chapter three thermal comfort - sdngnet.comsdngnet.com/files/lectures/futy-ar-305/almond tree effect...

Chapter Three

Thermal Comfort

Chapter Three

Thermal Comfort

1

1. Introduction.

2. Basic concepts of thermal comfort.

3. Thermal balance of the human body.

4. Factors affecting thermal comfort.

5. The thermal indices.

6. Applicability of the indices.

6. Tests and Exercises.

1. Introduction.

2. Basic concepts of thermal comfort.

3. Thermal balance of the human body.

4. Factors affecting thermal comfort.

5. The thermal indices.

6. Applicability of the indices.

6. Tests and Exercises.

1. Introduction

Knowledge of the nature of comfort is essential in design with climate. The human body maintains athermal balance by controlling heat loss and gain. The six major factors that affect comfort are the airtemperature, the mean radiant temperature, the air velocity, the relative humidity, the intrinsicclothing and the level of activity. Thermal indices indicate the simultaneous effect of these sixvariables on comfort. Such indices include the Standard Effective Temperature (SET), the EffectiveTemperature (ET), the Corrected Effective Temperature (CET), the Resultant Temperature (RT), theHeat Stress Index (HSI), the Equivalent Warmth (EW), the Equatorial Comfort Index (ECI), thePredicted Four Hour Sweat Rate (P4SR), the Operative Temperature (OT), the Index of ThermalStress (ITS), the Bioclimatic Chart, the Mahoney Scale and the Evans Scale. Only some of theseindices may be applicable in Nigerian conditions.

Knowledge of the nature of comfort is essential in design with climate. The human body maintains athermal balance by controlling heat loss and gain. The six major factors that affect comfort are the airtemperature, the mean radiant temperature, the air velocity, the relative humidity, the intrinsicclothing and the level of activity. Thermal indices indicate the simultaneous effect of these sixvariables on comfort. Such indices include the Standard Effective Temperature (SET), the EffectiveTemperature (ET), the Corrected Effective Temperature (CET), the Resultant Temperature (RT), theHeat Stress Index (HSI), the Equivalent Warmth (EW), the Equatorial Comfort Index (ECI), thePredicted Four Hour Sweat Rate (P4SR), the Operative Temperature (OT), the Index of ThermalStress (ITS), the Bioclimatic Chart, the Mahoney Scale and the Evans Scale. Only some of theseindices may be applicable in Nigerian conditions.

through conduction, convection, radiation andevaporation.

In order to maintain a constant deep bodytemperature and thermal balance, the total heatgained must be equal to the total heat lost. Seefigure 1.

There are mechanisms for controlling heat lossboth inside and outside the body. These includesweating, shivering, and breathing. Control ismaintained externally by clothing, activity rate,posture and choice of location. These areindividual voluntary control mechanisms. Seefigures 2 and 3. The physical built environmentcan also affect the thermal environment, therebycontributing to the control of body temperature.

There are six major factors which affect thermalcomfort. They are:

The first four are factors of the thermalenvironment. Apart from these major factors,there are several others that may have an effecton the sensation of comfort. These include age,sex, acclimatisation, body shape and health.

The air temperature, that is the dry bulbtemperature is a very important factor affectingthermal comfort. When temperatures are low,people feel cold and when they are high peoplefeel hot. Comfort can approximately beachieved between 16 and 28 degrees Celsius.

This refers usually to radiation to and fromsurfaces within an enclosure measured with theglobe thermometer. The mean radianttemperature is calculated from the globetemperature using the air temperature andvelocity. Comfort can be achieved if the globetemperature is between 16 and 28 degreesCelsius and if the difference between the mean

Air Temperature

The Mean Radiant Temperature

2. Basic Concepts of Thermal

Comfort.

3. Thermal Balance of the Human

Body

The aim of design with climate is to maintaincomfort within buildings. The climatic dataearlier described give us a more or less accurateidea of the external conditions, that is theconditions that exist outside the enclosure inquestion. An analysis is usually carried out toascertain how these external conditionscompare with the required conditions. It isessential in this respect to define the limits withinwhich people are likely to feel comfortable.Knowledge of these limits will be used todetermine the degree of discomfort and theconditions such as the humidity and thetemperature range, which are experiencedsimultaneously with uncomfortable or hottemperatures.

The subjective nature of comfort must bestressed. It is not possible to achieve conditionsin which everybody will be comfortable. Thebest comfort conditions are called optimumthermal conditions. Under these conditionsabout 50 to 75% of people feel comfortable.

The body gets energy from digestion of foodthrough metabolism, that is the processesinvolved in converting foodstuff into livingmatter and energy.

There are two types of metabolism:

Basal metabolism, which is the heat productionof vegetative, automatic, processes which arecontinuous -breathing, digestion and circulationof blood.

Muscular metabolism, which is the heatproduction of muscles while carrying out somework or activity.

The body is not very efficient in turning chemicalenergy into physical energy and about 80% ofthe energy produced must be dissipated in formof heat. Apart from basal and muscularmetabolism, the body can gain heat byconduction, convection and radiation from theenvironment. The heat from the body can be lost








2

Figure 1: Thermal balance of the human body.








4. Factors Affecting Thermal

Comfort

the air temperaturethe mean radiant temperaturethe air velocitythe relative humiditythe intrinsic clothingthe level of activity

Air Temperature









Air Temperature









3

Figure 2: Thermal control for the human body.

radiant temperature and the dry bulbtemperature is less than 5 degrees Celsius.

Air movement is very effective in increasing heatloss from the body at high temperatures whensweating occurs. The air movement enhancesthe evaporation of sweat from the body therebycooling down the body.

Air velocity of up to 0.1 metre per second maylead to a feeling of stuffiness indoors. Airvelocities of 0.1 to 1.0 m/s are comfortableindoors when air movement is required butabove this level there is discomfort. A katathermometer (figure 3) is used to measure airmovement due to low velocities.

Outdoors, wind speeds of up to 2.0 m/s can helpachieve comfort, especially when the humidity ishigh. Wind speeds of over 5.0 m/s lead toconsiderable discomfort.

When there is low humidity the air is very dry andsweating is more effective in cooling down thebody. However, when the humidity is high theair is damp and clammy and sweating is nolonger very effective in cooling down the body.

Thermal comfort can be achieved when therelative humidity is between 20 and 90%.

Clothing is measured in clo units:

0.5 clo => a pair of shorts for men and a cottondress for women.

1.0 clo => normal business suit, shirt andunderwear

2.0 clo => outdoor winter clothing.

The range of intrinsic clothing for thermalcomfort is taken to be from 0.5 to 1.0 clo.

The activity represents the metabolic rate. Thehigher the activity, the more heat is produced bythe body. The metabolic rate is measured inW/m . The rate for a person sitting is about 58W/m and this is taken as the basic unit ofactivity known as the "met".

As such:

Sitting = 1 met

Air Velocity

The Relative Humidity

The Intrinsic Clothing

The Activity













As such:

Sitting = 1 met

Air Velocity



The Activity

Sleeping = 0.7 met

Standing relaxed = 1.2 met

Dancing = 2.4 -4.4 met

Heavy machine work = 3.5 -4.5 met

Comfort can be maintained with metabolic ratesfrom about 0.7 to 2.5 met.

We have discussed how the six factors of airtemperature, mean radiant temperature, airvelocity, relative humidity, intrinsic clothing andlevel of activity affect thermal comfort. Thesefactors were discussed separately but anyassessment of thermal comfort for practicaldesign purposes must take cognisance of all thesix variables simultaneously. What is needed is ascale that will combine the effects of all thesefactors. Such a scale is called a thermal index or acomfort scale.

The search for a thermal comfort scale was along and eventful one. Many concepts passedon to the archival pages of history as newadvances were made, especially in medicine andthermometry. Arbuthnot established the firstmilestone in 1733 when he pointed out thechilling effects of wind by dispersing the layer ofwarm, moist air around the body. This wasquickly followed by several developments asdetailed by Markus and Morris(1980). The moresalient points include the proposal of theEffective Temperature Index (ET) by Houghtonand Yaglou in 1923 and the Corrected EffectiveTemperature Index (CET) proposed by Bedfordin 1946. Other important concepts include theEquivalent Temperature (1929), the OperativeTemperature and the Standard EffectiveTemperature.

The search for a thermal index resulted in thedevelopment of several thermal indices orscales. The most important are presented below:

This is a rational physiologically-based index ofcomfort. It expresses any environment, clothingand activity level in terms of a uniform

Need for a Thermal Index.

Examples of Thermal Indices

The Standard Effective Temperature (SET).

4

Figure 3: Thermal control for the human body.













As such:

Sitting = 1 met

Air Velocity



The Activity

Sleeping = 0.7 met









4. The Thermal Indices.




Sleeping = 0.7 met












5

Figure 4: The kata thermometer.

environment standardised at 50 percent RH, airvelocity of 0.125 m/s, activity of 1 met andintrinsic clothing at 0.6 clo. See figure 4.

Note that 0.125 m/s is the velocity of still air in aroom, 1 met is equivalent to sedentary metabolic

rate at 58 W/m and zero external work. 0.6 clois equivalent to normal, lightweight, indoorclothing.

Hence in order to determine SET the followingvariables should be known: the relativehumidity, the air temperature, the mean radianttemperature, the air velocity, the intrinsicclothing and the activity.

This is the temperature of a still, saturatedatmosphere, which would, in the absence ofradiation, produce the same effect as theatmosphere in question. ET was developed in1923 by Hougton and Yaglou while working forASHRAE. See figure 5.

It combines the effects of the following:

the relative humidity

the air velocity

the air temperature.

This scale is an improvement on the ET scale as itconsiders radiation effects as a fourthdeterminant of comfort.

The most widely used thermal index is theEffective Temperature Index (ET). The EffectiveTemperature nomogram can be used todetermine the Effective Temperature given:

the dry bulb or globe temperature

the wet bulb temperature

the air velocity.

To find the Effective Temperature for a given setof conditions:

the globe or air temperature is marked on thescale on the left hand side of the nomogram.

the wet bulb temperature is marked on the scaleon the right hand side of the nomogram.

2

The Effective Temperature (ET).

The Corrected Effective Temperature.

The Use Of The Effective Temperature

Nomogram








the air velocity






the air velocity.




2




Nomogram

6

Figure 5: Thermal comfort chart for the Standard EffectiveTemperature index.

These two points are joined bya line.

The point of intersection of thisline and the line representingthe appropriate air velocity isdetermined.

The Effective Temperature isthen read.

After the effective temperaturehas been determined it isnecessary to compare thisvalue with the comfort limits.There is no agreement as to thelower and upper comfort limitsbut the values commonly usedfor tropical countries are asfollow:

lower limit: 22 degrees Celsius

optimum temperature: 25degrees Celsius

upper limit: 27 degrees Celsius

However, recent research byOgunsote (1988) indicates thatcomfort limits valid for Nigeriaare 20-25 degrees Celsius.

For example, given a wet-bulbtemperature of 25 degreesCels ius and a dry -bu lbtemperature of 20 degreesC e l s i u s , t h e E f f e c t i v eT e m p e r a t u r e w i t h a i rmovement of 1 m/s is about21.5 degrees Celsius.

The same nomogram is usedfo r both E f fec t i ve andC o r r e c t e d E f f e c t i v eTemperatures . The onlydifference is that the airtemperature is used to obtainthe Effective Temperaturewhile the globe temperature isused for the CorrectedEffective Temperature.








the air velocity






the air velocity.




2




Nomogram

7

Figure 6: Effective Temperature nomogram for persons wearing normal clothes.





















The Resultant Temperature

(RT).

The Heat Stress Index (HSI).

The Equivalent Warmth

(EW).

The Equatorial Comfort

Index (ECI).

The Resultant Temperature isan improvement on the ET andthe nomograms defining themare almost identical. It wasdeveloped in France byMissenard and is consideredu n r e l i a b l e f o r t r o p i c a lconditions as it does notsufficiently incorporate thec o o l i n g e f f e c t s o f a i rmovement over 35 degreesCelsius and 80 percent RH. Seefigure 6.

The Heat Stress Iindex, which isreliable between 27 and 35degrees Celsius, 30 and 80percen t RH, takes themetabolic heat production ofsubjects doing various kinds ofwork as an indication of heatstress.

This scale was developed byBedford in England and isbased on the reaction of 2000factory workers engaged inlight work, under varyingindoor conditions. It takes intoaccount the air temperature,the RH and the mean radianttemperature. The EW is reliablewithin the comfort zone up to35 degrees Celsius with low RHand up to 30 degrees Celsiuswith high RH. It howeverunder-estimates the coolingeffect of air movement at highhumidities.

This scale, which is similar tothe ET, was developed byWebb in Singapore and itaccommodates the effects oftemperature, humidity and airmovement.


(RT).



(EW).


Index (ECI).





8

The Predicted Four Hour Sweat Rate

(P4SR).

The Operative Temperature (OT).

The Index Of Thermal Stress (ITS).

The Bioclimatic Chart.

Use of the Bioclimatic Chart.

British naval authorities developed the P4SR toconsider the special heat stresses experiencedby seamen, which is indicated by the rate ofsweat secretion from the body, the pulse and theinternal temperature. It is considered unsuitablefor temperatures below 28 degrees Celsius andit underestimates the cooling effects of airmovement at high humidities. The effects of airtemperature, the humidity, the air movement,the metabolic rate, the clothing and the meanradiant temperature of the surroundings areconsidered.

Defined as the uniform temperature of animaginary enclosure in which man will exchangethe same dry heat by radiation and convection asin the actual environment, the OT combines theeffects of radiation and air temperature. It wasdeveloped by Winslow, Herrington and Gagge,and is similar to the EW. See figure 7.

This is the calculated cooling rate produced bysweating which would maintain the thermalbalance under the given conditions asestablished from first principles by Givoni(1976). It is reliable in the range of conditionsbetween comfort and severe stress, providedthat thermal equilibrium can be maintained.

Victor Olgyay's conviction that there is no pointin defining a single-figure index, as each of thecomponents are controllable by different meansresulted in the construction of the bioclimaticchart. The comfort zone is defined in terms of thedry bulb temperature and the RH, and the effectsof air movements and radiation on the comfortzone are indicated. See figure 8.

The bioclimatic chart is popular mainly becauseof its simplicity of use and the ease with whichresults can be interpreted for design purposes.For very simple analysis, the average monthly airtemperatures and relative humidities may beused. The use of the minima and maxima ofthese climatic variables is however moreinformative and this is the procedure describedhere.

Figure 6: Effective Temperature nomogram for persons stripped to the waist.


(RT).



(EW).


Index (ECI).





9


(P4SR).











(P4SR).










Figure x: Chart of the Resultant Temperature index.

Figure x: Operative Temperature chart. Air velocity = 0.1 m/sand activity = 1 met.

10

Fig

ure

x:T

hebi

oclim

atic

char

t.

11

Fig

ure

x:E

xam

ple

ofth

eus

eof

the

bioc

limat

icch

art f

orZ

aria

.

The monthly minima and maxima of airtemperature and relative humidity are usuallyreadily available data and are sufficient for thisanalysis. However, it is advisable to obtain theaverage monthly wind velocity and meanmonthly solar radiation. A reduction factorshould be used to convert the wind velocity toair movement at the level of the human body.See table 3.

Take the monthly mean minimum temperatureand the monthly mean maximum relativehumidity for January. These two variables definea point on the Bioclimatic Chart. Take themonthly mean maximum temperature and themonthly mean minimum relative humidity forthe same month of January and use this to definea second point. See figure 9. Join these twopoints together with a straight line. Use the windvelocity and the solar radiation for the samemonth to determine whether there is hotdiscomfort, cold discomfort or comfort for thetwo points. You may indicate the thermal stressthus ascertained symbolically. Repeat theprocess for the remaining eleven months of theyear. This chart gives an indication of theduration and nature of thermal stress throughoutthe year and design decisions can be made onthis basis.



12

design proposed by MartinEvans are very similar to theones proposed by CarlMahoney. See table 2. Thelimits are for hot, "comfortable"and cold climates. Evans alsorecognizes that there arevarious combinations ofcl imatic variables whichproduce conditions underwhich natural means are notsufficient for the attainment ofcomfort and mechanical aidsare needed. These conditionsare shown in table 3.

The choice of a thermal indexfor climatic analysis is closelyrelated to the purpose of theanalysis, the availability of dataand the simplicity of theparticular thermal index. Alsoof importance is the range ofapplication of the particularindex. Nomograms, wherenecessary, should of course beavailable. For student projectsthe Bioclimatic Chart, theEffective Temperature, theS t a n d a r d E f f e c t i v eTemperature, the MahoneyScale or the Evans Scale arecommonly used. It should benoted that there may be slightvariations in the comfort limitsproposed by these indices and

Scale conditions Comfort limits C

AMT Humidity (%) Day Night

0 - 30 26 - 34 17 - 25

30 - 50 25 - 31 17 - 24

50 - 70 23 - 29 17 - 23

Over

20 C

70 - 100 22 - 27 17 - 21

0 - 30 23 - 32 14 - 23

30 - 50 22 - 30 14 - 22

50 - 70 21 - 28 14 - 2115 - 20 C

70 - 100 20 - 25 14 - 20

0 - 30 21 - 30 12 - 21

30 - 50 20 - 27 12 - 20

50 - 70 19 - 26 12 - 19

Under

15 C

70 - 100 18 - 24 12 - 18

Table 1: Comfort limits proposed by Mahoney.

Table 2: Comfort temperature ranges according to Evans.

Scale Conditions Humidity (%) Day temp. C Night temp. C

0 - 30 32.5 - 29.5 29.5 - 27.5

30 - 50 30.5 - 28.5 29 - 26.5

50 - 70 29.5 - 27.5 28.5 - 26A

Upper range ofcomfort with1m/sec airmovement

70 - 100 29 - 26 28 - 25.5

0 - 30 30 - 22.5 27.5 - 20

30 - 50 28.5 - 22.5 26.5 - 20

50 - 70 27.5 - 22.5 26 - 20B

Range ofcomfort withlight summer

clothes orblanket at night 70 - 100 27 - 22.5 25.5 - 20

0 - 30 22.5 - 18 20 - 16

30 - 50 22.5 - 18 20 - 16

50 - 70 22.5 - 18 20 - 16C

Lower range ofcomfort with

normal of warmclothes and

thick beddingat night 70 - 100 22.5 - 18 20 - 16

The Mahoney Scale.

The Evans Scale.

For design purposes it issometimes enough to be ableto determine hot or colddiscomfort for each month ofthe year. Carl Mahoneyproposed a scale which iscapable of doing this on thebasis of only relative humidityand temperature data. Thescale differentiates betweenday and night comfort limitswith lower limits for the nightsince people generally toleratelower temperatures in thenight. There are different limitsfor hot, average and coldclimates, and these arepresented in table 1.

The comfort limits for climatic

The Mahoney Scale.

The Evans Scale.



those actually applicable in theNigerian climate. For extensiveanalyses the use of a computerprogram such as COLDHOT isadvisable.



13



5. Applicability of the

Indices.



ConditionMean daily

temp. ( C)

Mean dailyhumidity

Diurnalrange

over 27 over 70% -High temperature and highhumidity by day over 27.5 50 - 70% ?10 C

over 32.5 0 - 30% -

over 30.5 30 - 50% -High temperature and high

diurnal rangeover 29.5 50 - 70% >10 C

over 38 0 - 30% -

over 37 30 - 50% -

over 35.5 50 - 70 >10 CExcessive discomfort

over 32 over 70% ?10 C

10 - 32.5 0 - 30% >10 C

10 - 30.5 30 - 50% >10 C

10 - 29.5 50 - 70% >10 C

Day and night comfort butwith high diurnal range

10 - 29 over 70% >10 C

15 - 18 (fresh) - -

10 - 15 (cool) - -Low day temperatures

below 10 (cool) - -

Day comfort all conditions not included above

above 25.5 above 70%High temperature and highhumidity by night above 26 50 - 70% ?10 C

above 27.5 0 - 30% -

above 26.5 30 - 50% -High temperature and low

humidity by nightabove 26 50 - 70% >10 C

Low night temperatures below 10 - -

Table 3: Temperature and humidity limits for different forms of discomfort.

The Mahoney Scale.

The Evans Scale.





6. Tests and Exercises

7. References

1. Explain how the human body maintains itsthermal balance.

2. What are the factors that affect thermalcomfort? Explain how these factors affect thesensation of comfort and state the limits withinwhich comfort can be achieved.

3. Explain the effect of the following factors onhuman comfort:

a. Air temperature

b. Humidity

c. Wind

4. Describe ten indices of thermal comfort andrelate their applicability to the Nigerian climate.

5. Explain the importance of thermal indices indesign with climate.

ASHRAE (1977).ASHRAE, New York.

Bedford, T. (1936). "Warmth Factor in Comfortat Work". In:

No 76.

Bedford, T. (1940).War Memorandum 17,

Medical Research Council, HMSO, London.

Bedford, T. (1961). "Researches On ThermalComfort". In: Vol. 4, pp 280-310.

Egah, M.D. (1975).Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New

Jersey.

Evans, M. (1980).The Architectural Press, London.

Fanger, P.O. (1972).

McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.

Fanger, P.O., Breum, N.O. and Jerking, E. (1975)."Can Colour and Noise Influence Man's ThermalComfort?". In: Technical Universityof Denmark, November 1975.

Gagge, A.P., Nishi, Y. and Gonzalez, R.R. (1973).

Handbook of Fundamentals.

Medical Research Council, IndustrialHealth Research Board Report.

Environmental Warmth andits Measurement.

Ergonomics,

Concepts In ThermalComfort.

Housing, Climate and Comfort.

Thermal Comfort: Analysisand Applications In Environmental Engineering.

Ergonomics.




a. Air temperature

b. Humidity

c. Wind





No 76.





Jersey.









Ergonomics,




Ergonomics.

"Standard Effective Temperature - A Single Indexof Temperature Sensation and ThermalDiscomfort". In: P

, 13-15 September, 1972. BRE, London. pp 229-250.

Givoni, B. (1963). "Estimation Of The Effect OfClimate On Man: Development of A NewThermal Index". In:

Building Research Station, Haifa.

Givoni, B. (1976).Second Edition. Applied Science

Publishers Ltd., London.

Houghton, F.C. and Yaglou, C.P. (1923)."Determining Lines of Equal Comfort". In:

Vol. 29.

Houghton, F.C. et al (1945). "Radiation As AFactor In the Sensation of Warmth". In:

Humphreys, M.A. (1970). "A Simple TheoreticalDerivation of Thermal Comfort Conditions". In:

No. 38. August. p 95.

Jennins, B.H. (1978).Harper and Row,

New York.

Koenigsberger, O.H., Ingersoll, T.G., Mayhew,A. and Szokolay, S.V. (1974).

Longman, London.

Lee, P.H.K. (1953).USAID, Washington.

Markus, T.A. and Morris, E.N. (1980).Pitman International,

London.

Ogunsote, O.O. (1988). "A Critical Appraisal ofthe Comfort Conditions In the Climatic DesignZones of Nigeria". Doctoral Seminar paperpresented to the Department of Architecture,Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

Olgyay, V. (1963).

Princeton University Press,Princeton, New Jersey.

Peel, C. (1961). "Thermal Comfort Zones InNorthern Nigeria". In: Journal of TropicalMedicine and Hygiene. No. 63, May 1961. pp

roceedings of the CIBCommission W45 (Human Requirements)Symposium at the Building Research Station

Research Report ToUNESCO,

Man, Climate AndArchitecture.

ASHVETransactions,

ASHVETransactions.

IHVE Journal.

The Thermal Environment:Conditioning and Control.

Manual of TropicalHousing And Building, Part I, Climatic Design.

Physiological Objectives inHot Weather Housing.

Buildings,Climate and Energy.

Design With Climate -Bioclimatic Approach To ArchitecturalRegionalism.








Vol. 29.





New York.


Longman, London.



London.


Olgyay, V. (1963).






ASHVETransactions,

ASHVETransactions.

IHVE Journal.






14

113-121.

Prucnal-Ogunsote, B. and Ogunsote, O.O.(1988). "COLDHOT -A Design Aid for Multi-Index Thermal Stress Analysis". In:

Vol. 31.3, pp 99-106. Sydney,Australia.

Rholes, F.H. and Nevins, R.G. (1971). "TheNature of Thermal Stress for Sedentary Man". In:

77(1). pp 239-246.

Schwerdtfeger, F.W. (1984). "ThermalConditions In Traditional Urban Houses InNorthern Nigeria". In:Volume 8, No. 3/4. Pergamon Press Ltd. GreatBritain. pp 43-76.

Small, I. and Chandler, J.L. (1967). "ThermalComfort Study In West Africa". In:

.Kumasi, Ghana.

Smith, F.E. (1955). "Indices of Heat Stress". In:

London.

Tiffen, C.E. (1982). "Paints To Reduce InteriorTemperature In Buildings". In:September 1982.

United Nations (1971).

Department ofEconomic and Social Affairs, New York.

United Nations Centre For Human Settlements -HABITAT (1984).

UNCHS-HABITAT. Nairobi, Kenya.

Webb, C.G. (1960). "Thermal Discomfort In AnEquatorial Climate". In:

Vol. 27.January. pp 297-304.

Yaglou, C.P. (1947). "A Method For ImprovingThe Effective Temperature Index". In:

Volume 53, pp 307-309.

ArchitecturalScience Review,

ASHRAE Transactions.

Habitat International,

Building andRoad Research Institute Research Note 20

Medical Research Council Memo No. 29.

NIA Journal.

Design of Low CostHousing and Community Facilities, Volume I,Climate and House Design.

Energy Conservation In TheConstruction And Maintenance of Buildings.Volume One: Use of Solar Energy and SolarCooling In The Design of Buildings In DevelopingCountries.

Journal of The Institute ofHeating And Ventilating Engineers,

ASHVETransactions,




a. Air temperature

b. Humidity

c. Wind





No 76.





Jersey.









Ergonomics,




Ergonomics.








Vol. 29.





New York.


Longman, London.



London.


Olgyay, V. (1963).






ASHVETransactions,

ASHVETransactions.

IHVE Journal.






15

113-121.




77(1). pp 239-246.



.Kumasi, Ghana.


London.









Volume 53, pp 307-309.






NIA Journal.




ASHVETransactions,

113-121.




77(1). pp 239-246.



.Kumasi, Ghana.


London.









Volume 53, pp 307-309.






NIA Journal.




ASHVETransactions,

chapter three thermal comfort - sdngnet.comsdngnet.com/files/lectures/futy-ar-305/almond tree effect...

Documents