chapter two mahatma gandhi: peace,...
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CHAPTER TWO
Mahatma Gandhi: Peace, Nonviolence and Conflict Resolution
I. Introduction
(Conflict is a part and parcel of human life. It is an
ongoing phenomenon since the advent of human civilization. One of
the 19th century biologists, Charles Darwin propounds that
species evolve through a process of mutual selection by which
nature eliminates the undesired elements. There happens to be a
consistent ••struggle for existence" that gives birth to new
variety of species. Applying this biological finding to the arena
of Sociology of human behaviour, Darwin states, "This preserva-
tion of favourable variations and the rejection of injurious
variations, I call Natural Selectio~• 1 , Struggle is, therefore,
the fundamental law of the universe.
But Darwin's explanation of struggle bears only partial
truth. He uses the term 11 Struggle 11 in an extended and metaphori-
cal sense. He· stresses on the process of conflict only and com-
pletely ignores the unifying aspect of struggle as a factor in
the evolution of species.1
On the similar line, Heraclitus feels that evolution in the
universe is solely due to its conflicting elements, procreating'
new things in turn. He concludes, "War is the father of all
1. Charles Darwin, The Origin of SpE-cies by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (London,1968), p.31.
things."2 Again Hegel and Marx both have interpreted history in
the dialectics of conflict. Bondurant writes, "Hegel discovered
reason in things themselves, equated real with rational and
understood the progress of history in terms of the dialectics as
a method of logic. 3 Marx also considers the history as the result
of class struggle. He, while striving for an empirical approach
allows the dogma of class struggle and the absolutism of his
philosophy of history to strangle the development of dialectics
at a level where it could enter into a technique of action. But
the dialectics of both Hegel and Marx are partial and do not
represent the heart of the problem of social and political con-
flict.
It has been a proved fact that conflict is essential for the
evolution and progress of the society but only to a certain
limitation. Beyond that point there would be every possibility of
dismantling of the society itself. If society is to surviv~, it
has to resolve the conflicting situations. Therefore, men search
for the different methods and techniques to resolve the conflict-
ing phenomenon.
This chapter analyses Gandhi as an actor of social and
political movements. The process and methods of social transfer-
mation on Gandhian lines has also been analyzed. In addition,
this chapter deals with (a) approaches of peace and nonviolence
2. Quoted in Krishanlal Shridharani, War Without Violence: ·A Study of Gandhi's Method and Its Accomplishments(Bombay,
1962) 1 p.36
3. J.V. Bondurant, The Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (N.J., 1958) ,p.198-9.
33
of Gandhi, (b) methods of Gandhi of resolving the conflict preva-
lent at interpersonal, intercommunity and international levels,
(c) position of an individual in the society of Gandhian vision
and (d) summary of the discussion.
II. Conflict: A Gandhian Interpretation and Its Resolution
Mahatma Gandhi has a very distinct identity among the think-
ers who have interpreted conflicts and have come out with various
ways. Since Gandhi claims to be a practical idealist, he defines
conflict and the techniques to resolve it on the basis of his
personal experiences. Gandhi admits that there are repulsions
enough in nature. But he differs radically from Darwinian, Hege-. lian and Marxist theories in his explanation of conflict in the
physical and human world. He stands in sharp contrast from those
who regard struggle as the fundamental law of creation. On the
~ontrary, he believes that it was not conflict" rather than mutual
love and co-operation that could make human existence possible.
He writes,"Though there are repulsions enough in nature, she
lives by attraction. Mutual love enables nature to persist. Man
does not live by destruction .. Self-love compels regards for
others." 4 '"
Thus, Gandhi considers that co-operation and harmony rather
than conflict and struggle constitute the fundamental law of the,
universe. He perceives a fundamental unity in the universe and
society that sustains order and life. Conflicts are neither
inevitable nor irreparable. They are only temporary phenomena or
4. M.K. Gandhi, Young India, 2.3.1928.
34
brief deviations in the normal course of life.
In fact, Gandhi does not regard a conflict as an antagonism
between two opposing parties, individuals or classes. For Gandhi,
it.is the fault of the system that compels them to fight. That's
why Gandhi despises the sin and not the sinner. Hence he works to
evolve ways and means to change the system itself where there
would not be any conflicting tendencies and situations. In order
to change the system in that direction, the conflicting parties
should be brought about to a process of social and constructive
intercourse rather than exhausting their energies in trying for
mutual elimination.
The social thinkers come out with various theories and means
explaining how to resolve these conflicts and thereby how to
establish peace and harmony. Like Marx, Gandhi also believes
that injustice is the mother of all conflicts. Marx mairitains
that peace could be served as the international principle of the
new communist society only. 5 On the other hand, Lenin describes
communism as the society of "universal prosperity and enduring
peace". 6
Gandhi, throughout his life works for Antyodaya, the welfare
of the marginal man. He works for the empowerment of the
oppressed, the untouchables, the womenfolk, the poor and the
5. The General Council of the First International, 1870-71 Minutes (Moscow, 1967), p.328
6. V.I. Lenin, Collected Works, Vol.21 (Moscow, 1929) p.293.
35
destitutes. In fact, he has been working for a society to turn
Darwin's notion upside down so that even the weakest could sur-
vive with full human dignity. In his message to a French Pacifist
he writes, "There can be no living harmony between races and
nations unless the main cause is removed, namely, exploitation of
the weak by the strong. We must revise the interpretation of the
so-called doctrine of "Survival of the Fittest .. _7
As a positive and practicable first step in that direction,
the dialectical approach of Gandhian philosophy of conflict
provides dynamic control in the field of action through the
fashioning of a technique of the creative resolution of
conflict. 8
How does this creative resolution of conflict come about?
Certainly Marxist way of class struggle will not be able to
resolve the conflict in creative way. It is because peace brought
through violent struggle could not be permanent and enduring. So
Gandhi evolves a unique alternative of the methods and techniques
of conflict resolution. A conflict can be creatively resolved
only when peace is taken to be a positive concept i.e. removing
the existing disparities among nations and establishing equality
between man and man. Gandhi does not believe in the negative
concept of standard western formation of peace that Galtung
7. M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.62 (Ahmedabad, 1958), p.285.
8. J. V. Bondurant, The Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict (N.J., 1956), p.199
36
subscribes when he defines resolution of conflict as absence of
conflict. 9
Hence in the Gandhian sense conflict resolution would mean
no.t merely the elimination of mal-adjustment, but also progress-
ing towards a better and more meaningful adjustment. When violent
relationship is transformed into a nonviolent one and the ener-
gies of the opponents are integrated to achieve a higher goal,
more sublime and enduring; a creative resolution of conflict may
be said to have been achieved.
It has been a life long conviction with Gandhi that mankind
and its civilization could be saved from destruction only through
nonviolence. There is no deliverance from injustice either for
India or for the world through clash of arms. He rules out retal-
iation altogether and feels that human diginity could best be
preserved by following not the •Jungle Law• but the 'Law of
Love'. Gandhi writes, "Not to believe in the possibility of
permanent peace is to disbelieve in godliness of human nature. If
recognized leaders of destruction, were. wholly to renounce their
use with full knowledge of the implications, permanent peace can
be obtained." 10 This could be possible only through voluntary
renounciation of the desire to multiply wants.
9. Johan Galtung, "Pacifism from a Sociological Point of View", The Journal of Conflict Resolution, No.3 1959, p.67.
10. M.K. Gandhi, Harijan, 20.7. 1935.
37
Religion plays a very significant role in formulating the
methods of resistance for Gandhi. But it is not only his own
Hinduism; Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity and Islam too have
great impact on the evolution of Gandhi's mind. Gandhi has great
faith in Jainism that is supposed to be among the first religions
in the world which incorporates within it the principles of
ahimsa as a part of its teachings. 11 Indeed, Gandhi borrows
ahimsa, love and compassion from Hindu, Jain and Buddhist tradi-
tions and also adds the gospel of action into them. In fact,
Gandhi admires Jesus and Buddha for their active resistances. He
writes,"Jesus and Buddha were capable of intensely direct action.
Christ defied the might of a whole empire; and Gautama brought
down on its knees an arrogant priesthood. 12
• Gandhi has great love for Islam for its firm commitment to
nonviolence•In a discussion on "Nonviolence towards the Environ-
ment", Zaki Badawi argues that the Koran exhorts us to see our-
selves as trustees of the Earth, and that Gandhi embodies the
spirit of Islam by his insistence on peaceful interaction and
avoidance of injury to anyone or anything. 13 Thus, it can be
argued that as opposed to the common belief Hindu milieu is not
necessary for application and success of non-violence as a tech-
nique. It could operate successfully in even non-Hindu societies
11. George Kotturan, Ahimsa: Gautama to Gandhi (New Delhi, 1973) 1 p.53.
12. M.K. Gandhi, Young India, 12.5.20
13. Quoted in Y.P. Anand, Nonviolence in a Violent World: A Gandhian Response, (New Delhi, 1995), p.30.
38
as it actually did among the Muslim Pathans of the North-West
Frontier Province (the Khudai Khidmatgar Movement led by Abdul
Ghaffar Khan) .
Before Gandhi, truth and nonviolence were highly private
affairs of the attainment of salvation. But Gandhi's contribu-
tion in this field is unique because of his application of truth
and nonviolence as means for mass mobilization. He shows the
whole world that truth and nonviolence could be used as tech-
niques in Indian freedom struggle. Rajmohan Gandhi writes, "He
was aided in his efforts by his ascetic life style, identifica-
tion with all Indians, systematic condemnation of untouchability
and all notions of high and low, and a stress on nonviolence
joined with a readyness to say 'No' to the Raj. Also at work was
the conviction that India could demonstrate nonviolence to the
world·" _14
Gandhi's entire efforts to achieve Indian freedom has been a
part of the larger endeavour for nonviolent peaceful social
transformation that could be attained only through nonviolence.
Similar to Newton's Third Law, violent means can bring an equally
violent social system based on inequality and exploitation.
Rajmohan Gandhi writes, "Violence would beget more of itself;
nonviolence or love likewise." 15
The Gandhian philosophy of peace and harmony is based on the
concept of the unity of existence. It traces itself to Yajurveda.
14. Rajmohan Gandhi, The Good Boatman: A Portrait of Gandhi (New Delhi, 1995), p.8
15. Ibid., p. 35
39
The Vedantic idealism which is the basis of Gandhian approach
teaches the supremacy of the values of eternal truth and
justice. 16 Vinoba Bhave, an ardent follower of Gandhi explains
Gandhian philosophy of peace by quoting a Sanskrit Shloka, 17
II--a c; I or-)1-4 ;.1'11 cri Pc:t ~ 2P +t .. ~,.;) tA- ~I 414 '"1 4"1 (~ 4i4 :- -r------L\ C</t - ~ .£12( r~ c J ~ II P .... A '<.'1 li feE_ ~f'~ K q .n lr\ Ill n? - T r - - - II
It means that Vedanta, Vijnan and Vishwas are the three
forces which when fully and firmly established will inaugurate
the era of perpetual peace and prosperity on the earth.
By Vedanta (unitive knowledge), Vinoba means liquidation of
all sectarian and prescriptive religions and isms and their
resurgence into an all embracing faith in one God. Equal respect
for all religions follow from it as a corollary. Vijnan(science)
means relentless and systematized search for all the hidden
forces in na~ure including not only the material world, but also
the world of the spirit within. Enrichment of life and correct
thinking are the fruits of Vijnan. Vishwas or faith is the means
that can liquidate the present group and party politics based on
mutual distrust and establish in their place, Lokniti or people's
democracy. 1118 With the help of these trio peace can be achieved
by the upward growth of man.
16. S.K. Roy, The Political Thought of President Radhakrishnan. (Calcutta, 1966), p.94
17. Pyarelal, Towards New Horizons(Ahmedabad, 1959), p.VI.
18. Ibid
40
Now a question arises as to why peace and harmony should be
preferred to conflict? What could be the methods and techniques
to attain peace? These questions have been posed to Gandhi time
and again. In reply he explains, "The way of peace insures
internal growth and stability. We reject it because we fancy that
it involves submission to the will of the ruler who has imposed
only so-called and that, through our unwillingness to suffer loss
of life or property, we are party to the imposition, all we need
to change that negative ~ttitude of passive endorsement." 19 He,
thus, prescribes, that society•s growth and stability depend
solely on peace. And the way of peace is the way of truth and
nonviolence.
Gandhi evolves Satyagraha as a technique of nonviolent
unarmed resistance to fight against the injustice and to bring
harmony in any society. It begins with the perception of good and
evil and non-cooperation with evil, injust~ce and exploitation.
Satyagrahi concentrates on the removal of the evil but at the
same time he is supposed to love the evil doer. In the whole
process he may have to face self-suffering while resisting nonvi-
olently to the particular evil. "His Sat~agraha, is a battle for
righteousness- a dharma yuddha. A Satyagrahi, therefore, has to
undergo rules of restraint -physical, mental and moral, for he is
a moral warrior.20
19. M.K. Gandhi, Nonviolence in Peace and War Vol.1 (Ahmedabad,
1949) p. 61. 20. Ramjee Singh, The Relevance of Gandhian Thought, (Classical
Publication, 1983), p. 28.
41
The Gandhian technique of resolving conflict - Satyagraha
-rests on the belief that striving for conversion of heart has
been the most effective method of conducting a struggle.
"Satyagraha is more than a technique of conflict resolution; it
is a nonviolent way of disclosing truth which involves not only
the self-transformation of the person who initiates satyagraha
but also of those who are party to a given conflict." 21
As we all are aware that Gandhi calls himself a "practical
idealist", he always tries to act what he preaches. Gandhi
launches satyagraha for the first time in support of migrants
settled in South Africa. When Gandhi himself faces humiliation
while travelling to Pretoria at the hands of a colour conscious
white travelling ticket checker, he decides not to tolerate any
injustice as a part of the natural or unnatural order in South
Africa and that he would defend his dignity. Gandhi revolts
against the humiliations that are the routine affairs to the
whole lot of the Indians residing in South Africa, but what is
new is his reaction.
In 1906, Indians hold a mass protest against the ordinance
of Transvaal government for the registration of its Indian popu-
lation. Under the leadership of Gandhi they take a pledge to defy
the ordinance and to suffer all the penalties resulting from
their defiance. Thus, Satyagraha, a new technique for redressing
wrongs through inciting compassion is born. This is a method that
teaches to resist the opponent without rancour and violence.
21. Ramashray Roy, Gandhi. Soundings in Political Philosophy(Delhi, 1984), p.81
42
Thus, it could be said that this is a principled and civilized
way of removing the causes of conflict by the common effort of
the parties concerned.
Gandhi opines that real issues exist even if conflict is
resolved through violent means and therefore there remains every
possibility of retaliation of the other party. On the other hand
nonviolent and noncoercive actions invite the conflicting parties
to have a dialogue on the real issues so that conflict may be
resolved permanently. Gandhi uses his nonviolent method to deal
with India's internal conflict as well as to combat the British
occupation. 22
In Satyagraha, opponents are considered valuable human
beings and efforts are made to realize them of their faults. One
of the well known uses of Satyagraha in India takes place at
Champaran in 1917. Gandhi reaches Bihar on lOth April 1917, the
local government issues an order upon him to leave the district.
Gandhi refuse~, pleaded guilty and expresses his willingness to
accept any punishment, but not abandon the enquiry for which he
has come. Ultimately the government withdraws the case against
Gandhi and his findings are confirmed. "On account of the open
character of Gandhi's defiance and his quiet courage and determi
nation, the example seemed suddenly to become infectious among
the peasantry. Thousands followed his example, and the movement
became a positive political force.'• 23
22. Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action (Boston,1973), p.83
23. N.K. Bose, Studies in Gandhism (Ahmedabad, 1972), p.l34.
43
The Satyagraha to resolve the dispute over the amount of
dearness allowance of industrial workers of Ahmedabad in 1918
shows that it could be applied to achieve industrial peace in
constructive way. He believes that industrial conflict could be
resolved by the greater participation of labour ~orce in the
decision making process of the company. Labour and capital should
have the same dignity and status to avoid the eternal conflict
between the two. He writes, "The conflict between monied classes
and labourers is merely seeming. When labour is intelligent
enough to organize itself and learns to act as one man, it will
have the same weight as money if not much greater!~ 4 So workers
should realize their own strength in the first place and then
work intelligently to maintain industrial peace.
For Gandhi, nonviolence is a creed, a matter of principle
and not merely a technique to achieve some goals. It could be a
principle to which at least the leadership must be committed. In
1919 Gandhi launched the Satyagraha movement to oppose the Row
latt Act (Govt. of India Act No.XI of 1919). The Act has been
framed to enable anarchical offences to be tried expeditiously
before a high power court consisting of three High Court Judges,
with no right of appeal. To oppose this arbitrary law, a huge
rally has been organized at Jallianwalabagh where many people
have been killed due to the murderous firing order by General
Dyre. The news of Jallianwalabagh massacre reaches Delhi and
elsewhere, people become violent. Many of English and Indian
24.M.K. Gandhi,Harijan, 19.10.1935
44
officials are killed. After Chauri-Chaura incident Gandhi sus-
pends movement and goes on penitential fast for three days. The
Rowlatt Satyagraha happens to be a failure because of the igno-
ranee of the mass participants of the philosophy and implications
of this new technique. In real sense they are the failures of
those who plan and execute the movement adequately to train
h h . 25 participants in the techniques and to apply t e tee n1que ....
In fact, there are three imperatives of peace and harmony
i.e. freedom, equality and justice. Gandhi links harmony and
peace with these imperatives because peace without freedom and
equality would be temporary and peace without justice, a complete
fraud. It is a positive condition conducive to the realization,
preservation, promotion of human dignity and social justice. Thus
speaks Bapu, "I' do not want the peace of the graveyard." 26
In other words, it can be argued that peace for Gandhi is·not a
goal or an end in itself. It can only work as a means to
establish a new world order based on equality and justice.
The pristine quality of this concept leads him to reject the
attitude"peace at any cost", certainly not by placating the
aggressor or at the cost of honour. 27 We cannot think of a
society having a complete harmony without human beings living and
sharing everything justly among themselves.
25. J.V. Bondurant, The Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict(N.J., 1958), p.88
26. G. Ramchandrari, "The Grass Roots of World Peace", · 6 in G. Ramchandran and T.K. Mahadevan (eds.), Gandhi: His Relevance For Our Times(New Delhi, 1967), p.250
27. D.G. Tendulkar, Mahatma: Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi,Vol.6 (New Delhi,1990),p.i69
45
Efforts have been made not only in India but worldwide for
the transformation of society on Gandhian lines through the
method of Satyagraha, a method of nonviolent resistance. The
passive resistance of the people of Denmark to the Nazis in 1940,
the Norwegian teachers' resistance in 1942, the South African
'Defy Unjust Laws Campaign' in 1952, the strike at the vortuke
prison camp by 2,50,000 political prisoners in the U.S.S.R in
1953 are some of the glaring examples of movement outside India
which adopted techniques of Satyagraha to fight against the
injustices. 28
Gandhian method of nonviolence has also been used in the
freedom movement of Ghana. Ultimately Ghana wins her freedom in
1957 after a ten years nonviolent struggle. The leader, Kwame
Nkrumah pays his gratitude in his autobiography, "The campaign
for freedom was based on the principle of absolute nonviolence as
used by Gandh~ in India.n 29 Under the influence of Gandhi; they
repudiate war and violence.
The Blacks in America under the leadership of Martin Luther
King Jr. f~ht for their rights and dignity on Gandh~an lines.
Nonviolent methods have been adopted to fight against the dis-
criminatory laws against the Blacks in the U.S.A. King says,
"Gandhi was probably the first person in history to lift the love
ethics of Jesus above.mere interaction between individuals to a
28. Mahendra Kumar, CUrrent Peace Research And India (Varanasi, 1968), p. 47
29. R.B. Gregg, The Power of Nonviolence (London,1935) p.104
46
powerful and effective social force on a large scale~30
More recently in 1989 Chinese students also launched a
nonviolent movement to bring inner democracy in China. However,
the Tiananmen Square movement has been crushed and many student
leaders are sentenced to jail. Myanmar's leader Aung Sang Suu Kyi
is also fighting nonviolently against the Military Junta rule.
The Green Peace Movement in Germany is following the Gandhian
path to save the society from social, political as well as envi-
ronmental pollution.
III._Nature of Conflict and Its Resolution
The society cannot be peaceful without resolving inner
conflict of different nature. However, it is utmost important to
solve the interpersonal, intercommunity and international con-
flicts. Gandhi has come out with his unique methods of Satyagraha
to change the hearts of the individuals of both parties involved
if conflict of any nation has to be resolved:-
1. The Interpersonal Conflict
Gandhi uses his methods of Satyagraha etc. to resolve the
conflict between two persons. The first requisite is to internal-
ize the values of truth and nonviolence rather than conscious
adoption of strategy. This, 11 presupposes great study, tremendous
30. Y.P. Anand, Nonviolence in a Violent World: A Gandhian Response (New Delhi, 1995), p.29
47
perseverance and through cleansing of one's self of all impuri
ties."31 The conflict of this nature can be solved by realizing
the conflicting parties of their faults.
With a view to resolve interpersonal conflict and thereby
strengthen the foundations of a peaceful world order, Gandhi
advocates education through handicraft. 32 Education must be
designed to make the child a peace loving citizen of the world
society. When India becomes fully wedded to nonviolence, she
would naturally rise as a peace maker of the world. Manifestly,
the idea of vocational education is to establish coordination
between the mind and the body - so as to guard against the de-
pression or frustration -aggressive potentialities of a purely
mental or sedentary culture and to canalize and give a vigorous,
peaceful direction to man's impulses and drives from early child-
hood. Gandhi maintains, "Perfect peace comes when mind and heart
are pure". 33
In most interpersonal conflicts, both parties desire to
dominate. This assumption prevails in the family as between
parents and children and as between the older and younger chil-
dren, in school as between teacher and students, and in industry
and agriculture as between employer and employees. Violence
changes the forms of the conflicts, but it can not eradicate
31. M.K. Gandhi, Harijan. 14.3.1936
32. S.C. Gangal, "Gandhi and World Order", in K.P. Mishra and S.C. Gangal(eds.), Gandhi and the Contemporary World: Studies in Peace and War (Delhi, 1981), p. 164
33. M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.19 (Ahmedabad, 1958), p.10
48
them. Nonviolent resistance together with kindness, offers an
entirely different pattern based on a relationship not of domi-
nance and submission but of integration.
Now, one can say that nobody considers himself guilty. So
there could not be any possibility of accepting his guilt. Lanza
de Vasto explains, "There are no unjust people ... at least,
nobody is unjust and wicked in his own eyes~· 34 This problem could
be solved by remembering Gandhi•s opinion that we should not hate
a man who is mistaken. So efforts should be made to correct the
mistaken person with discussion.
Another technique that can eradicate the real issues in an
interpersonal conflict and thus aids its solution is the role-
reversal technique of switching viewpoints where each party
honestly tries to argue for the other•s viewpoint, while the
other listens. These techniques are applicable in domestic situa
tions or with friends and neighbours where there is a sufficient
degree of rapport. 35 In family we have caring and cooperative
interpersonal relations, so these techniques may be able~achieve
the solution.
2. The Intercommunity Conflict
(a) Conflict between Groups
Gandhi has dedicated his whole life resolving the problems
of untouchability, communalism, casteism etc. In the process of
bringing peace and harmony between the followers of Hinduism and
34. Thomas Weber, Conflict Resolution and Gandhian Ethics (New Delhi, 1991), p. 60
35. Ibid, p. 64
49
Islam, he finally loses his life. Gandhi always believes that
national and international peace could be attained only if there
is internal peace and harmony within nation. He observes, "War
between the states has now become a war within each nation." 36 So
he makes his sincere effort to bring peace between different
religious and caste groups to have peace at national level.
India is a land of diversities. People are divided into
upper or lower strata on the basis of their birth. The lower
castes and particularly untouchables have been denied certain
basic human rights. They are being humiliated that gives birth to
caste conflict. So it has been the firm belief of Gandhi that
without the restoration of their human dignity, a genuine peace
can not be established in Indian society. The untouchables have
to be treated at par with the so-called upper caste people. This
is also necessary to prevent the escalation of conflict into
intense violence.
Gandhi believes that the problem of untouchability cannot be
resolved by conversion of untouchables into Islam and Christiani-
ty. He considers it an evil of Hinduism, hence it could be re-
solved through the integration of untouchables into the main-
stream of Hinduism. Therefore, he prescribes the change of the
hearts of so-called upper caste people through the process of
persuasion to deal with such conflicts.
Gandhian Satyagraha as a method of the eradication of
untouchability has been used in Vykom in 1924. The attempt has
-------------------------------------------------------------36. M.K. Gandhi, Nonviolence in Peace and War, Vol.1
(Ahmedabad, 1949), p.61
50
been made to change the attitudes and feelings of the orthodox
Hindus towards their untouchable brethren. In the entire process,
Gandhi's frequent exhortations on the need to convert, not coerce
the opponent has been implemented.
Gandhi encourages only Hindus to participate in that move-
ment because, "Untouchability is the sin of the Hindus. They must
suffer for it, they must purify themselves, they must pay the
debt they owe to suppressed brothers and sisters." 37 The right to
free use of the road by the untouchables has been attained after
two years of struggle. Later on, the right to temple-entry for
them is also recognized by the State Government. 38
Thus, a simple act of the Satyagrahis in a remote village
becomes a significant turning point in the struggle against the
evils of casteism. It is significant precisely because of the
attempt to eradicate the social distance between the upper castes
and the untouchables through the process of integration and
assimilation. Finding the condition of Negroes in America similar
to Indian untouchables, Gandhi recommends that U.S. Blacks should
use Satyagraha to achieve their rights. In the process they would
be able to deliver the message of nonviolence to the whole
world. 39
To solve the communal problems among various religious
37. M.K. Gandhi, Young India. 1.5.1924
38. N.K. Bose, Studies in Gandhism (Ahmedabad, 1972), p. 87
39. D.G. Tendulkar, Mahatma. The Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, Vol. 4 (New Delhi,l990), p.62
51
groups, Gandhi suggests that generation of trust among them
through people's initiative is the only answer. He reposes his
faith on the then Chief Minister of Bengal, Suhrawardi who is
considered responsible for the great Calcutta killings in 1946.
Pyarelal writes, "It was an article of faith with him that if we
trust our opponent with our eyes open and not out of fear even
when there is ground for distrust, the opponent will in the end
reciprocate our trust, provided we act consistently on the square
to the last. "40
In the succeeding days a formulae for the establishment of
communal harmony in Bengal has been chalked out which later
becomes the corner stone of Gandhi's peace mission in Noakhali.
Pyarelal writes,"To bring about communal peace in the province it
had been declared that a peace not imposed from without by the
aid of the military and the police but by spontaneous heartfelt
effort." 41
The similar formulae has been adopted to curb communal
tension in Bihar. Pyarelal comments about Gandhian way of using
soul force to have communal harmony," He knew that the safety of
the minority lay only in the reestablishment of heart unity
between Hindus. and Muslims not in arms, not in Muslim police, not
even in pockets.n 42
Gandhi, throughout his life works for Hindu-Muslim unity. He
suggests to have "Sarva Dharma Samabhav" to establish communal
40. Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi: The Last Phase, Vol.1 (Ahmedabad, 1950) 1 p. 7
41. Ibid, p. 8
42. Ibid, p. 332
52
harmony and peace. Gandhi has a tremendous faith in almost all
religions. In Gandhi's opinion, no religion could be considered
superior or inferior to other religions. Abid Husain sums up the
basic principles of Gandhi's ethical religion which he regards as
the common essence of all religious faiths. 43 They are
(1) To believe that the Law of Truth and the Law of Love rule
the world;
(2) To try to live in consonance with these laws;
(3) To see basic unity in and have equal reverance for all
religions. Thus, Gandhi shows a profound knowledge of human
nature in asking people not to give up their traditional faith
but to broaden and to liberalize it so as to bring it nearer to
universal human religion.
In nutshell, it could be said that Gandhi applies his under-
standing of religion for fighting the two most pernicious evils:
the curse of untouchability and communal strife. 44 It is a fact
that the evil of untouchability is a black spot on the Hindu
religion. So it should be abolished 'if Hinduism is to survive. He
proclaims, "If untouchability lives, Hinduism must die." _45 For
him, the present form of casteism is the greatest obstacle to
progress. Only the true implementation of the teachings of Hindu-
ism can eradicate the caste
43. Abid Husain, The Way of Gandhi And Nhhru (Bornbay,1959), p.39
inequality.
44. Y.P. Anand, Nonviolence in a Violent World: A Gandhian Response (New Delhi, 1995), p. 43
45. M.K. Gandhi, Harijan. 28.9. 1947
53
Religion is supposed to be a divisive force in a multifaith
society. India is a poor witness to violent communal riots since
the dawn of the 20th century. In fact, loosing the trust on
others' religions is considered to be the main reason behind the
communal violence. However, Gandhi repudiates this contention and
believes in the unitary aspect of religion. He thinks to give
proper training of the traits of religion of love and compassion
to individuals. The communal riots can be checked if people are
made aware that religion teaches to love all sentient beings and
not to hate the followers of other sects. Hence, religion becomes
in the hands of Gandhi an instrument of resolving caste and
communal conflicts in nonviolent way so that a peaceful social
order could be brought about.
(b) Conflict between Community and State
Sometimes situation arises when state becomes autocratic and
its machinery is involved in anti-people activities. Gandhi has a
long experience of fighting such a colonial power with his unique
nonviolent methods of Satyagraha, non-co-operation movement,
civil disobedience and finally with hunger strike. Application of
the nonviolence in resolving conflict between community and state
may undercut the ability of the opponent (State} to imply harsh
measures of suppression or retaliation. In case of the use of the
disproportionate harsh measures, the state run the risk of alien
ating not only neutrals but supporters too.
The ideal social order where such conflicts could be
54
minimum, according to Gandhi would have to be a decentralized
society consisting of small self-governing units. Large
centralized society or state cannot possibly maintain its order
without the use of violent force which is incompatible with
Gandhi's idea of nonviolence. 46
Gandhi believes in the freedom of soul. So he advocates to
bring a system where individual liberty and social progress could
go together. As an anarchist he thinks to abolish the state
because it does not allow human freedom and it coerces individu-
al's liberty with violent force. Orthodox anarchist fail to come
out with an alternative to state. On the contrary, Gandhi has
full faith in Ramrajya --a decentralized nonviolent society
capable enough to replace the modern state. The Ramrajya, the
Gandhian ideal type, is consisted of autonomous self-reliant
villages, that he calls village republics. 47 In this society,
power rests with the villages and the centre receives power from
the units, villages and not vice versa. India lives in villages,
and if conflict between people and state is to be resolved,
Indian villages have to be strengthened. G.N. Dhawan reminds us
that Gandhi strives for the welfare of all and holds that this
end could be realized, "only in the classles~ and stateless •. ~:. '>..:. •
democracy of autonomous village communities based on nonviolence
instead of coercion, on service instead of exploitation, on
renunciation instead of acquisitiveness and on the largest
46. Abid Husain, The Way of Gandhi and Nehru(Bombay, 1959), p. 107
47. M.K. Gandhi, Harijan, 28.7.1946
55
measure of local and individual initiative instead of centraliza-
tion. 48
Gandhi believes in the replacement of the modern state with
a decentralized society, Ramrajya where the political and econom-
ic powers rest with the people. For Gandhi, Ramrajya means a
society that maintains social order and peace through soul-force
and forces of love and compassion, where Individual would get
enough work to earn his livelihood.
It is a well established fact that one of the major reasons
of conflict between people and state is the non-fulfilling of the
economic obligations by state. It is but natural that the people
start fighting to get their rights. So Gandhi proposes the equal
distribution of economic resources among the people to resolve
conflict of this nature. He writes, "My ideal is equal distribu-I
tion but as far as I can see, it is not to be realized. I, there-
fore, work for equitable distributionJ' ~49
It has been the firm belief of Gandhi that this new social
order could be brought about only through nonviolent means. The
violent revolution ceases individual freedom and power is concen-
trated into the hands of dictator or military junta. History
shows that the violent French Revolution replaces Louis XIV by
none other than Nepoleon; in England Charles I has been replaced
by Cromwell; in Russia Czar has been replaced by a Greater Czar
and even in modern China, Mao chas been replaced not by a civilian
48. G.N. Dhawan, The Political Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi (Bombay, 1957), p. 3
49. M.K. Gandhi, Young India.17.3.1927
56
like Chou but by the strongman of the Chinese army. 50 So a demo-
cratic system can not be brought about through violent means, on
the contrary it snatches the individual freedom.
The peaceful world order could not be atained without the
proper training of individual in nonviolence through vocational
education. In Gandhi's opinion, basic education to children
should be craft-centred. In Gandhian education system, physical
labour would be as necessary as mental exercise and there should
be total co-ordination among body, mind and spirit. He writes,
"By education I mean an all round drawing out of the best in
child and man -body, mind and spirit. Literacy is not the end of
education nor even the beginning. I would, therefore, begin the
child's education by teaching it a useful handicraft." 51
The experiments of craft-centred basic education at
Sewagram, Jamia Millia and other private and government .
institutions during Gandhi's life time have some impact of this
sort of education in developing some moral qualities among
people. This education can be able to bring dignity of labour. By
acquiring skill in some basic rural craft, Gandhi suggests to
revitalize the ~illage and to protect it from town's
exploitation. The answer of these problems lies in Ramrajya where
such conflicts cease to exist and society becomes peaceful and
harmonious. Hence in Gandhi's Swaraj or Ramrajya, we have the
50. Gandhi's Correspondence with Government (Govt. of India), in Ramjee Singh, The Relevance of Gandhian Thought (New Delhi, 1985), p. 68
51. M.K. Gandhi, Harijan, 31.7.1937
57
picture of a nonviolent society, an economy of permanence and a
policy of peace. 52
Gandhi's final goal, Ramrajya can be attained through a
gradual social process. But unlike Marx, he does not wait for his
ideal society to materialize. On the contrary, he applies his
"Constructive Programme" to fight against the social evils so
that society of his ideal type could be brought about. Gandhi
consistently works to mould the situation in this direction and
does not allow the class struggle taking its own course what Marx
desires.
Gandhi firmly believes that the government cannot function
without the active support of people. Government is bound to
collapse without public support. It is due to this reason that he
uses his methods of non-cooperation and civil disobedience
against the British Government during the freedom struggle of
India. If power is concentrated in the hands of dictator, Gandhi
again advises to resort in the methods of non-cooperation and
civil disobedience to oppose the oppression. Actually Gandhi
borrows this view from Tolstoy and Thoreau who themselves have
been influenced by Botie who argues that refusal to assist to
tyrants cuts off the sources of their power and continued refusal
causes tyrants to collapse without need for violence against
them. 5 3
52. Quoted in Ramjee Singh, The Relevance of Gandhian Thought (New Delhi, 1983), p. 56
53. Gene Sharp, The Politics of Nonviolent Action (Boston, 1973) 1 P• 34
58
Gandhi expresses his concern for keeping people's control
over the state in a passage addressed to the British rulers, "If
you act contrary to our will, we shall not help you; and without
our help, we know that you cannot move one step forward. 54
Hartal or strike is the most sophisticated weapon in the hands of
common people to fight against the injustices of even the most
powerful state.
Gandhian methods of Satyagraha, non-co-operation etc. can
best be utilized by an intelligent individual who has the wisdom
to choose the issues, places and time with extreme care. In that
situation alone, his movement is being placed in the strongest
position possible. As the leader of the freedom struggle, Gandhi
always arouses the maximum sympathy and support from everyone for
the movement at a particular time. He writes, "Only the general
who conducts a campaign can know the objective of each particular
move•" 55
Hence it could be said that the final solution of conflict
between the people and the state rests in Gandhi's opinion in a
society based on the principles of Ramrajya. However, before the
attainment of Ramrajya, the conflict of such type can be resolved
through the nonviolent soul forces like non-cooperation, civil
disobedience, hunger strike and Satyagraha
54. M.K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule (Ahmedabad, 1939), p. 100
etc.
55. M.K. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa(Ahmedabad, 1961), p. XI
59
3.The International Conflict
The international conflict arises from the intercompatabili-
ty of interests of nations and because of nations try to safe-
guard their interests through diplomacy and foreign policy. The
failure of diplomatic initiative can give birth to war like
situations. Gandhi has his personal experience with the Zulu
Rebellion in 1906 during his stay in South Africa. The mighty
government declares war upon the Zulu when they refuse to pay
arbitrary taxes. He voluntarily chooses the job of serving the
injured Zulus. His first hand experience turns him away from war.
He writes, "The Zulu rebellion was full of negative experiences
and gave me much food for thought ... This was no war but a man
hunt. To hear every morning reports of soldiers' rifles exploding
like crackers in innocent hamlets and to live in the midst of
them was a trial. n56
The personal experiences of war on Gandhi's mindset is so
devastating that he opposes war of any type on whatever ground it
has been fought. Gandhi opposes war because he feels on the basis
of his experience that the greatest casualty in a war happens to
be the truth and morality. He condemns the war, "War with all its
glorification of brute force is essentially a degrading thing. It
demoralizes those who are trained for it. It brutalizes men of
naturally gentle character. It outrages many beautiful canon of
morality." 57
56. M.K. Gandhi, Autobiography. The Story of My Experiments with Truth (Ahmedabad,1927), p. 233
57. M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.9 (Ahmedabad, 1958), p. 471
60
Thus, it is crystal clear that Gandhi's opinion regarding
war as evil, immoral and thereby indefensible in any
circumstances comes to him out of his first hand experience and
not merely by reading books. His mentor Tolstoy was also against
war after he had personal experience of the Crimean War.
Generally war erupts due to the exploitation of the weaker
nation by the comparatively stronger nation. Gandhi has been
devoutly concerned of the plight of small nations that suffer the
most in the war. He has been greatly distressed at the betrayal
of the then Czechoslovakia by Britain and.France. His fear deep
ens since the small nations could scarcely escape the onslaught
of fascism and Nazism.
Gandhi feels that greed and the desire to satisfy that greed
even through violent means are among the basic causes of war. He
illustrates it by citing examples of the opium war and the con-
duct of the British East India Company. What was the objective of
the Opium War . If china produces her own opium, it would not
have been waged, . He comments on the British East India Company
and its design, "That corporation was versed in commerce and war.
It was unhampared by questions of morality. Its objective was to
increase its commerce and to make money. To protect the latter it
employed the army.n58
Thus, Gandhi finds the policy of ecnonomic exploitation and
commercial advantage responsible for the outbreak of war. De
58. M.K. Gandhi, Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule (Ahmedabad, 1939), p. 28
61
Kiewiet writes, "Gandhi also duly emphasizes economic factors
among the causes of war. His first hand experience of the Boer
war and the Zulu uprising perhaps made him put great emphasis on
this factor and rightly." 59 He even feels economic reasons re-
sponsible for the rise of fascism and nazism and for the outbreak
of World War II. It is also a fact that Nazism emerges as a
nemesis to punish Britain for her sins of exploitation of Asian
and African people.
One of the other reasons of war that Gandhi considers re-
sponsible, happens to be the imperialistic attitudes of the
comparatively stronger nations. He enquires, "Is not the prime
cause of modern wars the inhuman race for exploitation of the so
called weaker races of the eart~· 60 It is due to this reason that
he always comes out in support of the oppressed people and fights
against the colonial power like the British.
Gandhi also considers a brand of nationalism to be a reason
of war though he himself has been a great nationalist. He feels
that the narrowness, selfishness and exclusiveness of blind
nationalism push the whole world towards the Second World'War. He
always denounces the Italian and the German nationalism during
1930s to mid 1940s. These sorts of parochial nationalism always
invite war.
It is a paradox that all wars are fought on the pretext of
----------------------------------------------------------------59. C.W. De Kiewiet, A History of South Africa -Social
and Economic (London, 1941), p.133
60. M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works of Mahatma (Ahmedaba, 1958), p. 36
62
Gandhi,Vol.19
bringing peace in society. However, Gandhi refuses to believe in
this contention and he exclaims that war cannot bring peace. On
the contrary he proposes to fight not only against the war rather
than to abolish the causes of war through nonviolent and peaceful
means that include Satyagraha, arbitration, negotiation, non-
cooperation. He believes that peace attained through an armed
struggle and forcibly imposed upon the disarmed and meek people
happens to be hollow and temporary.
This situation does not bring peace. On the contrary it
gives birth to another war because it is a ceasefire without the
solution of the causes of war. When World War I comes to an end,
Gandhi observes, "If the defeat of Germany and the Central Powers
ended the German peril, the victory of the Allies has brought
into a peril no less deadly to the peace of the world." 61 Indeed,
his apprehensions turn out to be correct when the second world
war breaks out in 1939.
In the similar vein, shortly before the conclusion of World
War II when the explorations for peace are on, Gandhi writes,
"Peace must be just. In order to be that, it must neither be
punitive nor vindictive .... The fruits of peace must equally be
shared." 62 Thus, Gandhi has been concerned with much more than
mere elimination of war. He is primarily concerned with evolving
a peaceful social order that automatically precludes all possi
bilities of war. Since the worst casuality in the war happens to
61. Rashmi-Sudha Puri, Gandhi on War and Peace (New York, 1987) 1 p. 166
62. Ibid, p. 146
63
be the truth, he has no other options but to oppose war.
Gandhi rejects the Marxian contention that the institution
of private property has to be abolished if world is to be free of
war. In contrast, he suggests to eradicate the desire to possess,
greed and_lust_and egotism from our own minds and hearts. He does
not think about the Soviet Union entirely being free of exploita
tion and, thus, does not see Russia as a model to be emulated. 63
Gandhi suggests nonviolent methods to tackle the conflicts
of these nature. He appreciates some of the qualities of the
European people during the war which almost appear to contain
elements of nonviolence. 64 He criticizes the method of resistance
of the Chinese to the Japanese forces, as they retaliate with
the conventional military method in place of saner method. Howev-
er, he appreciates the resistance of the Jews in Europe who bear
untold sufferings with great fortitude and composure. Thus Gandhi
is for the sustenance of basic values even during the war.
Gandhi suggests not only to fight against war but also
against the causes of war. He prescribes that a nation should
have internal peace in order to avoid war . A nation that
achieves internal harmony would not depend on armed force for its
security, but on its own nonviolence and the goodwill of its
neighbour.
Gandhi argues for a pervasive reconstruction of the
63. M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, (Ahmedabad, 1958), Vol.61, p.329
64. Pyarelal, "Gandhian Analysis of War" Quoted in K.P. Mishra and S.C. Gangal, Gandhi and the Contemporary World, (Delhi, 1981) ,p.148
64
political and socio-economic structure of the nations of the
world and internal decentralization of the polity and the economy
without necessarily seeking to abolish national frontiers. This
is obviously a holistic approach and Gandhi calls it internation
alism through nonviolent nationalism. 65
Thus, peace at international level could be attained when
nations as well as individuals would have purged themselves of
violence, the emerging world order will be some sort of an inter-
national federation in which the various nations will co-operate
as free and equal partners. Gandhi's vision in this regard is
clear, "Co-operation is the price of mankind's survival and it is
the only condition on which the world can live." 66
Gandhi's fight against the British Raj is not only a strug-
gle against the imperialist design rather than a struggle for a
just world order where an independent India could be able to
contribute to the world peace. In this regard, his efforts are to
bring India at par with the other independent nations because a
slave India could not be an equal partner of a conglomeration of
nations working for the world peace. She·would not be able to
help the world unity without getting freedom.
Gandhi has been unequivocal in his belief in world unity at
the Asian Relations Conference held in Delhi on April 1, 1947
where he observes, "Asian countries will strive to have only one
world. If :you work with fixed determination, there is no doubt
65. S.C. Gangal and Anurag Gangal, Contemporary Global Problems: A Gandhian Perspective (New Delhi, 1972), p. 73
66. Ibid
65
that, in our generation, we will certainly realize this dream. I
will not like to live in this world if it is not to be one ....
Uniting Asia to wage a war against Europe or America is not
I d . ' . . .. 67 n 1a s m1sslon .....
Gandhi firmly believes that if internal nonviolence
prevails, even a giant and powerful nation would not be able to
exploit the smallest one. He writes, "In a society based on
nonviolence the smallest nation will feel as tall as the tallest.
The idea of superiority and inferiority will be wholly
obliterated." 68
Gandhi opines that a free country like India could maintain
her Swaraj only if she insists on Swadeshi. The main thrust of
Gandhi's advocacy and insistence on Swadeshi is to make India
self-reliant. According to Gandhi, the history of nations shows
that those nations loose their freedom that do not follow the law
of Swadeshi. The two key prerequisites in t~e Gandhian approach
to development and inner peace are Swaraj and Swadeshi. Swaraj
stands for the moral autonomy of the individuals and the politi-
cal, economic and moral autonomy of nations. Swadeshi stands for
the self-reliance of the basic units of society where production
is for use and not for export and exchange.
Henceforth, Gandhi insists to follow the principle of
Swadeshi to make India self-reliant. A self-reliant India would
be self-supporting and would discourage foreign investment
67. M.K. Gandhi, "Harijan", in Rashmi-Sudha Puri, Gandhi on Peace and War (New York, 1987), p.196
68. Ibid, p. 199
66
particularly in the production of consumer goods. This situation
naturally may mar the possibility of foreign investment to ex-
plait the weaker nation like India. This, in turn, would make
India least attractive to the greed of any foreign power that
makes India fully secure without carrying the burden of highly
expensive armaments. He thus, observes, "Her internal economy (of
Swadeshi} will be India's strongest bulwark against aggres
sion."69 In This way the infiltration of foreign economic powers
will be discouraged that could save India to be trapped into an
economic struggle. Consequently, it could contribute in bringing
in a peaceful world.
Gandhi has not come out with his unique methods of conflict
resolution alone but he firmly believes that his method of Satya-
graha can be used against the aggressive forces. Gandhi always
desires to take on the war but without conventional weapons. To
fight against the aggression, Gandhi asks the individual to play
his role at two levels. Firstly, he has to be non-co-operative
towards the aggressive powers whether it is his own nation or an
outside one. Secondly, he has to share the responsibility to lead
the masses in non-co-operative movements in such a way as to
ensure that they do not stray onto the path of violence.
However, Gandhi is not satisfied with the individual efforts
alone but he often aften thinks about organizing a nonviolent
army or peace brigade. 70 Its task would have been the defence of
69. M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.4 (Ahmedabad, 1958}, p. 90
70. Unto Tahtinen, The Core of Gandhi's Philosophy (New Delhi, 1979}, p. 90
67
the country and the preservation of internal harmony. During
peace time it would concentrate on the training of the
"Constructive Programme", 71 the way through which society is
be.ing reformed to be fit for Swaraj or self-rule.
IV. The Position of Individual Satyaqrahi
Sociology is a science that analyzes the forces and the
processes of change in social relati?nships, institutions etc. It
also studies how society changes its parts and members as well as
the factors responsible to change the society. In the
Sociological tradition, wholes are treated as the determinants of
the parts and henceforth, the individual is considered to be
moulded by the forces acting upon them. 72 Sociologists and
thinkers like Durkheim, Marx, Cooley and Mead consider individual
as a part of society and they feel that the consciousness of
individual is ~etermined by the consciousness of society.
However, Gandhi refuses to accept this contention and be-
lieves that individual is totally free even if he happens to be
the member of society. He writes, "No society can possibly be
built on a denial of individual freedom." 73 Due to the freedom of
the individual he has unlimited nature. So he sees the individual
as the subject rather than the object of history and he firmly
believes that the relationship between the individual and society
71. M.K. Gandhi, Sarvodaya(Ahmedabad, 1954), p.99
72. T. Weber, Conflict Resolution and Gandhian Ethics (New Delhi, 1991), p.l09
73. M.K. Gandhi, Harijan, 1.2.1942
68
is one of the parts determining the whole. 74
Hence, Gandhi has come out with the traditional sociological
antithesis that the characters of individuals may be changed only
if society desires. However, Gandhl realizes that under the
original thesis great individuals could not comeforth while
society degenerates,and on the other hand, under its antithesis
society could be enriched while the individuals loose their
characters. 75 Gandhi's social philosophy encompasses both an
enriched society and free individuals. Therefore, changes in
social conditions depend upon changes in the hearts and charac-
ters of man and women which begin, obviously, at the individual
leve1. 76 Sociologist like Peter Berger believes that sometimes
society creates individual but on the other hand the meaningful
acts of individuals help to support the edifice of society and
may on occasion help to change it; 77 which is very close to
Gandhian interpretation.
However, it is beyond the capacity of an ordinary individual
to change the society. So Gandhi insists that an individual
Satyagrahi should be trained in the principles of truth and
nonviolence to attain the enlightenment. In the opinion of
Gandhi, only an enlightened Satyagrahi can be able to bring a new
peaceful world order.
--------------------------------------------------------------74. T. Weber, Conflict Resolution And Gandhian Ethics
(New Delhi, 1991), p.108
75. M. Prasad, Social Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi (Gorakhpur,1958), p.149
76. T. Weber, Conflict Resolution And Gandhian Ethics (New Delhi, 1991), p.ll2
77. Ibid
69
V. Methods of Gandhi
During his stay in South Africa, Gandhi evolves the method
of Satyagraha to fight against the injustices of the white Preto
ria regime. In the initial phase he fights for getting constitu-
tional as well as human rights as a citizen of the British em-
pire. Later on when he returns back to India, he extends the
method of Satyagraha primarily to peasant and labour movements in
1917-19 in Champaran and Ahmedabad etc. However, Gandhi uses this
method of Satyagraha in his struggle against the injustices of
the British empire at pan Indian level. Gandhi's concern has not
been limited to political freedom of India alone but he is in-
valved himself in resolving the conflicts between the rich and
the poor, the upper caste people and the untouchables and the
Hindus and the Muslims. Rajmohan Gandhi thus, writes, "Ahimsa
thus was nonviolent war, a Satyagraha against the Raj or the
South African government, and if necessary, against untouchabili-
ty, an Indian prince and millowners; it was also active love
towards the weak, the suppressed, the maimed and the sick." 78
Henceforth, it could be said that Gandhian methods of Satyagraha
etc. are not negative in nature rather than positive efforts
towards the wiping of every tears from every eyes.
During the freedom and social struggle, Gandhi uses
Satyagraha very carefully. He applies it step-wise. Bondurant
recognizes the three steps that Gandhi uses one by one after the
78. Rajmohan Gandhi, The Good Boatman: A Portrait of Gandhi (New Delhi, 1995), p.33
70
failure of the preceeding one. Gandhi always persues the oppo-
nents through reason or negotiation. However, it is a prerequi-
site that the mediator for should be an impartial man with the
full knowledge of the conflicting situations.
The second stage, "the self-suffering" starts if the method
of persuasion fails. Through this process Satyagrahi wants to
change the soul of the opposing parties. Gandhi, therefore,
writes, "Reason has to be strengthened by suffering and suffering
opens the eyes of understandin~· 79 Bondurant calls this mechanism
of self-suffering as "Shock therapy".80
The third and final stage, "direct action" can be taken
preceding the failure of the method of self-suffering. This
method of 'direct action' can be used against the injustices of
government authority in the forms of non-co-operation, civil
disobedience, hunger strikes etc. Non-co-operation can be used in
the cases of pe~sonal as well as group conflicts.
C.M. Case refuses to consider this stage as nonviolent
direct action and on the contrary calls it nonviolent coercion.
However, he does not see any contradiction between the two be-
cause of his inability to find the combination of nonviolence and
coercion as an outcome of a working arrangement. 81
This argument has hardly any significance with regard to
Gandhian methods of conflict resolution. The method of coercion
------------------------------------------------------------79. M.K. Gandhi, Young India, 19.3.1925
80. J.V. Bondurant, The Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict(N.J., 1958), p.229
,_ 81. C.M. Case, Nonviolent Coercion: A Study of Methods of Social Pressure (New York, 1923), p. 3
71
involves physical or psychological dominance that is the antithe
sis of Gandhian ideology. Gandhi wants to change the conflicting
attitudes through the involvement of soul-force. The moment
coercion is added even to nonviolence, Satyagrahi becomes
Duragrahi.
VI.Gandhi and His Critics
Critics of Gandhian methods question the sincerity apd con
sistency of his belief in nonviolence. They cite the example of
1899 Boer war in which he raises a 1200 strong ambulance corps
from among Indian residents of Natal. Gandhi participates in the
First World War from the side of the British but he considers it
a sin not to dissociate oneself in all possible ways from the
Second World War. Namboodiripad observes that there is no
consistency in Gandhian ideology with regard to his belief in
nonviolence.
It could be observed that the comparison of Gandhi's ambu
lance work in the First World War with the supporter of war is
absurd. However, it must be admitted that those are the days when
Gandhi's views on nonviolence have not been fully developed. In
fact, Gandhi evolves the method of Satyagraha through trials and
errors methods. He learns from his mistakes. He changes his views
according to the situations. During the First World War Gandhi
gets the impression that the British may leave India after the
war. The British remain noncommittal to their promise. So, Gandhi
has no option but to oppose the British during the Second World
War and he even launches "Quit India Movement" in 1942.
72
The communists have been the greatest critiques of Gandhian
method of nonviolent resistance. In July 1924, M.N. Roy writes,
"The defeat of orthodox Gandhism is complete and final -- and Mr.
Gandhi as leader of Indian national struggle has sung his swan
song."82
The communists, perhaps, have been enthusiastics by seeing
the fate of the Gandhian movement after the outbreak of violence
at Chauri-Chaura in 1922-23. However, their apprehensions do not
have any valid grounds and Gandhi always works for the reordering
of social relationships but without resorts to violence. On the
contrary, Gandhi emerges as the powerful mass leader and people
follow the Gandhian path of nonviolent resistance with more
vigour.
The communists and Marxists oppose nonviolence as a means of
conflict resolution because they believe that the hearts of
ruling class cannot be changed through persuasion. E.M.S.
Namboodiripad, a prominent Marxist, thus, observes that the
founders of Marxism has declared a century ago that no class
voluntarily renounces power. 83
Actually Gandhi also does not say that the rulers should be
untouched if they refuse to change themselves voluntarily. On the
82. Documents of the History of the Communist Party of India. Vol. 2, 1923-25, p. 411
83. E.M.S. Namboodiripad, The Mahatma and the Ism (New Delhi, 1959), p. 126
73
contrary, he prescribes to follow the rigorous and consistent
path of nonviolent Satyagraha to change the soul of the opponent.
But under no circumstances the Satyagrahi should resort to vio-
lent means.
The communists and leftists believe that the political power
is an essential factor in the struggle for socio-economic trans
formation.84 This is the reason that the communists always advo-
cate to capture the political power even through violent means so
that social conflict could be resolved and peace could be brought
about.
On the contrary, Gandhi believes in the power of public
opinions as a more powerful means of socio-economic transforma-
tion and thus, refuses to believe in the political or state
power as a means to resolve conflicting situations.The pace of
socio-economic transformation can be increased by the mass awak
ening programme. The new"social order where the power rests with
the people would be peaceful since all the conflicting situations
cease to exist. In fact Gandhi's entire thrust has been to
oppose the state power if it is in conflicting situations with
people's empowerment. The Gandhian ideal type, Ramrajya, howev-
er, is anarchic, that means that a nonviolent society has to
replace the state.85
The British government grants separate rights to the un-
touchables under the devide and rule communal scheme in 1932-33.
84. Ibid
85. Unto Tahtinen, The Core of Gandhi's Philosophy (New Delhi, 1979), p. 82
74
Gandhi commences his fast unto death on the 20th September 1932
as a protest against the grant of separate electorate to the un-
touchables. This act of Gandhi has been considered as anti-Dalits
by-none other than Ambedkar. In fact, Ambedkar does not like his
method of working 86 and feels that Gandhi's thoughts are in
contradiction to his actions. 87 However, the facts are quite
contradictory. Gandhi has been a great friend of the untouhables.
He takes up the cause of the Dalits in Vykom in 1924 and that
continues upto his death. The only reason of his opposition to
the scheme of separate electorates to the Dalits has been to
oppose the hidden intention of the British Government to separate
the untouchables from the main Hindu stream. The British has a
design to divide India on this line that Gandhi realizes. But he
supports the cause of the Dalits and they are given some reserva-
tion in the seats and the number of seats are more than the seats
they were offered by the British.
Gandhi has been accused that his nonviolent methods cannot
fight the war. Dave Dellinger warns us_against the success of
nonviolence in a war and especially a war which is nuclear in
nature. He asserts that nonviolence is currently incapable of
resolving the problems with which mankind is faced today. 88
However, it is a known fact that the greatest problem that
the mankind faces today has been the problem of violence. The
86. B.R. Ambedkar, Gandhi and Gandhism (Jullundur, 1970) p. XXIII
87. Ibid, p.2
88. Dave Dellinger, "The Future of Nonviolence", Studies on the Left (New York), Vol. 5, Winter 1965
75
problem of violence has been increasing rapidly at every level.
It is also a known fact that this increasing rate of violence
cannot be checked through violent means. The nuclear war is the
extreme form of violence. So these sorts of violent conflict, war
etc. can only be fought with the nonviolent means. The success of
nonviolence depends upon the actors who use it as a creed and not
mere as a s~rategy.
Summary
It is a fact that Gandhi has been widely criticized for his
inadequate nonviolent method to deal with the growing complicated
conflicts and war. It is also equally true that Gandhian method
of nonviolence has been successful in bringing peace not only
within Indi~n society but throughout the world whatever its
limitations might be. However, for Gandhi peace does not mean an
absence of war or conflict but the elimination and destruction of
all forms of tyranny and oppression through nonviolent means. It
is a positive condition conducive to preservation and promotion
of human rights, equality, dignity as well as social justice.
In this regard Gandhian methods' significance is unique. For
Gandhi, peace is never an end in itself rather than a means to a
nobler goal to attain a just and harmonious social world order.
For him, means are as important as the ends. Thus he wants to
attain his goal through pious and pure means. Gandhi feels that
all sorts of conflict i.e. social, political, economic, national
and international can be resolved only through nonviolent
methods. Human life needs peace and of course only through
nonviolent and peaceful means.
76