Police in AmericaPolice in America

Chapter TwelveChapter Twelve

© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Chapter TwelveChapter TwelvePolicePolice--Community Community

RelationsRelations

Definition of PoliceDefinition of Police--Community Community RelationsRelations

§§ Refers primarily to the relations between the Refers primarily to the relations between the police and racial and ethnic minority police and racial and ethnic minority communities.communities.

§§ From PCR to LegitimacyFrom PCR to Legitimacy§§ Police need to establish trust and cooperation with Police need to establish trust and cooperation with

all segments of the community they serveall segments of the community they serve

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all segments of the community they serveall segments of the community they serve

§§ Policing a Multicultural SocietyPolicing a Multicultural Society§§ Definitions of Race and EthnicityDefinitions of Race and Ethnicity

§§ Race Race –– refers to the major biological divisions of the refers to the major biological divisions of the people of the worldpeople of the world

§§ EthnicityEthnicity-- refers to cultural differences such as refers to cultural differences such as language, religion, family patterns, and foodwayslanguage, religion, family patterns, and foodways

The Major Racial and Ethnic Minority The Major Racial and Ethnic Minority GroupsGroups

§§ African AmericansAfrican Americans§§ Hispanics/LatinosHispanics/Latinos

-- More likely to experience More likely to experience policepolice--initiated contactinitiated contact

-- Largest racial or ethnic Largest racial or ethnic minority group by 2010minority group by 2010

-- Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba,

§§ Native AmericanNative American–– Higher crime rate on Higher crime rate on

reservationreservation–– Tribal policeTribal police

§§ Asian AmericansAsian Americans–– Vietnamese, Cambodians are Vietnamese, Cambodians are

newest immigrantsnewest immigrants

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-- Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Central and South AmericaCentral and South America

§§ ArabsArabs-- Very diverse groupVery diverse group-- Majority trace background to Majority trace background to

LebanonLebanon-- Most are nativeMost are native--born born

AmericansAmericans-- Muslim religionMuslim religion

–– Vietnamese, Cambodians are Vietnamese, Cambodians are newest immigrantsnewest immigrants

§§ ImmigrantsImmigrants-- Primary language is not Primary language is not

EnglishEnglish-- Report crimes at lower rates Report crimes at lower rates

than other Americansthan other Americans-- Calls for bilingual officers to Calls for bilingual officers to

accommodate immigrantsaccommodate immigrants

Not Just Race and Ethnicity: Not Just Race and Ethnicity: Gender and Sexual PreferenceGender and Sexual Preference

nn PolicePolice--community relations problems also community relations problems also exist with the following groups:exist with the following groups:–– WomenWomen–– Gay menGay men

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–– Gay menGay men–– LesbiansLesbians–– Transgendered personsTransgendered persons

§§ Problems of sexual harassment, Problems of sexual harassment, disrespect, and physical abusedisrespect, and physical abuse

Discrimination versus DisparityDiscrimination versus Disparity

nn Discrimination: differential treatment based Discrimination: differential treatment based on some extralegal category such as race, on some extralegal category such as race, ethnicity or gender.ethnicity or gender.

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nn Disparity: different outcomes that are not Disparity: different outcomes that are not necessarily caused by differential necessarily caused by differential treatment.treatment.

A Contextual Approach to PoliceA Contextual Approach to Police--Citizen InteractionsCitizen Interactions

nn Experiences with police vary according to Experiences with police vary according to department, type of police action, the department, type of police action, the departmental unit involved, etc.departmental unit involved, etc.

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–– Some departments have better relations with Some departments have better relations with people of color minority communitiespeople of color minority communities

–– Interactions are different according to Interactions are different according to location, police unit, and enforcement activitylocation, police unit, and enforcement activity

Public Opinion and the PolicePublic Opinion and the Police§§ The vast majority of Americans have a positive attitude The vast majority of Americans have a positive attitude

toward the police.toward the police.§§ Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate the police Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate the police

less favorably than whites.less favorably than whites.§§ A majority of African Americans (76%) and Hispanics A majority of African Americans (76%) and Hispanics

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§§ A majority of African Americans (76%) and Hispanics A majority of African Americans (76%) and Hispanics give the police a generally favorable rating.give the police a generally favorable rating.

§§ Young people rate the police less favorably than older Young people rate the police less favorably than older people.people.

§§ Poor people, less educated people, and crime victims Poor people, less educated people, and crime victims tend to rate the police lower than others.tend to rate the police lower than others.

§§ There are significant differences in opinions about the There are significant differences in opinions about the police in different cities.police in different cities.

Race and EthnicityRace and Ethnicity

nn 2008 survey showed that 25% of African 2008 survey showed that 25% of African Americans had little to no confidence in Americans had little to no confidence in police (compared to 9% of whites)police (compared to 9% of whites)

nn Attitudes about police roles can vary Attitudes about police roles can vary

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nn Attitudes about police roles can vary Attitudes about police roles can vary according to social class, as well as race according to social class, as well as race and ethnicityand ethnicity–– Thus, middleThus, middle--class and lowerclass and lower--class African class African Americans do not share identical attitudesAmericans do not share identical attitudes

Attitudes about Police Use of ForceAttitudes about Police Use of Force

nn Hispanics and African Americans are twice Hispanics and African Americans are twice as likely to believe the police will use as likely to believe the police will use excessive force excessive force in their communitiesin their communities

nn In a survey of Cincinnati residents, 46.6% In a survey of Cincinnati residents, 46.6%

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nn In a survey of Cincinnati residents, 46.6% In a survey of Cincinnati residents, 46.6% of African Americans indicated they had of African Americans indicated they had been personally “hassled” by the policebeen personally “hassled” by the police–– Compared to only 9.6% of whitesCompared to only 9.6% of whites

Social ClassSocial Class

nn In 2008, 23% of people with incomes In 2008, 23% of people with incomes lower than $20,000 had little to no lower than $20,000 had little to no confidence in policeconfidence in police

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nn Compared to 6Compared to 6--7% of people with incomes 7% of people with incomes above $50,000above $50,000

Age: Young People and the PoliceAge: Young People and the Police

nn Age consistently ranks second to race and Age consistently ranks second to race and ethnicity as a factor in public attitudes ethnicity as a factor in public attitudes toward policetoward police

nn A 2008 survey found that 17% of people A 2008 survey found that 17% of people

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nn A 2008 survey found that 17% of people A 2008 survey found that 17% of people between the ages of 18between the ages of 18--29 had little to no 29 had little to no confidence in the policeconfidence in the police–– Compared with only 8% of people between Compared with only 8% of people between 3030--4949

Other Demographic FactorsOther Demographic Factors

nn 1. Where You Live: Neighborhood Quality 1. Where You Live: Neighborhood Quality of Lifeof Life

nn 2. Crime Victimization2. Crime Victimization

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nn 2. Crime Victimization2. Crime Victimization

nn 3. Gender3. Gender

nn 4. Level of Education4. Level of Education

Community PolicingCommunity Policing

nn Community policing has a positive impact Community policing has a positive impact on citizens’ attitudes toward the policeon citizens’ attitudes toward the police

–– A study by Weitzer and Tuch found that A study by Weitzer and Tuch found that

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–– A study by Weitzer and Tuch found that A study by Weitzer and Tuch found that people who believe their police department people who believe their police department engages in community policing in their engages in community policing in their neighborhood are neighborhood are less likelyless likely to believe that to believe that the police use excessive forcethe police use excessive force

Intercity VariationsIntercity Variations

nn The Case of DetroitThe Case of Detroit§§ More African Americans indicated they were satisfied More African Americans indicated they were satisfied with the police than whiteswith the police than whites

§§ African Americans dominated the local political African Americans dominated the local political establishmentestablishment

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establishmentestablishment§§ Thus, in Detroit, African Americans are more likely Thus, in Detroit, African Americans are more likely than whites to identify positively with the police and than whites to identify positively with the police and other parts of the political systemother parts of the political system

The Impact of Controversial The Impact of Controversial IncidentsIncidents

nn Specific cases or controversial incidents Specific cases or controversial incidents (ex: Rodney King beating in LA) can have (ex: Rodney King beating in LA) can have short or long term affect on people’s short or long term affect on people’s attitudes toward police officers and police attitudes toward police officers and police

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attitudes toward police officers and police attitudes toward police officers and police departments. departments.

Complex Dimensions of Trust and Complex Dimensions of Trust and Confidence in the PoliceConfidence in the Police

1.1. PrioritiesPriorities: Whether people feel that the police share their : Whether people feel that the police share their concerns about the neighborhoodconcerns about the neighborhood

2.2. CompetenceCompetence: Whether people feel that the police have the : Whether people feel that the police have the knowledge and skills necessary to achieve their objectivesknowledge and skills necessary to achieve their objectives

3.3. DependabilityDependability: Whether people feel that the police can be : Whether people feel that the police can be counted on to fulfill their promisescounted on to fulfill their promises

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DependabilityDependability: Whether people feel that the police can be : Whether people feel that the police can be counted on to fulfill their promisescounted on to fulfill their promises

4.4. RespectRespect: Whether people feel that the police treat them : Whether people feel that the police treat them with respectwith respect

nn Theory of Procedural Justice:Theory of Procedural Justice: People distinguish between People distinguish between the outcomes and the processthe outcomes and the process

–– Ex: People are more likely to be satisfied if the officer explains the Ex: People are more likely to be satisfied if the officer explains the basis for his action, even if the outcome is unfavorablebasis for his action, even if the outcome is unfavorable

Three Perspectives on Attitudes Three Perspectives on Attitudes Toward PoliceToward Police

nn The Police and the Larger SocietyThe Police and the Larger Societynn The Police and Other OccupationsThe Police and Other Occupationsnn The Police in Other CountriesThe Police in Other Countriesnn Summary of attitudes:Summary of attitudes:

–– Majority of Americans have positive attitude toward policeMajority of Americans have positive attitude toward police–– Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate police less favorablyRacial and ethnic minorities consistently rate police less favorably

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–– Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate police less favorablyRacial and ethnic minorities consistently rate police less favorably–– African Americans and Hispanics generally give a favorable ratingAfrican Americans and Hispanics generally give a favorable rating–– Young people rate less favorablyYoung people rate less favorably–– Poor people, less educated people and crime victims rate less Poor people, less educated people and crime victims rate less

favorablyfavorably–– People who view their neighborhood as safe view police favorablyPeople who view their neighborhood as safe view police favorably–– Community policing has a positive effect on citizens’ attitudesCommunity policing has a positive effect on citizens’ attitudes–– There are significant differences in attitudes in different citiesThere are significant differences in attitudes in different cities–– People make important distinctions regarding police actionsPeople make important distinctions regarding police actions–– Attitudes toward police reflect attitudes toward society as a wholeAttitudes toward police reflect attitudes toward society as a whole

Police Perceptions of CitizensPolice Perceptions of Citizens

nn Sources of Police AttitudesSources of Police Attitudes–– Selective ContactSelective Contact

§§ Officers do not have regular contact with a cross Officers do not have regular contact with a cross section of the communitysection of the community

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section of the communitysection of the community§§ LowLow--income and minorities have a disproportionate income and minorities have a disproportionate level of contact with the policelevel of contact with the police

–– Selective PerceptionSelective Perception§§ Officers are more likely to remember traumatic or Officers are more likely to remember traumatic or unpleasant eventsunpleasant events

§§ Officers tend to stereotype African Americans since Officers tend to stereotype African Americans since they tend to show the most hostility toward officersthey tend to show the most hostility toward officers

Sources of PoliceSources of Police--Community Community Relations ProblemsRelations Problems

nn Question:Question: How do we explain the apparent How do we explain the apparent contradiction between the generally favorable contradiction between the generally favorable ratings given the police by racial and ethnic minority ratings given the police by racial and ethnic minority communities and the persistence of public conflict communities and the persistence of public conflict between the police and these groups?between the police and these groups?

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nn Answer:Answer: We must examine specific areas of We must examine specific areas of policing policing –– 1. The level of police protection received by different 1. The level of police protection received by different neighborhoodsneighborhoods

–– 2. Police officer field practices2. Police officer field practices–– 3. Administrative practices3. Administrative practices–– 4. Employment practices4. Employment practices

Level of Police ProtectionLevel of Police Protection

nn Too Much or Too Little Law Enforcement?Too Much or Too Little Law Enforcement?–– African Americans have been victims of African Americans have been victims of underenforcement of the lawunderenforcement of the law

–– Four Systems of JusticeFour Systems of Justice in the South during in the South during institutionalized segregationinstitutionalized segregation

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institutionalized segregationinstitutionalized segregation§§ 1. Crimes by whites against whites handled as “normal” 1. Crimes by whites against whites handled as “normal” crimescrimes

§§ 2. Crimes by whites against African Americans rarely 2. Crimes by whites against African Americans rarely prosecutedprosecuted

§§ 3. Crimes by African Americans against whites received 3. Crimes by African Americans against whites received harshest responseharshest response

§§ 4. Crimes by African Americans against African Americans 4. Crimes by African Americans against African Americans were ignoredwere ignored

Level of Police Protection Level of Police Protection ContinuedContinued

nn Failures to enforce the law in minority communities Failures to enforce the law in minority communities has typically involved crimes of vice (gambling, has typically involved crimes of vice (gambling, prostitution, drugs)prostitution, drugs)–– This underenforcement breeds disrespect for the law and This underenforcement breeds disrespect for the law and policepolice

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policepolice–– Exposes lawExposes law--abiding citizens in minority neighborhoods abiding citizens in minority neighborhoods to criminal activities and lower the quality of life to criminal activities and lower the quality of life

§§ Delay in Responding to CallsDelay in Responding to Calls§§ Studies found that patrol officers often deliberately Studies found that patrol officers often deliberately delayed responding to calls for service, especially delayed responding to calls for service, especially involving family disturbancesinvolving family disturbances

§§ Black citizens perceived greater delays than whitesBlack citizens perceived greater delays than whites

Police Field PracticesPolice Field PracticesDeadly ForceDeadly Force

–– Source of major conflict Source of major conflict between minorities and between minorities and policepolice

–– Changed significantly Changed significantly over last 40 yearsover last 40 years§§ FleeingFleeing--felon rule felon rule unconstitutionalunconstitutional

Use of Physical ForceUse of Physical Force

–– Public Brutality: Public Brutality: excessive use of physical excessive use of physical force by the policeforce by the police

–– Most common complaint Most common complaint by minoritiesby minorities

–– Use of force continuumUse of force continuum

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unconstitutionalunconstitutional§§ Trend toward defenseTrend toward defense--ofof--life standardlife standard

–– Does current disparity Does current disparity between African between African Americans and whites Americans and whites shot and killed by police shot and killed by police represent systematic represent systematic discrimination?discrimination?

–– Use of force continuumUse of force continuum–– Police use force more Police use force more

often againstoften against§§ Criminal suspectsCriminal suspects§§ Male suspects Male suspects §§ Black malesBlack males§§ Drunk and Drunk and antagonisticantagonistic

§§ Physical resistancePhysical resistance

Use of Physical ForceUse of Physical Force

nn FleeingFleeing--Felon Rule:Felon Rule: Declared unconstitutional Declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court in 1985 (Tennessee v. by the Supreme Court in 1985 (Tennessee v. Garner), allowed police the legal right to use Garner), allowed police the legal right to use deadly force in apprehending a felon attempting deadly force in apprehending a felon attempting to escape.to escape.

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to escape.to escape.nn DefenseDefense--ofof--Life StandardLife Standard: States that police : States that police officers are allowed to use deadly force only in officers are allowed to use deadly force only in situations where their own lives or the life of situations where their own lives or the life of another person are in danger.another person are in danger.

Use of Deadly ForceUse of Deadly Force

Defined and restrictive policies instituted in Memphis Defined and restrictive policies instituted in Memphis have eliminated police shootings of unarmed, have eliminated police shootings of unarmed, nonassaultive citizensnonassaultive citizens

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Nationwide, numbers of these shootings have dropped Nationwide, numbers of these shootings have dropped dramatically following removal of fleeing felon ruledramatically following removal of fleeing felon rule

What does this suggest?What does this suggest?Discretion (on deadly force) must be controlled to Discretion (on deadly force) must be controlled to prevent officers from acting on prejudiced attitudes.prevent officers from acting on prejudiced attitudes.

Use of Police Canine UnitsUse of Police Canine Units

nn Being bitten by a police dog is a form of Being bitten by a police dog is a form of police use of forcepolice use of force

nn Minorities believe police dogs are used Minorities believe police dogs are used

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nn Minorities believe police dogs are used Minorities believe police dogs are used more often against them, and that they are more often against them, and that they are bitten far more often than whitesbitten far more often than whites

ArrestsArrestsnn African Americans are arrested more often than African Americans are arrested more often than whites (relative to their numbers in the population)whites (relative to their numbers in the population)

nn Donald Black’s study found that officers’ decision Donald Black’s study found that officers’ decision to arrest is based on to arrest is based on situational factorssituational factors–– The strength of the evidenceThe strength of the evidence

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–– The strength of the evidenceThe strength of the evidence–– The seriousness of the crimeThe seriousness of the crime–– The preference of the victimThe preference of the victim–– The victimThe victim--suspect relationshipsuspect relationship–– The demeanor of the suspectThe demeanor of the suspect

§§ Extremely complexExtremely complex§§ There are no studies that have determined the extent to which There are no studies that have determined the extent to which suspect demeanor is provoked by officer actionssuspect demeanor is provoked by officer actions

Field Interrogations and SearchesField Interrogations and Searches

nn Field InterrogationsField Interrogations: Involve a crime control : Involve a crime control strategy of both identifying and apprehending strategy of both identifying and apprehending offenders, and sending a message of deterrence offenders, and sending a message of deterrence to people on the street.to people on the street.

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–– Young racial and ethnic minority males regard this as Young racial and ethnic minority males regard this as harassmentharassment

–– The President’s Crime Commission found that field The President’s Crime Commission found that field interrogations were a “major cause of tensions interrogations were a “major cause of tensions between the police and minority communities”between the police and minority communities”

Crime Fighting and StereotypingCrime Fighting and Stereotypingnn Experts believe that a certain amount of racial Experts believe that a certain amount of racial profiling in traffic enforcement is the result of a profiling in traffic enforcement is the result of a police officer deciding that an African American police officer deciding that an African American or Hispanic driver is “out of place” in a white or Hispanic driver is “out of place” in a white neighborhood. neighborhood.

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nn Stereotyping of citizens by gender, age, and Stereotyping of citizens by gender, age, and race is a problem deeply rooted in policingrace is a problem deeply rooted in policing

nn Racial stereotyping can affect a police officer’s Racial stereotyping can affect a police officer’s likelihood of using deadly forcelikelihood of using deadly force

Other Police Field PracticesOther Police Field Practices

nn Verbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic SlursVerbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic Slurs–– LAPD Christopher Commission LAPD Christopher Commission

nn Language and Cultural BarriersLanguage and Cultural Barriers–– Police lack of cultural competencePolice lack of cultural competence

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–– Police lack of cultural competencePolice lack of cultural competencenn Discrimination Involving Women, Gays, Discrimination Involving Women, Gays, Lesbians, and Transgendered PeopleLesbians, and Transgendered People–– “Driving While Female”“Driving While Female”–– Abuse of sexual minoritiesAbuse of sexual minorities–– Bias against young African American women Bias against young African American women

Special Topic: Racial ProfilingSpecial Topic: Racial Profiling

nn Racial profiling: the practice of police Racial profiling: the practice of police officers stopping drivers because of their officers stopping drivers because of their race or ethnicity and not because of a race or ethnicity and not because of a legitimate law violation.legitimate law violation.

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legitimate law violation.legitimate law violation.–– “Driving while black”“Driving while black”–– “Driving while brown”“Driving while brown”

Traffic Enforcement PracticesTraffic Enforcement Practices

nn 52% of all citizen52% of all citizen--police contacts involve police contacts involve traffic stopstraffic stops

nn Data on traffic enforcement patterns Data on traffic enforcement patterns involve several different actions by police:involve several different actions by police:

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involve several different actions by police:involve several different actions by police:–– 1. Stopping a vehicle1. Stopping a vehicle–– 2. Resolving the stop through an arrest, 2. Resolving the stop through an arrest, citation, warning, or no actioncitation, warning, or no action

–– 3. Searching the vehicle, driver, and/or 3. Searching the vehicle, driver, and/or passengerspassengers

Data on Traffic Enforcement Data on Traffic Enforcement PatternsPatterns

nn National dataNational data–– Males more likely to be stopped than femalesMales more likely to be stopped than females–– Young people more likely than older peopleYoung people more likely than older people–– African Americans and Hispanics more likely to African Americans and Hispanics more likely to

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–– African Americans and Hispanics more likely to African Americans and Hispanics more likely to be searched than whitesbe searched than whites

nn State and local dataState and local data–– Meehan and Ponder study found that African Meehan and Ponder study found that African Americans were more likely to be stopped and Americans were more likely to be stopped and queried in predominately white neighborhoodsqueried in predominately white neighborhoods

Interpreting TrafficInterpreting Traffic--Stop DataStop Data

nn BenchmarkBenchmark for interpreting data was the for interpreting data was the residential populationresidential population

nn However, However, population datapopulation data do not indicate who is do not indicate who is actually driving on the roads or who is violating actually driving on the roads or who is violating

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actually driving on the roads or who is violating actually driving on the roads or who is violating traffic lawtraffic law

nn Best method is the Best method is the rolling surveyrolling survey technique technique which utilizes direct observationwhich utilizes direct observation

nn Another alternative is Another alternative is internal benchmarking (IB)internal benchmarking (IB)–– Compares performance of individual officers with peer Compares performance of individual officers with peer officersofficers

Explaining Disparities in Traffic Explaining Disparities in Traffic EnforcementEnforcement

nn “Officers act on the basis of prejudicial “Officers act on the basis of prejudicial attitudes” (Engel, Calnon and Bernard)attitudes” (Engel, Calnon and Bernard)

nn Racial profiling occurs in three contextsRacial profiling occurs in three contexts1.1. War on drugsWar on drugs

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1.1. War on drugsWar on drugs-- Generally perceived to be carried out by minoritiesGenerally perceived to be carried out by minorities

2. Citizens who are “out of place”2. Citizens who are “out of place”3. General crackdown on crime3. General crackdown on crime

-- Usually in poor, high crime neighborhoodUsually in poor, high crime neighborhood

Police Justifications for Racial and Police Justifications for Racial and Ethnic DisparitiesEthnic Disparities

nn Major argument is that African Americans Major argument is that African Americans and minorities are more likely to be and minorities are more likely to be engaged in criminal activityengaged in criminal activity

nn Some argue this involves circular Some argue this involves circular

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nn Some argue this involves circular Some argue this involves circular reasoningreasoning–– Minorities stopped and arrested more than Minorities stopped and arrested more than whites producing higher arrest rates and thus, whites producing higher arrest rates and thus, justifying higher rates of stops and arrests. justifying higher rates of stops and arrests.

The Legitimate Use of Race and The Legitimate Use of Race and Ethnicity in Police WorkEthnicity in Police Work

nn Police officer cannot arrest a person solely Police officer cannot arrest a person solely on the basis or raceon the basis or race

nn The police cannot use race or ethnicity The police cannot use race or ethnicity when it is one element in a general profile when it is one element in a general profile

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when it is one element in a general profile when it is one element in a general profile of criminal suspects.of criminal suspects.

nn The police may use race or ethnicity when The police may use race or ethnicity when it is one element in the description of a it is one element in the description of a specific criminal suspectspecific criminal suspect

Policies to Prevent Bias in Traffic Policies to Prevent Bias in Traffic EnforcementEnforcement

nn Specific written policy prohibiting racial or Specific written policy prohibiting racial or ethnic discriminationethnic discrimination

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nn Improve police officer trainingImprove police officer training

nn TrafficTraffic--stop data collection and analysisstop data collection and analysis

Can Policies Reduce Racial and Can Policies Reduce Racial and Ethnic Disparities?Ethnic Disparities?

nn The U.S. Customs Service developed new The U.S. Customs Service developed new guidelines for searching foreigners entering the guidelines for searching foreigners entering the country country

nn Short list of observed behaviors (not a “hunch”)Short list of observed behaviors (not a “hunch”)nn Reason for search articulated clearly by Reason for search articulated clearly by

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nn Reason for search articulated clearly by Reason for search articulated clearly by personnel personnel –– As a result, the number of persons being searched As a result, the number of persons being searched declined by 47%declined by 47%

–– The percentage of people found with contraband rose The percentage of people found with contraband rose by 65%by 65%

–– Racial and ethnic disparities in persons searched also Racial and ethnic disparities in persons searched also declineddeclined

Problem Solving on Racial ProfilingProblem Solving on Racial Profiling

nn Importance of developing community and Importance of developing community and police partnerships on racial profiling:police partnerships on racial profiling:–– Partnerships foster trustPartnerships foster trust–– Partnerships are a valuable avenue for twoPartnerships are a valuable avenue for two--

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–– Partnerships are a valuable avenue for twoPartnerships are a valuable avenue for two--way communicationway communication

–– Partnerships can help police departments Partnerships can help police departments reduce the risk of engaging in unacceptable reduce the risk of engaging in unacceptable practices that might result in being suedpractices that might result in being sued

Improving PoliceImproving Police--Community Community RelationsRelations

nn Several approaches:Several approaches:–– Maintaining a representative police forceMaintaining a representative police force

§§ Eliminating employment discriminationEliminating employment discrimination

–– Improving the handling of citizen complaintsImproving the handling of citizen complaints§§ Civilian review boardsCivilian review boards

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§§ Civilian review boardsCivilian review boards

–– Creating special policeCreating special police--community relations unitcommunity relations unit§§ For recent immigrants: “newcomer,” “foreign born,” and “nonFor recent immigrants: “newcomer,” “foreign born,” and “non--natives”natives”

–– Improving training, cultural sensitivity, biImproving training, cultural sensitivity, bi--lingualismlingualism§§ Assigning officers on the basis of race, ethnicity, languageAssigning officers on the basis of race, ethnicity, language

Special PoliceSpecial Police--Community Community Relations UnitRelations Unit

nn PCR Units operate programs designed to PCR Units operate programs designed to improve relations with minority communitiesimprove relations with minority communities

nn RideRide--along programs: allow citizens to spend a along programs: allow citizens to spend a few hours riding in a patrol carfew hours riding in a patrol car

nn Creation of neighborhood storefront offices to Creation of neighborhood storefront offices to

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nn Creation of neighborhood storefront offices to Creation of neighborhood storefront offices to overcome isolation of the policeovercome isolation of the police

nn Special PCR programs tend to be more Special PCR programs tend to be more successful with groups of people who already successful with groups of people who already have favorable attitudes toward the policehave favorable attitudes toward the police–– Whites, homeowners, older peopleWhites, homeowners, older people

Outreach to Immigrant Outreach to Immigrant CommunitiesCommunities

nn The variety of languages and cultures in The variety of languages and cultures in American cities presents new issues for American cities presents new issues for police departmentspolice departments–– Police departments developing new outreach Police departments developing new outreach

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–– Police departments developing new outreach Police departments developing new outreach programs designed to help establish closer programs designed to help establish closer relations with the police and new immigrant relations with the police and new immigrant communitiescommunities

–– Largest number of programs are targeted Largest number of programs are targeted toward Hispanic/Latino communitiestoward Hispanic/Latino communities

Should Local Police Enforce Should Local Police Enforce Federal Immigration?Federal Immigration?

nn Many local police officials do not want to Many local police officials do not want to be involved in enforcing immigration laws be involved in enforcing immigration laws because they argue that policing requires because they argue that policing requires them to develop close relations with the them to develop close relations with the communities they servecommunities they serve

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communities they servecommunities they serve–– The role of immigration enforcement might The role of immigration enforcement might alienate them from communities with large alienate them from communities with large numbers of immigrantsnumbers of immigrants

–– People will become reluctant to call the police People will become reluctant to call the police to report crimes, etc.to report crimes, etc.

Race Relations and Human Race Relations and Human Relations TrainingRelations Training

nn No research has established a direct connection No research has established a direct connection between race relations training and improved between race relations training and improved police officer behavior or improved public police officer behavior or improved public attitudesattitudes

nn Experts question the value of classroom trainingExperts question the value of classroom training

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nn Experts question the value of classroom trainingExperts question the value of classroom training–– OnOn--thethe--street behavior and communication may be street behavior and communication may be more effectivemore effective

nn Training in Cultural CompetenceTraining in Cultural Competence–– Information may help explain cultural differences that Information may help explain cultural differences that may lead to misunderstandingsmay lead to misunderstandings

From PCR to Legitimacy: The New From PCR to Legitimacy: The New ParadigmParadigm

nn Legitimacy: the belief that the police, as a social Legitimacy: the belief that the police, as a social institution, are acting properly and effectively, institution, are acting properly and effectively, and deserve public supportand deserve public support

nn Winning legitimacy is 2Winning legitimacy is 2--dimensionaldimensional–– First dimension: involves substantive outcomes: First dimension: involves substantive outcomes: controlling crime and disorder and providing services controlling crime and disorder and providing services

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–– First dimension: involves substantive outcomes: First dimension: involves substantive outcomes: controlling crime and disorder and providing services controlling crime and disorder and providing services to the publicto the public

–– Second dimension: involves Second dimension: involves how how police do their job: police do their job: treating all people with respect, not engaging in treating all people with respect, not engaging in misconduct or use of excessive forcemisconduct or use of excessive force

nn Key difference between PCR and LegitimacyKey difference between PCR and Legitimacy–– PCR programs are directed only toward one part of PCR programs are directed only toward one part of the communitythe community

“Best Practices”: “Best Practices”: Responsive Policing and AccountabilityResponsive Policing and Accountabilitynn 2001 DOJ report listed best policing practices as:2001 DOJ report listed best policing practices as:

–– A comprehensive policy requiring officers to report all uses A comprehensive policy requiring officers to report all uses of forceof force

–– An open and accessible citizen complaint procedureAn open and accessible citizen complaint procedure–– An early warning system to identify potential “problem” An early warning system to identify potential “problem”

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–– An early warning system to identify potential “problem” An early warning system to identify potential “problem” officersofficers

–– Improved police trainingImproved police training–– TrafficTraffic--stop data collectionstop data collection–– Improved recruitment, hiring, and retention of officersImproved recruitment, hiring, and retention of officers

Community Policing and Improving Community Policing and Improving PCRPCR

nn Community policing represents a Community policing represents a comprehensive philosophy of policing and comprehensive philosophy of policing and may better address onmay better address on--thethe--street police street police behavior than traditional PCR programsbehavior than traditional PCR programs

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behavior than traditional PCR programsbehavior than traditional PCR programs

nn Community policing is directed toward the Community policing is directed toward the community as a whole, and not just racial community as a whole, and not just racial and ethnic minority communitiesand ethnic minority communities