mai dancer uses

the long sleeves, shode, of her kimono in a number of ways either in pure dance

movements or to depict something.

Concerning dance formations, Kamigata Mai is an exclusively solo dance, Bedhaya

an exclusively group dance and Manipuri stands between the two; it can be performed

either solo or in a group of two or more dancers. As we saw, in Bedhaya, in each

section of the choreography the dancer’s position has a particular significance. The

dancers’ bodies constitute the limbs of a bigger collective body of which the

alternative formations bear strong spiritual and religious symbolisms. A similar

concern for the patterns of choreography and their symbolism is observed in the Ras

lila where the circle formed by the gopis and the Krishna in the middle translates in

terms of space and time the transcendental idea of eka gopi eka shyam. In these

[370]

formations which resemble ritualistic mandala, the dancers lose their identity and

merge into the whole in what seems a perfectly synchronised performance.

Zeami’s discussion on the Nō performance finds relevance not only in the context of

Kamigata Mai but in the other two dance styles as well. A close observation of these

dance forms reveals the existence of rhythm cycles beginning with a slow tempo

progressively increasing to reach a peak of fast tempo which is interrupted by a

sudden return to the initial slow tempo. This requires a lot of control from the part of

the dancer who has to release all her energy during the rhythmic section of the fast

tempo and then suddenly, withhold all this energy and gather it back to begin a new

rhythmic cycle. In Nō this is expressed by the principle of Jō-Ha-Kyū which, in terms

of energy, is understood as "starting, building up, and climaxing." Between two

rhythm cycles, there are intervals, ‘when nothing happens’, empty moments of

inactivity which are nevertheless filled with energy as the artist never relaxes his

inner tension. These intervals are called ‘ma’ in Japanese, a term denoting empty

space relevant in the Zen context and its obsession with enlightenment spontaneously

caused by moments of inner emptiness. In addition to the principle of Jō-Ha-Kyū,

there is another term used in Nō which is quite relevant in all the three dance styles, a

term most familiar in reference to styles of calligraphy : Shin-Gyō-Sō. The

literary meaning of the terms Shin, Gyō and Sō are “true, moving, and grasslike.”

Shin is the stage of composition, then the process of abbreviating the elements,

altering the shape, or changing the nature of the creation passes through the

gyō stage and finds its culmination in the sō stage. It is a principle of progressive

transformation leading to maturation or fulfilment. Similarly, a dancer achieves

maturity when she reaches the sō stage, in which there is spontaneous flow of

movement.

[371]

6.7 Unveiling the hidden beauty

As we undertake to shed light on the subtleties of dramatic expression, Zöetmulder

’s words seem quite appropriate. Speaking about the quality by which an object

appeals to the aesthetic sense he says, ‘ …it does so not by clarity and

immediacy of its beauty, but, on the contrary, because it seems distant, half

hidden and apparently inaccessible; because it is suggestive, but does not

reveal itself fully; because it allures, hinting as yet unrevealed riches, so that

the seeker after beauty is consumed by longing and the desire to reach it’ .ccx

An aesthetic approach which is quite similar to that of Yūgen. Yūgen is connected

with the "inner essence," hidden under a veil of outward visibility, of the action on

stage, of the actor. The actor or dancer who understands it, orients himself not to outer

emotions but to a maximally concentrated dramatic action, to a mysterious beauty, not

fully expressed, with its characteristic depth, nobility, and softness of style. Because

this inner concentration of mysterious beauty is difficult to express in words,

exponents of the principle of yūgen exalt the exceptional significance of the mask,

symbol, metaphor, and aesthetic suggestion. In order to successfully convey the

essence of yūgen in a work of art, the artist needs to highlight his unique relationship

with the work of art and by means of an imperceptible stroke, suggestive detail, or

symbol just barely reveal a hidden aspect of beauty.

Further, according to Abhinavagupta’s theory of aesthetics, the essential meaning of

a work, its rasa, is never stated directly, but only suggested. This is true for two

reasons, according to the Kashmiri philosopher. First, a work that makes veiled

allusions “carries far greater beauty” than one that bluntly asserts its truths. ccxi

Second, the very act of unearthing the hidden meaning in an aesthetic work has

[372]

spiritual value, for it “impels us to great devotion for another truth, beyond the

phenomenal world.” ccxii

The fundamental meaning of an aesthetic work is hidden,

just as knowledge of ultimate reality is believed to lie deep within a person. These

aesthetic views already announce a common orientation of the dramatic expression in

Manipuri, Bedhaya and Kamigata Mai, that of suggestiveness, of not ‘telling’ but of

‘hinting at’. In Bedhaya, this concern has become so absolute that a dramatic action

from the part of the dancers is sensed to annulate the suggestiveness of both the text

and the dance which, by themselves, are able to reveal the entire meaning.

On the performance level, this intention to suggest is expressed by the reduced

importance given to the eyes and facial expressions which, in other dance styles, play

a leading role in the dancer’s depiction of the character’s emotions. Instead of

focusing on the face, there is a use of the entire body, sarvangabhinaya. Facial

expression is employed in a subdued manner, in tune with the restrained

nature of the style. Because the emphasis here is not given to the enactment of a

mythological or other story, this later is rather an appropriate matrix for the evocation

of the devotional feeling.

Keeping with the mood of the woman in love which in Manipuri and Bedhaya

dances- being parts of a religious ritual - is associated to the bhakti bhāva or

devotional mood, the dancer’s attention is directed towards her inner self with her

eyes never focusing on the audience. The face is held in a mask like stillness,

where at times natural expressions of joy and sorrow appear. A mask effect

which is reinforced by the use of make up. The dancer’s make up in all the three

styles is such that erases the individual features of the dancer.

[373]

Bedhaya dance is pure dance and therefore the mudras used, the most important of

which we saw when we discussed on its technique, are purely decorative. However,

they don’t cease to be ‘mudras’ – that is - ways of locking the fingers employed in

spiritual practices that help in the channelization and transformation of prana or

energy for spiritual purposes. They are not random hand gestures and even if they

are not used to depict an object or an idea, they are still meaningful in a context where

dance is seen as a spiritual exercise.

In Manipuri, samdamsa mudra is used as the basic hand gesture for all the sections of

pure dance. In addition, a number of single or double hand gestures are used in

abhinaya. What distinguishes Manipuri from other Indian dance styles is that the use

of hastas in abhinaya is less pronounced and in natural harmony with the flow of the

movement since they are an integral part of postures assumed by the body as a whole.

Moreover, the flexible use of the wrist allows for each hand gesture to melt into

another in what appears to be an uninterrupted continuum of interposing

representations of mental images, that of Krishna’s ornaments and costume, that of

Rādha’s facial beauty, that of Vrindavan. In Kamigata Mai the fingers are kept

together like in pataka hasta, but with the thumb slightly raised. Here the fun is used

to depict any object or abstract idea.

As mentioned earlier, in this kind of suggestive dramatisation, the eyes and face do

not participate. However, saying this would be an understatement. Because the dancer

experiences an inner attitude of total awareness and is herself immersed in an intense

emotional state that remains nevertheless internalised. The eyes are not

expressionless, they are rather full of emotion but an emotion which is subdued and

restrained.

[374]

Conclusion

The purpose of the isolated presentation of each dance style has been to shed light

on the principal aspects of the performance as we know it. These include sources of

philosophical and religious influences, aesthetic views, thematic content and dance

technique. Other details, factual or historic, are of secondary importance and serve

only as support to the better understanding of these selected areas. This choice of

focus corresponds to an authentic intention to bridge the gap between what can be

called the subtler, invisible aspects of a dance performance and its more tangible ones.

These two levels, the inner and the outer usually remain dissociated in the minds of

both the dancer and the spectator. Nevertheless, as it has been seen, there is a very

close alignment between them.

Firstly, this alignement is translated into the close relation between the spiritual aims

of the dance practice and its search for beauty and perfection of the form. Secondly, it

is expressed metaphorically in the theme of the text songs which abound with

allegories of a mystic order. Thirdly, in the use of the body which is expressive of the

thematic content of the dance.

Usually, a study of any dance style begins with what is more visible and vital in it,

movement. Here on the contrary, this has been the last anticipated step since it was

hoped that a prior knowledge of the background could allow a new, different view of

the technical aspect of dance, and of what could be expressed in it. Behind this shift of

focus there was the intention to show that movement might as well not be an end in

itself.

[375]

As already mentioned, Manipuri, Bedhaya and Mai are three dance forms which had

been for long reserved to a certain elite, what explains the limited knowledge general

audience has about them. It is only recently that these dances have been adapted for

the needs of the stage and the general public. On the one hand this can be said to be a

positive step because in this way larger audiences have the chance to experience the

rare beauty of these dance styles. On the other hand, these dances are presented on

stage dissociated from their original context and are offered to an audience unaware

of their history and background. Thus it is difficult to appreciate them and they are

often criticised for their lack of rigourous movements and vibrant dramatic expression

which can be seen in the other dance styles belonging to the same traditions.

Therefore, a comparison of these three styles between them with the exploration of

similarities as well as differences it offers, is quite pertinent nowadays because it

favours a greater understanding not only of each dance style separately, but of the

significance of female dance styles in the field of Asian Performing arts. The fact that

these dances are exclusively performed by women does not suffice to qualify them as

‘female’. If it does so, it fails to reflect in its totality the depth of the concept. Because

apart from the beauty and refinement that characterises them, there is also a whole

apparatus of religious, philosophical and aesthetic views that has sought consciously

or unconsciously to find its expression through them. An apparatus of views that are

most representative of the Asian psyche in its variety of expressions. And this is what

sets them really apart.