chapter six problems of small-scale irrigation...
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CHAPTER SIX
PROBLEMS OF SMALL-SCALE IRRIGATION
DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
This section of the study paid a particular attention to the assessment of small
scale irrigation management activities in the irrigation schemes under
consideration and major problems encountered in small scale irrigation
development.
6.1 Small Scale Irrigation Management Activities
Irrigation scheme management activities involve a wide range of tasks, such as
allocation and distribution of water, operation and maintenance at irrigation canal
and so on. In view of these issues, the survey explored some aspects of small
scale irrigation management and its impact on food security.
Assessing the management aspect of small scale irrigation was found to be vital
in this study as it affects agricultural productivity, and hence households‘ food
security situation. In view of this, IWMI (2005) stated that, devolving management
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responsibility with or without some form of scheme ownership to the irrigating
farmers, improves scheme performance water distribution and productivity, while
saving public resources for agencies to carry out such tasks. Various types of
irrigation management activities are stated by researchers. For instance, study
by Byrnes (1992) clearly states that there are three dimensions of irrigation
management activities. These are water use activities, control structure activities
and organizational activities. They are further explained as follows:
The same study points out that the water use activities are mainly concerned on
the provision of water to crops in an adequate and timely manner. It includes
components like acquisition, allocation, distribution and drainage. Acquisition
here refers to an activity concerning with the acquisition of water from surface or
subsurface sources, either by creating and operating physical structure such as
dams‘ weirs or wells or by actions to obtain some share of an existing supply.
Whereas, allocation refers to the assignment of rights to users thereby
determining who shall have access to water. On the other hand distribution refers
to the physical process of taking the water from a source and dividing it among
users at certain places, in certain amounts, and at certain times. Drainage is
important where excess water must be removed (Byrnes, 1992).
The same study stated that the control structure activities are those activities
which are focusing on the basic structures required for water control such as
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design, construction, operation and maintenance. Design involves the design of
dams‘ diversions or well to acquire water, of systems of rules to allocate it, of
channels and gates to distribute it and of drains to remove it. Construction
involves the construction of the structures to acquire, distribute and remove
water, or implementation of rules that allocate it. Operation refers to the operation
of the structures that acquire, allocate, distribute or remove water according to
some determined plan of allocation. Maintenances are the final control structure
activity. This provides for the continued and efficient acquisition, allocation,
distribution and drainage (Byrnes, 1992).
The work of Byrnes (1992) indicates that organizational activities are those which
are focusing on the efforts to manage the structures that control irrigation water
like resource mobilization, conflict resolution, communication and decision-
making. The activity of resource mobilization entails marshaling management
and utilization of funds manpower, materials, information or other inputs needed
to control water through structures or to undertake various organizational tasks.
The activity of communication entails conveying information about decisions
made, resource requirements etc. to farmer or any other persons involved in
irrigation managements. The activity of decision making entails the processes
including planning involved in making decision about the design, construction,
operation or maintenance of structures; acquisition, allocation, distribution or
drainage of water or the organization deals with these activities.
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As stated by Shimelis, et al ( 2005), in accordance with the federal and regional
policy framework for small-scale irrigation development in Ethiopia, "WUA'' are in
charge of water allocation, distribution, observing the water rights of members,
conflict management and coordination of maintenance activities. The
responsibility for running management of the irrigation systems was delegated to
"WUA" in the hope of enhancing effectiveness, equity and responsiveness in
irrigation management and to ensure sustainability.
Likewise in the study area water users in both irrigation systems have
established their own management structures and constructed internal bylaws
that contribute to efficient and better irrigation management system. In general,
Executive committees, sub-committees and water user teams (WUTs) or Water
user association (WUA) were formed at irrigation system and distribution levels
with the aim to facilitate water control and coordination of maintenance activities.
The committees are one of the essential factors that are responsible for efficient
management of irrigation schemes. However, in the study area the respondents
complained that the committee lacks transparency and accountability to irrigation
water users; and hence they were not able to ensure equity in water distribution.
The committee members were blamed for power abuse, unfairness, lack of
commitment, and above all not abide by the internal bylaws. In this regard a vast
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majority of the respondents (73 percent) from both irrigation schemes reported
that the committees were not held accountable through legal processes; they did
not practice the overall management activities according to the established
internal bylaws.
6.2 Small Scale Irrigation Development Problems
Irrigation development intervention and better access to irrigation enables rural
people to diversify their income sources and contribute a lot to short-term and
long term alleviation of social problems. Small-scale irrigation in particular can
promote rural food security, poverty alleviation and adaptation to climate change.
It enables households to generate more income and in some cases transform
their livelihoods. This is mainly because, irrigation development helps to sustain
and increase agricultural production, especially in areas where rainfall is
unreliable and fail to come. However, the performance and effectiveness of
small-scale irrigation schemes are constrained by multidimensional problems that
are ranging from individual farmers attitude to institutional arrangements.
Therefore, the survey attempts to identify major constraints that are challenging
households of the study area in irrigation development and performance of
irrigation agriculture. To this effect, in the undergoing section the analysis and
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discussion of the data obtained on the perception and experiences of the
sampled households has been presented.
6.2.1 Irrigation Water Management:-Allocation and
Distribution
Water distribution is the main issue in any irrigation schemes. The most
important performance indicators in the distribution of irrigation water include
adequacy, timeliness and equity in the supply of water.
The WUA is the lowest organizational structure established in the area. The
major tasks of the WUA are to decide on the schedule for water distribution, to
plan and organize canal clearance, and to solve problems arising from using
water in the scheme. The study identified that each irrigation schemes has its
own Water Users Association (WUA) that are responsible for coordinating the
distribution of water. The WUA has nominated an individual who is responsible to
open gate as per the program of each farm households.
The descriptive statistics revealed that 62.1 percent of respondents reported that
they could not get enough water for their farm activities when they need. Out of
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them the largest number, 86.5 percent reported that the shortage is due to water
theft, whereas 13.5 percent of them responded that it is due to water scarcity.
The study also tried to identify if there is any relationship between water
distribution and location of the household to the schemes. Accordingly, the
survey results revealed that Water Committees were not able to ensure equity in
water distribution. Head-end farmers had better access to irrigation water owing
to their proximity to the headwork (location advantage). Sampled informants
reported that head-end irrigators and, powerful and rich socioeconomic groups
have been benefited more.
The survey result in table 15 revealed 75.3 percent of the respondents
responded that head- end irrigators get enough water and 16.0 percent of them
said that rich and powerful farmers get enough water. Only 8.7 percent of the
respondents reported that farmers with large family size get enough water for
their farm activity (table 6.1). Therefore, the survey proved that location plays a
significant role with regard to water distribution that is, those farmers that are
located in the upper part of the scheme benefit more.
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Table 0.1 Households’ Opinion distribution of water by Social-
economic groups
Source: Survey result (2012)
Furthermore, in the study area in both irrigation schemes there are water
committees who are in charge of water allocation. The committee runs the water
allocation activities in coordination with irrigation agronomists and Development
Agents (DA) that are assigned at each PAs. They allocate water and prepare
Characteristics Households Opinion by irrigation schemes
and location
Sirima Irrigation
Schemes
Bora-Galmo
Irrigation Schemes
Total HH
Count % Count % Count %
Farmers with large
family size
8 8.0 5 10.0 13 8.7
Head-end farmers 73 73.0 40 80.0 113 75.3
Rich and powerful
farmers
16 16.0 8 16.0 24 16.0
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rotational schedules. However, water users expressed that Water allocation
made by the ‗Water Users association (WUA) committee has certain limitations in
terms of implementation, mainly due to random water allocation. The study
confirms that in the entire scheme considered by this survey, there has been no
standardized irrigation (watering) interval to each crop cultivated; Water is
distributed by turns of equal duration throughout the irrigation season simply
following spatial order of plots, regardless of the crop cultivated. Thus, poor
distribution system and inefficient use of irrigation water resource is the
commonly observed problems of small-scale irrigation schemes in the study
area.
The study also identified that absence of sanction on water theft and illegal water
users (those diverting the water course to one‘s farm land out of turn) was
complained as the main administrative problem in relation with water distribution.
About 84.0 percent of the sample households indicated that absence of sanction
on illegal water users (who diverted water to their own land without turn) is the
major administrative problem that encourages water theft and illegal water use.
6.2.2 Conflict Management
Conflict/dispute over irrigation water users commonly occur between irrigators in
the schemes and upstream traditional irrigators, and among irrigators themselves
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within the irrigation schemes. According to the survey results 66.7 % of water
users were reported that there was conflict arising from water theft/ using water
out of turn and they also explained that were dissatisfied with the WUA handling
of the matters. In the study area theft and illegal use of water is found to be the
main reason for such conflict. The upstream community often uses more amount
of water than that of downstream irrigators. This creates conflict between
upstream and downstream water users.
The study also showed that in Sirima and Bora-Galmo irrigation schemes 68.6
percent and 58.8 percent of sampled respondents reported that they have faced
conflicts, respectively. This implies that the WUA committees are subjected to
poor coordination that affects the proper allocation and fair distribution of water in
the schemes under study.
Even though, households in both irrigation schemes have documented bylaws to
rule the proper functioning of water distribution and penalize illegal water users,
households responded that whenever there is conflict because of water theft they
resolve the issue not by referring to bylaws instead traditionally through
elderlies. The informants responded that this weak system of penalizing illegal
water users encourages illegal waters users to continue behaving illegally.
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6.2.3 Maintenance of Irrigation Systems
Maintenance of irrigation schemes includes cleaning of canals when filled with
grass and mud, mending the canal when there is damage or broken, which
enables the canal to be functioning properly and protect water lose. In this
regard, the survey identified that, in the study area farmers undertake canal
cleaning and system maintenance activities under the leadership of the water
committee with the assistance of DAs. The evidence obtained from interview
revealed most of the time members contribute labor for maintenance.
Therefore, concerning maintenance activity issue the survey disclosed that
maintenance is carried out twice a year but most of the time very irregularly in
both schemes. The result of the descriptive statistics indicates that 5.33%,
10.00%, 8.67%, 18.67% and 57.33% of the sample respondents were witnessed
the maintenance of the irrigation in the study area was very good; good, fair,
poor and very poor, respectively (table 6.2).
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Table 0.2: Households’ opinion distribution about maintenance of the
schemes
Source: Survey Result (2012)
In both irrigation schemes it has been observed that the canal networks were
deteriorated or damaged at its some parts. About 88 percent of the respondents
witnessed that the major causes of the canal damage were due to breaking of
canals to extract water by illegal means. Moreover, it has also been observed
Description Number and Percent of Irrigators
Sirima Irrigation
Scheme
Bora-Galmo
Irrigation Scheme
Total HH
Count Percent Count Percent Count Percent
Very good 2 2.0 6 12.0 8 5.33
Good 6 6.0 9 18.0 15 10.00
Fair 10 10.0 3 6.0 13 8.67
Poor 18 18.0 10 20.0 28 18.67
Very Poor 64 64.0 22 44.0 86 57.33
Total 100 100.0 50 100.0 150 100.0
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that turnouts were far apart and not evenly distributed; as a result irrigators break
canals and extract water where there is no turnout; implying that technical
problems in design and construction have contributed to the deterioration of the
scheme, in addition to the organizational and management weaknesses.
6.2.4 Agricultural Inputs and Support Services
Various studies in Ethiopia have proven that the success of small scale irrigation
partly depends on appropriate application of modern farm inputs such as
chemical fertilizers; improved seeds and herbicides and other support services.
Therefore, utilization of modern farm inputs plays a significant role in increasing
agricultural productivity and enhances farm households‘ food security status.
However, the survey result shows the farmers across the study site were found
to be not satisfied in using such modern farm inputs, mainly due to unavailability
(limited supply) and unaffordability(high price) to farmers. The proportion of farm
households using improved such modern agricultural below recommended level.
Improved seeds
The survey result revealed only 32% and 38% of the sample households ever
used seeds of improved vegetable and some cereal crop varieties in study area,
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respectively. About 39 and 23 percent of the sample households in Sirima and
Bora-Galmo irrigation schemes are using improved seeds only for some types of
crops, respectively. Limited supply and high prices were blamed to be the main
constraints against utilization of this input. In general, lack of vegetable seeds
and fruit seedlings has been identified to be another problem for small scale
irrigators in the study area.
Chemical fertilizers
The high price of chemical fertilizers is complained by respondents as a major
problem in the study area. The price of imported inputs such as chemical fertilizer
and fuel (for motor pump) has increased over time. About 54 % of the sample
farmers reported that lack of applying chemical fertilizers of adequate quantity is
complained by sampled households to be among major problems of small scale
irrigation development in the study area. Moreover, the sampled respondents
strongly claimed that the prices of fertilizers are getting higher from time to time.
Herbicides and Pesticides
Chemicals like pesticides and herbicides are also identified costly applied.
Therefore, in the study area crop diseases issue is another problem that claimed
by farm households. According to farmers view across the sites, decline in
productivity was strongly associated with prevalence of pests and diseases in the
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system. The survey proved that farmers of the study area intensively cultivate the
same crops for long periods of time. For instance, Sweet potato was repeatedly
grown over the field. In addition to the loss of productivity and fertility, this
cultivation strategy facilitates crop disease. The study identified that herbicides
and pesticides, to control these problems, are costly for farmers to purchase and
they could not get at a critical time when they are required. Above all, irrigators
have not regularly been supplied with these support services. Therefore,
diseases and pests can limit the economic benefits of small-scale irrigation
activities in the study area.
Furthermore, household interviews confirmed that lack of spare parts for motor
pumps were the main causes for reduced efficiency in small-scale irrigation in the
study area. Respondents said that since we cannot get spare parts at local
market pumps are kept for an easy damage without function for long time. In
general according to user‘s explanation; frequent damage of the pump, lack of
awareness of how to operate, cost of fuel and lack of credit are the main
problems related to motor pump irrigation in the study site.
6.2.5 Market and Marketing Facility
Marketing facilities is one of the most powerful factors greatly stimulating
agricultural productions of an area. Hence, there is a positive association
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between efficient market and development of irrigation agriculture. Although not
directly related to the functioning of irrigation systems, lack of market and
marketing facilities have been proven to be a problem of small scale irrigators in
the study area. Vegetables like onion, tomato, potato and the like are perishable
and bulky crops, so an efficient marketing channel is necessary.
However, the study area marketing system does not always facilitate outcomes
desired by farmers. One reason is the similarity of products and marketing
patterns, which leads to a high availability and low prices during the main
marketing period. Moreover, due to absence of efficient storage system in the
study area, farmers must sell products within a very short time, often at what they
consider low prices.
Using the survey an investigation was made on how farmers run marketing
activities in their locality. Consequently, the result imparts that majority of sample
households (81 %) sold their produce for nearby market centers, at Haro Dumal
only whereas some of respondents (19%) did not sell farm products totally. In
general, the majority (67.7 percent) of the sampled households reported that
there is a market problem for their produces. The problem is much severe when
it comes to irrigation users who produce vegetables and fruits. About 75.3
percent of respondents from irrigating households claimed that lower price for
their product is mainly caused by market constraint. Because vegetables and
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fruits are highly perishable, as a result farmers are forced to dump their produce
at low prices that market offered.
Furthermore, market information plays a vital role in small scale irrigation
participation and escalating households‘ gross income. Besides, purchasing of
the right agricultural inputs at the right time and supplying of the product to the
right consumer with a reasonable intermediary transaction cost is possible with
the existence of market information.
However, respondents witnessed that because of lack of getting reliable market
information and absence of links with local buyers and sellers in their vicinity they
are not in a position to get better benefit in trading of agricultural commodities.
Thus, all farmers responded that there is no market information center; there is
no institution involved in provision of and accessing of marketing information in
the study area.