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CHAPTER-V

EDUCATION AND LITERARY ACTIVITY

EDUCATION AND LEARNING

The texts and tradition speak of Mithilā as the centre of education and

learning since ancient times. It is said that in the court of Janaka the learned

philosophical discussions took place and intellectual giants like Uddālaka

Āruṇi, Aśvala, Jāratkārava, Bhujyu Lāhyāyani, Uṣasta Cākrāyaṇa, Kahoḍa

Kauṣitakeya, Vidagdha Śākalya and Gārgī Vācaknavī participated in the

discussion and all of them were defeated by yājñavalkya.1 If tradition is to be

relied upon, Goutama and Kapila Muṇī also belonged to Mithilā.

The tradition of scholarship seems to continue even in the medieval

Mithilā. Many branches of Sanskrit learning were cultivated and developed in

the domain of Nyāya (logic), Dharmaśāstras and Mīmāṁsā (disputations).

Books, commentaries and digests on almost all branches of literature and

science were written and compiled.

The rulers of Karṇāta, Oinawāra and Khandavāla dynasties patronized

learning and art in their courts. Abul Fazl also refers to this when he says:

"Tirhut (Mithilā) has been from the time immemorial a centre of Hindu

learning."2 Mithilā prior to the establishment of the Nadiā University was the

foremost centre of the study of logic and Sanskrit in the eastern part of India.

The reputation of some of its scholars was so high that even the Delhi court

patronized them for their extraordinary intellect of knowledge.3

1 Bṛhadāraṇyaka Upaniṣada, III, p.5. 2 Ain, II, (Jarret), p.152. 3 In the Pādaśāhanāma; (Persian text, Bib. Inc.) by Abdul Hamid Lāhōrī, ed. by Kabiruddin

Ahmad, Calcutta, 1867, Vol.1, pp.268-69 We find a reference to two Brāhmaṇa scholars of Mithilā who had been rewarded by the Emperor Shahjahan for their profound scholarship.

196

According to J.C. Jha, the Dharmaśāstras ordained the Brāhmaṇa to

study and teach. Had it been cultivated with a mercenary motive, a scholar

after completing his studies must have selected some rich locality for

reopening of his school where he could have got more emoluments. Instead,

the pandits are found in the majority of cases returning to their homes and

starting schools to impart the knowledge which they themselves had acquired

at famous centres of learning.4 This view, however, does not hold much water

as some serious researches have shown that Brāhmaṇas of northern India

(including that of Mithilā) migrated to other parts of the country and were

endowed with lands and villages.5

The aim of education was the acquisition of knowledge and formation

of character. In Mithilā education among the Hindus during the period under

review was imparted mainly through the agencies like tolas6 and pāthśālas.

The Sanskrit school or college was called Chatuspathi (or popularly called as

Chauparī) which signified a place where the four Śāstras viz. grammar, law,

purāṇa and darśana were studied.

Besides these, there were private tutors also who used to teach

students in their own ways. Most of the institutions were managed by the

'Gurus' themselves. Students studied at the feet of their teachers in humble

cottages thatched with straw.7

Boys generally began their first academic lessons in life after attaining

the age of five years by writing the word Om and Hari with chalk (Khari) on

earth.8 The 'Upanayana' ceremony has had also a great importance. Hindu

4 Jha, J.S., Education in Bihar, p.3. 5 Datta, Swati, Migrants Brāhmaṇas in Northern India, Delhi, 1989, pp.1-73. 6 Ibid., p.1 7 Choudhary, R.K., Mithilā in the Age of Vidyāpati, pp.224-225. 8 Numerous reference to this ceremony of 'Hathekari' are found scattered in the contemporary

literary work. This ceremony was performed usually after 'Karnavedh'. For details Ojha, P.N., Op. Cit., p.102.

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child specially the Brāhmaṇas started their education generally after this

ceremony.

We get the reference to this custom from Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri which runs

thus: "After he (a Brāhmaṇa boy) has arrived at the age of eight years, they

(Brāhmaṇas) have a meeting with other Brāhmaṇas. They make a cord of

munj grass, which they call munji, in length 2¼ gaz, and having caused

prayers and incantations to be repeated over it and having had it made into

three strands, which they call Sihtan by one, in whom they have confidence,

they fasten it on his waist. Having woven a zunar (girdle or thread) out of the

loose threads, they hang it over his right shoulder. Having given in to his hand

a stick of the length of the little over 1 gaz to defend himself with from hurtful

things and a copper vessel for drinking water, they hand him over to a learned

Brāhmaṇa himself reading the Vedas which they believe in as God's book."9

First, a student in the elementary school was required to practice the

art of writing on the floor, covered with sand and dust. When he qualified

himself thus, then he was taught to write on palmleaves or Bhojpatra with

pieces of reeds or bambootwigs or with quills of birds.10 But in the purely

Sanskrit pāthaśālās the courses of studies were somewhat different. A novice

in such school was, first of all required to acquire the knowledge of alphabet.

Then he was given some lessons in attaining proficiency in spelling, reading

and writing followed by working knowledge of practical arithmetic. When they

had acquired sound knowledge of Sanskrit and its grammar, the Purāṇas

constituted their next subject of study.11

Sanskrit language and literature formed the chief subject of study in the

chatuṣpāthis. The curriculum consisted of Kāvya (poetry) Vyākaraṇa

9 Tuzuk-I-Jahangiri, Vol. I, (R & B), p. 357. 10 Haribaṁsa by Achyutanand Das, Cuttak, 4th Canto, p.577. Also T.C. Dasgupta's Aspects of

Bengali Society, C.U., 1935, pp.168-169. 11 Bernier's Travels in the Mughal Empire, (ed.), Archbald Constable, 1891, p.334.

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(grammar); Jyotiṣa (astronomy or astrology), Chhanda (rhetoric), Nirukta

(lexicon) and Nyāya Darśana (philosophy).12 In Mithilā, Brāhmaṇa students

were to receive education in all the four Vedas, history, purāṇa, kośa

chhanda, vyākaraṇa, six vedāngas, analysis of dreams, study of earthquakes,

solar eclipse, lunar eclipse and language of the animals and birds. The

Kṣatriya13 students were to be trained in the knowledge relating to elephants,

horses, chariots, bows and arrows, military science and currency. Vidyāpati

also advocates compulsory military education. The Vaiśya and Śūdra

students used to learn agriculture, commerce and animal husbandry. The

study of tantra was also pursued.14 Harinagara (near Madhubani) was a

famous centre of tantric studies.

In all the districts of Bihar the study and practice of medicine was in

vogue. But there was no public school for giving instruction in medicine. It had

to be learnt privately from the physicians. The Sakaldwipi Brāhmaṇas had

almost monopolized the profession of medicine. Unānī system was also

studied. Surgery was practiced by persons of the barber caste. They were

called 'Jurra'. However, they did not enjoy the prestige of the man of

medicine.15

Of all these, the study of Mīmāmsā and Navyanyāya made Mithilā

internationally famous. Under the auspices of the University of Mithilā16, an

important school of grammar was started by Padmanābha Dutta (Śaka 1297

i.e. 1374 A.D.). His Supadma and its other supplements laid the foundation of

new school. Thus, literature, science, logic, Nyāya, Mīmāmsā, erotics, 12 Gupta, T.C. Das, Aspects of Bengali Society, p.177. 13 Jha, Ramnath, Lectures on Bharatiya Shiksha, pp.9-10. 14 Jha, J.S., Education in Bihar, Pat., p.9. 15 Jha, J.S., Op. cit., p.30. 16 R.K. Chaudhary writes that the prominence of Mithilā as a famous centre of education and

learning grew more and more after the expansion of Muslim power in south Bihar. This centre of learning grew as University of Mithilā which became the shelter of refugee scholars from different parts of the country. For details, refer to R.K. Chaudhary, Mithilā in the Age of Vidyāpati, p.224.

199

astronomy, etc. were studied along with a specialized study of the Smṛtis and

the Dharmaśāstra. Vernacular literature was also getting proper impetus.

Jyotiriśvara and Vidyāpati were two notable scholars of the vernacular

literature.

Learned discussions (Goṣthis) between the preceptor and his pupils,

and among the pupils themselves, formed an important aspect of the

educational method during the period under review.17 It must have played a

very significant role in assessing the merit of the pupils. Debates and

discussions in the society of the learned men were thus common in those

days. Such discussions have an old tradition in Mithilā. Yājñavalkya

participated in such learned discussions in the court of Janaka and the

discussion held between Śankara and Maṇḍana Miśra has become a legend

in Mithilā. In Mithilā we get reference to Kavya-Goṣthi (learned discussion on

poetry) arranged by the king in which scholars from different parts of the

country used to participate. Maharāja Lakśmeśwara Singh of Darbhanga Raj

used to organise such learned discussions of poets and scholars. It seems

that a kind of Goṣthi was also arranged between the scholars of the land and

foreign scholars and those who qualified at the test were rewarded with prize

or post in royal services, whatever they desired.

In Mithilā we get reference to altogether three types of examinations

during the period under review:

(i) Śalākā Parīkṣā,

(ii) Dhaut Parīkṣa, and

(iii) Ṣadyantra Parīkṣā.

17 Dasgupta, T.C., Aspects of Bengali Society, pp.184-85. Also Jha, Ganga Nath, Kavirahsya,

p.73.

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R.K. Mukherji18 suggests that a special type of examination was

conducted by Mithilā University in medieval times which was known as Śalākā

Parīkṣā. U. Thākura observes, "It is indeed interesting to note that

corresponding to the system of admission at Nalanda and Vikramshila by

difficult examinations by the learned pandits. Mithilā instituted a peculiar

examination for graduation and completion in studies. It was known as Śalākā

Parīkṣā."19 At such an examination a candidate was required to examine a

manuscript very minutely and then a needle was passed through the whole

book.20 Then the candidate had to explain that page of a manuscript which

was pierced last by the needle run through it. The experts took his vivavoce.

This was the test of the capacity of the candidate to explain extempore any

part of the text he had studied so as to demonstrate his mastery of the subject

in all its parts. Only then the diploma of Mithilā University was conferred on

the successful candidate.21

J. S. Jha has also suggested two factors which might have

necessitated the system of Śalākā Parīkṣā in Mithilā during the period

concerned. Firstly, the paucity of books because of non-availability of press

might have encouraged the importance of memory tests in the Śalākā

Parīkṣā. Secondly, as Rājaśekhara (10th century A.D.) in his book

Kāvyamīmāmsā has mentioned, a form of examination used to be held at

Ujjain and Pataliputra where many scholars like Kālidāsa, Amarasena, etc.

had to appear at such examinations. These forms of examinations at these

places might have eclouraged the system of śalākā Parīkṣā in Mithilā. Some

important features of the system of examination mentioned above may also

18 Mukherji, R.K., Ancient Indian Education, p.598. 19 Thākura, U., History of Mithilā, p.379. 20 Vidyabhushan, History of Logic, p.554. 21 Mukherji, R.K., Ancient Indian Education, 2nd Edn., London, 1921, p.599. Also T.C.

Dasgupta's Aspects of Bengali Society, C.U., 1935, p.184.

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be seen in Dhaut Parīkṣā (another form of examination) introduced by the

Khandavāla rulers of Mithilā (C. 1556 A.D. onwards).22

Dhout Parīkṣā23 which the Maharāja of Darbhanga used to hold in his

court was also much in vogue till very recently.24 At the examination, the court

pandits used to examine the candidates; and those who qualified themselves

had to participate in literary debates and discussions in the presence of the

Maharāja. As a mark of honour and distinction, a pair of dhotī was given to

the successful pandit candidates and whenever an invitation was extended to

pandits by the Maharāja or wealthy persons of Mithilā, preference was given

to those who were Dhoutparīkṣottiṇna (passes the loincloth examination).

Duśālā was presented to candidates topping in each subject.

Thus Naiyāyikas were honoured with a pair of red dhotī and the

Vaidikas, the Vaiyākarṇas and others with pairs of yellow dhotī. Scholars

coming from outside Mithilā also took part in these examinations to qualify for

the royal honour. The scholars thus honoured, were invariably invited by the

Maharājas on the occasions of the Upanayana, marriage and Śrāddha (last

rites) and were given handsome presents.25

The third system of examination which was prevalent during the period

under review was Ṣadyantra Parīkṣā. The method of test was like this: first of

all, the scholars from all over the country used to ask the most abstruse

questions on all śāstras. All the questions must be properly answered in the

assembly to the satisfaction of all present. When the scholars were thus

satisfied the public used to put questions. When everyone present was

22 Mithilā Bharati, Anka-1, Bhag-3-4, 1969, Art. "Mithilāk Prāchīna Parīkṣā Pranali". 23 Jha, Ganga Nath, Kavirashya, pp.74-75. 24 Jha, Parameśwara, Mithilā Tattva Vimarśa, Pat., p.198. 25 JBRS, Vol. XLVIII, 1962, Parts I-IV, p.91.

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satisfied with the answer then only the honour of Śadayantree' was conferred

upon him.26

Besides these examinations the system of conferring titles of

Upādhyāya, Mahōpādhyāya and Mahāmahōpādhyāya on scholars was very

much popular in Mithilā during the period under review.27 For the award of

such titles of honours a candidate had to appear before pandits; and if found

qualified, the title of Upādhyāya was conferred on him. He was now qualified

to teach. When a student of an Upādhyāya succeeded in the same test and

won the titles his teacher got the title of Maho-pādhyāya. In the same manner

when a Maho-pādhyāya's pupils succeeded in the said examination the

Maho-pādhyāya became Mahāmahōpādhyāya. Hence, it appears that the

institution of Upādhyāya, Mahōpādhyāya and Mahāmahopā-dhyāya was

established as graded degree of seniority among professors.28

The teacher-student relationship was very cordial. Students were very

particular about keeping their teachers satisfied by their conduct and personal

services. The relation between the preceptor and the disciple was considered

similar to that of the father and the son.29 Disciples used to present small bells

to their preceptors as mark of their respect at the time of taking farewell.

Generally teachers took great pride in supporting students even at their own

cost.

It seems that political stability and comparative peace and tranquility

along with a strong cultural tradition in the kingdom of Mithilā gave spread of

learning and scholarship. The social and economic condition also provided a

firm ground for the emergence of scholars and authors of eminence in Mithilā

26 Ibid., p.69. 27 JBRS, Vol. XLV, p.271. Mithila Bharati, Anka-1, 1969, Art. "Mithilā Prāchīna Parīkṣā Pranali". 28 Jha, Ganganath, Foreword to Kesari Miśra's edition of M.M. Sakala Miśra's Commentary,

Arya Saptasati, p.11. Also, Thākura, U., History of Mithilā, p.380. 29 Roerich, G., Biography of Dharmaswāmin, Roerch, G., Pat., p.64. Also, Jha, Parameśwara,

Mithilā Tattvavimarśa, Pat., p.120.

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during the period under review. Vedānta, Nyāya, Mīmāmsā, Dharmaśāstra,

sciences and other branches of learning had their beginnings in Mithilā.

However, in the field of Navyanyāya and Mīmāmsā Mithilā made remarkable

contribution. It was a great seat of learning for centuries. Here students

flocked from different parts of the country for satisfying their intellectual

curiosities. It also provided shelter to scholars who were compelled by the

circumstances to leave Nālandā and Vikramśilā, mainly on account of Muslim

invasions.30

According to D.C. Sen, the civilization of Bengal came from Mithilā

when Magadh ceased to give light to the eastern world.31 In the 16th century

A.D. Mithilā emerged as the acknowledged head both secular and religious of

all the regions to the north of the river Saryu.32 As a matter of fact the rulers of

Mithilā such as Karṇātas, Oinwāras, and Khandavālas were all great lovers of

education and learning and encouraged Sanskrit studies.33

MITHILĀ SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY AND NAVYA NYĀYA

Mithilā's contribution to the realm of philosophy such as Nyāya and

Mimāmsa has been remarkable. According to the Naiyāyikas, the stress on

concentrated contemplation and meditation as a step towards true knowledge

is not at all possible for a man until he has shed his defects. These defects

are34 :

(i) Desire (Rāga) as expressed in lust, selfishness, greed and a wish to

possess other's property;

30 For details refer to D.C. Sen's History of Bengali Language and Literature. Also Sinha,

C.P.N., Mithilā Under the Karṇātas, p.167. 31 Ibid., for details. 32 Jayaswal, K.P., Intro., Cat. Mithilā Mss,Vol. I, p.3. 33 Ibid. 34 Choudhary, R.K., op. cit., p.221.

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(ii) Hatred, (dveṣa) expressed as anger, jealousy, malice and

impatience;

(iii) Moha, defective outlook in its different forms like error, doubt,

egoism of inattentiveness.

All these defects are rooted in ignorance and can be dispelled only by

true knowledge arising out of meditation. The Maithila Naiyāyikas recommend

(i) continuous study of philosophy, (ii) discussion with learned persons

especially between the teacher and the taught, and (iii) disputations as aids to

learning. The controversy succeeded in thrashing out the truth.35

In Mithilā, religion and philosophy have been inseparable and in the

days of Upaniṣadas Mithilā was at the apex of her philosophical glory. The

Upaniṣadas lay stress upon the fact that knowledge is the real means of

salvation. The message of the Upaniṣadas is crystal clear, but the great

Maithila philosopher, Yājñavalkya, in his famous dialogue with Maitreyī and

Gārgī, has given birth to a critical analysis of knowledge. The unknowable self

has been made more and more complex. The seed of philosophical learning

was, thus, sown by Yājñavalkya and was carried further by a host of other

scholars, viz. Gārgī, Maitreyī, Janaka, Ajātaśatru, Gotama, Kapila, and others.

Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣada36 reflected the views of these philosophers. The

Maithila philosophers envisaged a synthesis of knowledge (Jñāna) with action

(Karma) and household life (Gārhastya) with ascetic life (Sanyās).

Gotama, who, according to Skandapurāṇa, was the resident of Mithilā

laid the foundations of Nyāya-Sūtra which constitutes one of the foremost

schools of logic in Mithilā. The three main props of the Mimāṁsā school were

Prabhākara Miśrā, Kumārila (founder of Bhṭṭamata) and Murārī Miśrā

(founder of Miśra-mata). The earliest expositor of the Bhaṭṭa mata was

35 Ibid., p.221. 36 Bṛhadāranyaka Upaniṣada, III, 5.1.

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Maṇḍana Miśra of Mithilā who wrote a commentary on Kumārila's

Tantravārtika. He was an eminent scholar of Pūrva-Mimāṁsā.37 Another great

Mimāṁsaka of Mithilā was Vācaspatimiśra (9th A.D.) who wrote Nyāyakaṇikā

and Nyāyasūci. Other Mimāṁsakas were Pārthasārathi Miśra, Candra and

Murārī Miśra.

Mithilā's contribution to the history of Indian thought is noticeable and

especially in the field of navyanyāya it has made great contribution.38 In the

words of D.C. Bhattacharya, "Mithilā's literary history has no parallel for its

antiquity, diversity and continuity…. Mithilā has shed luster right from the

Vedic times in all phases of human knowledge".39

Udayanācārya was the first great founder of the navya-nyāya system in

Mithilā. His Kusumānjali is the most authoritative work on the subject. His

other works include Lakṣaṇāvalī (a manual of Vaiśeṣika), Lakṣaṇamālā,

Ātmataṭṭvaviveka, Nyāyapariśiṣṭa, Kirṇāvalī, etc.40 He was the greatest critic

of the Buddhist philosophers of the time. The greatest target of his attack was

Jnānaśrimitra41 famous of the Vikramaśilā University. He also refuted the

views of another Buddhist scholar, Ratnakīrti. Vācaspati's contributions to the

development of navya-nyāya raise him to the position of supreme authority in

all the five systems (except vaiśeṣika, as it was ignored by him) of Indian

philosophy. He aligns himself to the school of Maṇḍaṇa both in Mīmāmsā and

Vedānta.42

Gangeśa Upādhyāya (A.D. 1200) stands out as the unique figure in the

history of the philosophy of Mithilā, especially in the realm of navyanyāya. His

37 Kane, P.V., History of Darmaśāstras, I, pp.252-64. 38 Bhattacharya, D.C., History of Navyanyāya in Mithilā, Dar., 1958, p.1. Also JASB, Vol. XI,

pp.259-60. 39 Bhattacharya, D.C., op. cit. 40 Ibid. 41 JBRS, Vol. XXXVI (Buddha Jayanti Issue), pts. 1-2. 42 Choudhary, R.K., op. cit., p.272.

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Taṭṭvacintāmaṇi constitutes the bedrock of Indian dialectics and he has been

rightly described as the presiding professor of the philosophical conclusions.43

Taṭṭvacintāmaṇi is an important landmark in the realm of thought.44 The style

of writing of this work is new and it is a primary scholarly work on navyanyāya.

Gangeśa diverted the current of nyāya philosophy into a fresh channel.

He emphasized upon pramāṇa-vivecana in place of padārtha-vivecana

(ontology).45 The four pramāṇa viz. pratyakśa, Anumāna, Upamāna and

śabda were made the subject of a thorough going scrutiny. D.C. Bhattacharya

has rightly observed – "This well-knit marshalling of all relevant dissertations

(Vādas) into a single comprehensive treatise took the learned world by

storm."46 Gangeśa made a valuable contribution to the theory of knowledge.

Since all objects are knowable, our knowledge of these objects is of two kinds

– Nirvikalpa (indeterminate) and Savikalpa (determinate) knowledge. The

savikalpa knowledge is a knowledge the object of which is distinguished from

other things.

Gangeśa's dissertation on the problem of truth and validity of

knowledge is regarded as his most outstanding contribution to the theory of

Navyā Nyāya. He criticized the mīmamsā theory of self-validity of knowledge

and established the nyāya position of the correspondence of theory of truth

and ascertainment of truth by verification. The truth is defined and the

problem is then bifurcated into utpatti (origin and source of validity) and Jñapti

(ascertainment of the same).47

Gangeśa's son Vardhamāna Upādhyāya (13th century) was also a

great logician. He tried to bridge the gulf between two schools of orthodox

43 Refer to A. Weber's History of Indian Literature, London, 1876, p.246. Also, Bhattacharya,

D.C., Bange Navya-Nyāyaearea, pp.15-19. 44 Tattva Cintāmaṇi of Gangeśa, Choukhamba Sanskrit Series, Banaras, for details. 45 Bhattacharya, D.C., op. cit., pp.15-19. 46 Ibid., p.96. 47 Ibid., p.97.

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logic, old and new. Līlawatī Prakāśa is a famous work in the realm of

navyanyāya.48

The most important naiyāyika after Gangeśa who flourished in Mithilā

was Pakśadhara Miśra.49 Formally he was known as Jaideva. He lived in the

court of Raja Bhairava Simha (A.D. 1475-89) of the Oinwāra dynasty.50 A

number of works have been attributed to him. The most important works

composed by him are 'Āloka', 'Dravya Padārtha', and Līlāwatī Viveka.

Raghunāth Śiromaṇi of Bengal was the most important pupil of Pakśadhara.

His influence in Bengal was immense and it may be noted here that his

'Āloka' survived as the text book at Nadia for over a century after it had

disappeared from Mithilā and all its three parts were commented upon by a

17th century Bengali scholar, namely Gadādhara Bhattacharya.51

Vāsudeva Miśra and Ruchidatta Miśra of the 16th century have also

composed scholarly works on navyanyāya. Vāsudeva's nyāyasiddhānta

Śastra and latter's Prakāśa are most important works in this field. Another

scholar of navyānyāya of the period concerned was Śankara Miśra. There are

eight works of his known to the scholars. The important works attributed to

Śankara are Taṭṭvacintāmaṇi Māyukha, Vaiseśika Upaskara, Bheda

Ratnākara Prakāśa and Ahedādhikāra.52

Jayantha Miśra popularly known as Jivanāth Miśra (15th century) was

also a great digest writer like several Mithilā nyāya scholars of our period.53

Vācaspati Miśra II holds, however, eminent place in the history of navyanyāya

48 Leelawati Prakash, Vardhamāna Upādhyāya, Choukhamba Sanskrit Series, Banaras for

details. 49 Mithilā Taṭṭva Vimarśa by Jha, Parameśwara, Pat., pp.123-124. M.M. Vidya Bhushana, A

History of Indian Logic, p.455. 50 Jha, Parameśwara, Mithilā Taṭṭva Vimarśa, Pat., p.122. 51 Jha, Parameśwara, Op. cit., p.122ff. 52 Ibid., p.119ff. His first work 'Maṇimayukh' in MSS is now in Jammu (MSS Folios) of Steens

Jammu Catalogue, p.144, No. 1537. also Miśra, V., op. cit., p.142. 53 Miśra, V., op. cit., p.142.

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in Mithilā. He wrote commentaries on nyāya sutras of Goutama known as

Taṭṭvaloka.54 It may be noted here that Taṭṭvaloka is one of the earliest

attempts to explain the nyāyasutras in the light of Gangeśa's epoch making

work. Other important works by him on this subject are: (i) Pratyakśanirṇaya,

(ii) Anumānanirṇaya, and (iii) Khandanoddhāra.55 Vācaspati II also

commented on Taṭṭvacintāmaṇi and wrote 'Sahaśādhikaraṇa' on the

Purvamīmāmsā rules of interpretation. Though a digest writer of repute,

Vācaspati II also has been one of the few luminaries of the navyanyāya

scholarship.

Mahamahopādhyāya Yajñapti Upādhyāya (c. 15th century A.D.) wrote a

commentary called Prabhā on the Cintāmaṇi.56 The manuscripts of this book

in Maithili character are kept in Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.57 It is said that

Prabha superseded all previous commentaries on Gangeśa's work and laid

the solid foundations upon which the latest phase of navya nyāya studies on

Gangeśa's lines flourished.58 Another noted scholar of navyanyāya was

Vateśvara. He is famous as Darpaṇakāra both in Nyāya and in Smṛiti.

Vateśwara is said to have been the critic of the school of philosophy of

Gangeśa. He wrote 'Nyāyanibandhadarpaṇa' and 'Nyāyalīlāvatīdarpaṇa'.

The tradition of nyāya and mīmāmsā was also patronized by some

women scholars during the period under review. Some of them were Lakhimā

Devī and Viśvāsa Devī who contributed in raising the status of the

philosophical Mithilā.59

The study of navyanyāya and mīmāmsā continued during the reign of

the Khandavālas also. Mahesha Thākura, the founder of this dynasty in 54 Indian Office Catalogue I (ed. By Eggeling), pp.610-11. 55 Choudhary, R.K., op. cit., p.281. 56 Bhattacharya, D.C., History of Navyanyāya in Mithilā, p.160. 57 A. Cabation's Catalogue of MSS, 1907, p.150, No. 904. 58 Bhattacharya, D.C., A History of Navyanyāya in Mithilā, p.16. 59 Miśra, V., Cultural Heritage of Mithilā, pp.146.147.

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Mithilā, was himself a great scholar who made a significant contribution to the

field of navyanyāya. His celebrated works are Āloka Pradīpa, a commentary

on Pakśadhara Miśra's Nyayālopa, Darpaṇa, a commentary on Gangeśa

Upādhyāya's Nyāya Cintāmaṇi. The family of Mahesha Thākura was, in fact,

the family of celebrated scholars and philosophers. One of his elder brothers,

Megha Thākura, was a disciple of Pakśadhara Miśra II. He wrote the famous

book Jalada, a commentary on Vardhamāna's Līlāwati Prakāśa which is itself

a commentary on Gangeśa's Makranda. Another borther of Maheśa Thākura,

Damodara Thākura, was also well versed in nyāya and darśaṇa.60

Raghudeva Miśra was yet another great philosopher of this period.

However, this was the age of Pandit Gokulanātha Upādhyāya who by his

achievements in the realm of philosophy of nyāya made Mithilā famous in the

eastern India.61 Thus, the old tradition of the philosophy of Mithilā was

cultivated and patronized by the ruling dynasties of Mithilā and several

scholars of repute made Mithilā the centre of studies in navyanyāya in the

eastern India before the rise of Nadia.

Mīmāṁsā was also studied in Mithilā and as late as the age of

Vidyāpati its study appears to have been very popular. When there was a

tremendous attack on Veda and the Vedic culture by the Buddhists, the

growth of mīmāṁsā was rapid in Mithilā.62

Recently a praśasti (citation) of the 15th century A.D. has been

discovered in which it is stated that Raja Bhairav Simha performed a

Puṣkarini yajna in which not less than 1400 mīmāmsākaras participated.63

From the congregation of the mīmāṁsākaras referred to above it is clear that

the study of this subject was very popular in Mithilā. In this field Kumaril’s

60 JBRS, XLVIII, Part I-IV, 1962, p.92ff. 61 Ibid., p.93ff. Also, Jha, M., Mithilā Bhasha Maya Itihasa, pp.139-147. 62 Jha, G.N., Purva Mimāmsā, pp.1-3. 63 Thākura, U., History of Mithilā, p.378.

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contribution is unique. He was the founder of the Bhātmatha. Mandana,

Vācaspati Miśra, Sucharitā Miśra and others carried the task further. It has

been rightly observed that every stream of philosophy in India owes a deep

debt to Vācaspati.64

Govind Thākura65 was a great scholar of mīmāṁsā during the period

under review. His important contribution is the Adhikaraṇa Mālā. Mādhava

Miśra, Ruchidatta Miśra, Raghupati Miśra66 also made notable contribution in

the field of mīmāṁsā during this period.

Thus Mithilā prior to the establishment of Nadia University was the

foremost centre of the study of logic and Sanskrit in the eastern part of India.

It appears that Gokulanāth (c. 1650-1750) was the last great light of this

period in Mithilā and after him the centre of gravity shifted to Navadvipa,

which had established its own school of logic.67 Some of the Mithilā scholars

even visited Navadvipa and Banaras to complete their studies.68

It is said that prior to the establishment of Navyanyāya School at Nadia

students from all parts of the country used to go to Mithilā for the study of

nyāya. The pride of Mithilā scholars did not allow any of their students to take

away the books from the school, nor even the notes of the lectures

delivered.69 This fostered a sincere desire among the scholars of Navadvipa

to establish an institution of their own for the study of nyāya. If tradition is to

be believed Vāsudeva Sarvabhauma (c. 1450-1525 A.D.) who was born in

Nadia, brought from Mithilā to Navadvipa, Gangeśa's Taṭṭva Cintāmaṇi

towards the close of the 15th century, and established the first great academy

64 Thākura, U. Studies in Jainism and Buddhism in Mithilā, p.69. 65 Miśra, V., Cultural Heritage of Mithilā, p.151. 66 Ibid., p.151. 67 JBRS, Vol. XLV, p.266. 68 Mukherji, R.K., Ancient Indian Education, 1951, p.266. 69 Sahaya, B.K., Education and Learning under the Great Mugals, p.73.

211

of logic there.70 It has been observed that the civilization of Bengal came from

Mithilā when Magadha ceased to give light to the eastern world.71

DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF LEARNING:

There are references to different branches of learning and learned

persons in PuruṣParīkṣā of Vidyāpati.72 These included science, astronomy,

mathematics, dharmaśāstras, smṛtis, etc. The study of science was cultivated

in Mithilā during the period under review. It has been suggested that Alchemy

is closely associated with the religious cult of the tantras.73 The tāntric cult is

characterized by a curious admixture of alchemical process on the one hand

grotesque, obscene and something revolting rites on the other. Since Mithilā

was one of the important centres of tāntricism it may be said that the people

here were adept in the art of alchemy associated with it.74 Vācaspati,

Udayana, Shridhara and Raghunatha deal with the problems relating to the

atom,75 and its movements. Gangeśa conjectures that even gold can be

evaporated or made to disappear by the application of intense heat.

There is reference to the oils derived from vegetables, butter from milk

and fats from animal by Udayana.76 Vācaspati and Udayana contend that

among oils, fats, milk, etc. differences in flavour and odour imply differences

in kind and in molecular structure.77 It appears that maithila naiyāyikas paid

special attention to the atoms. The nyāya conceives atomic magnitude as a

pārimāṇḍalya, a term which indicates a spherical shape.78

70 Mukherji, R.K., Op. cit., p.599. 71 Sen, D.C., A History of Bengali Language and Literature for details. 72 Puruṣa Parīkṣā, ed. Chandradhar Pathak, pp.92, 98, 103, 126. 73 Choudhary, R.K., Op. cit., p.228. 74 Ibid., p.228. 75 Seal, B.N., Positive Science of the Ancient Hindus, Delhi 1958, p.100ff. 76 Ibid., p.110. 77 Ibid., p.110ff. 78 Ibid., p.117.

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The people of Mithilā also knew the measurement of time and space as

we get some details about it from Udayana's Kiraṇāvalī.79 To conceive

position in space Vācaspati takes three axis: firstly, proceedings from the

point of sunrise in the horizon that the sun sets (east and west), secondly a

second bisecting this line at right angles on horizontal place (north and south),

and thirdly proceedings from the point of the section of the sunrise to the

sunset to the meridian position of the sun.

The position of any point, in space, relatively to another point may now

be given by measuring distances along these two directions. B.N. Seal has

rightly observed, "But this gives only a geometrical analysis of the conception

of three dimensioned space, though it must be admitted in all fairness that by

dint of clear thinking it anticipates in a rudimentary manner of the foundation

of solid (coordinate) geometry.80

Śankara Miśra gives a detailed description of the theory of motion and

the varieties of 'gamana' (curvilinear motion). All kinds of motion are called

gamana.81 According to the same scholar the movement of iron in general

towards the magnet is an important example of unexplained motion in

matter.82 According toe Udayana the solar heat is the source of all the stores

of heat required for chemical change in the world. The nyāya-vaiśeśika

thinkers compare sound to wave and advocate the theory of an independent

sound wave.83 Gangeśa holds that the propagation is not from the molecule to

79 (i) 30 Muhūrtas = 1 day (24 hours)

(ii) 30 Kalās = 1 Mūhurta

(iii) 30 Kāṣthas = 1 Kalā

(iv) 18 Nimeṣas = 1 Kāṣtha

(v) 2 Lavas = 1 Nimeṣa

(vi) 2 Kṣaṇas = 1 Lava; cf. R.K. Choudhary, op. cit., p.228. 80 Ibid., p.118. 81 Ibid., p.130. 82 Ibid., p.140ff. Also, P.C. Ray's History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Cal., 1956,

pp.114, 216, 235, 284, 302, 310, etc. 83 Ibid., p.156.

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molecule, but travels in ever expanding circle, as in water waves, perhaps in

spherical layers by comparison of masses of air; and these air waves, the

vehicles of sound, are exceedingly swift. This explains the velocity of sound.84

Gangeśa accepts airwaves as vehicles of sound waves.

Vidyāpati, informs us regarding the study of botany85 and veterinary

science.86 The science of medicine was not unknown either. The Varṇa

Ratnākara refers to various kinds of Vaidyas, such as visavaidya, narvaidya,

gajavaidya, asvavaidya, etc.87 Various kinds of physicians and references to

some common diseases are mentioned in the poems of Vidyāpati.

Astronomy and astrology were the most popular among the sciences

prevalent in Mithilā during the period. It is said that Makrand calendar was

very popular here.88 A king of the Darbhanga Raj namely Hemāngada

Thākuraa wrote Rāhu-parāgapanji in which he has referred to lunar eclipses

of coming hundred years.89 In Nepal's library there is a book named Amala

written by one Caṇḍeśvara, who might be the famous minister and digest

writer of Mithilā.90 From this book it appears that astronomy was a popular

science with the people of Mithilā. From Jyotiriśvara's Varṇa Ratnākara we

find a detailed account of prevailing astronomical calculations of Mithilā.91

The system of Mahaticāra has an old tradition behind it. During the

period of Mahaticāra marriages and any other auspicious function can not be

performed. Maheśa Thākura's book Aticāranirṇaya92 has a great importance

84 Ibid., p.158. 85 Puruṣa Parīkṣā, ed. Chandradhar Pathak, p.110. 86 Ibid., p.183. 87 Jyotiriśvara, Varṇa Ratnākara, Cal., p.9. 88 JBRS, Vol. XLVIII, 1962, Parts 1-4, p.61. Art. "Mithilā Men Jyotisha". 89 Ibid., p.61. 90 Ibid., p.61ff. 91 Jyotiriśvara's Varṇa Ratnākara, Cal. P.23. Also, Mithilā Bharati Pat., Art. "Varṇaratnākarak

Ādhāra Par Mithilā Men Jyotish Paramparā". 92 JBRS, Vol. XLVIII, p.66.

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in Mithilā's social life through the ages. The people of Mithilā still practice this

custom in their day to day life as well as on and before auspicious occasions

with nearly undiminished zeal.

The Bhūparikramā93 of Vidyāpati gives us a detailed geographical

account of 65 towns or villages together with their puranic importance, if any.

It seems that in writing out this geographical book Vidyāpati depended mainly

on the purāṇas.94 In the Bhūparikramā there is a description of eight deśas,

viz. Drupadadeśa, Brahmavarta, Prayag, Kashi Siddhadeśa, Balideśa,

Bhojapur and Janaka Deśa. Vidyāpati, while describing route from Mithilā to

Naimisha (modern Nimakhara, U.P.) forest, gives not only the topography of

those tracts with their rivers, forests, etc., but also details of their historical

and mythological importance. These topographical descriptions are the

important features of Bhūparikramā. However, Ramanath Jha observes that

the real motive of Vidyāpati was not to describe the topography of Āryavarta

and compile a work of geography.95 In kavirahasya of Ganga Nath Jha

several important places of India such as Maharashtra, Mahisaka, Vidarava,

Kuntal, Suparaka, Kānchi, Keral, Singhol, Chola, Pallava, etc. have been

mentioned which indicate that geographical knowledge of the regions,

mentioned above, was known to the people of Mithilā. Here we also find that

a poet should have knowledge of geography history etc. Thus, Mithilā which

was a famous centre of poets and philosophers, during the period under

review, must have attained a considerable knowledge of geography.96

The Varṇa Ratnākara of Jyotiriśvara also informs us about several

important places, mainly of pilgrimage. The Tirthalatā of Vācaspati II informs

93 JBRS, Volume IV, pp.18-19, Art. "Gazetteer Literature in Sanskrit," by H.P. Sastri. 94 Choudhary, R.K., op. cit., p.233. 95 Refer to JBU, (Ramantha Jha's Art.) Vol.I, p.89. 96 B. Jha, Ganga Nath, Kavirahsya, Prayag, 1929, p.89.

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us about Kashi, Prayag and other important places of pilgrimage.97 The

Puruṣa Parīkṣa of Vidyāpati also mentions Gauda, Gajjana, Devagiri,

Gorakhapur, Dwaraka, Kailasha, Saryug, etc. along with important rivers.98

The folk literature of Mithilā is full of references of Mithilā's contact with

various parts of India.99 Again the fact that scholars of Mithilā went round the

country both for religious and educational purposes proves that geography

was nearly a common knowledge here.

Dharmaśāstra formed an important part of the curriculum in Mithilā. It

was in this branch of learning that Mithilā produced several eminent scholars

during the period under review. The first Maithila writer on Dharmaśāstra,

according to P.V. Kane, was Śrikara (A.D. 800 – 1000).100 He propounded the

view of spiritual benefit as the criterion for judging superior rights of

succession. Śridatta Upādhyāya (A.D.1275-1350)101 was another famous

writer who wrote Ācāradarśa, Chandogāhnika, Pitṛbhakti, Śrādhakalpa,

Samayapradīpa, etc. The most important among the Maithila Nibandhakāras

was Caṇḍeśvara Thākura, (14th C. A.D.) who was not only a great scholar but

a successful administrator as well. He compiled an extensive digest called

Smṛti Ratnākara divided into seven sections – Kṛtya, Dāna, Vyavahāra,

Śuddhi, Pujā, Vivāda, Grahastha and Rājnīti.102 Besides these ratnākaras

Caṇḍeśvara is credited with having written another important book Kṛtya

Cintāmaṇi. It deals with astronomical matters in relation to the performance of

several religious ceremonies and samskāras.103

97 A copy of this MSS is available in the Raj Library, Darbhanga, Catalogue of Mithilā MSS I,

p.185, No.169. 98 Vidyāpati's Puruṣa Parīkṣā, Pat., for details. 99 Rakesh, Ram Ekbal, Maithili Lok Geet, p.107ff. "Mathura, Dili, Ayodhya, Kailash, Kashi,

Karnatpur and Orisa etc. 100 Cf. Choudhary, R.K., op. cit., p.241. 101 Ibid. 102 Jha, Parameśwara, Mithilā Tattva Vimarśa, Pat., p.80. 103 Choudhary, R.K., op. cit., p.245.

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Harinātha, the author of Smṛtisara, was also a great scholar of 14th

century A.D.104 The Madanaratnapradīpa is an extensive work written by the

ruling chief of Champaran namely Madansimhadeva (15th c. A.D.). Another

important nibandhakāra was Rudradhāra105 who is said to have been the

composer of several works, such as Śuddhivivek, Śraddhaviveka and

Vratapaddhati. These works are often quoted by Vācaspati, Raghunandana

and others scholars of our period. Misaru Miśra106 is the author of the famous

work Vivādacandra, dealing with love, recovery of debts, streedhan (right to

property of women), etc. He not only quotes, but also criticizes Caṇḍeśvara.

However, after Caṇḍeśvara, the most important nibandhkāras of

Mithilā, was Vācaspati Miśra (15th Century A.D.) who was also well versed in

Dharmaśāstra. He wrote ten works on the śāstras, i.e. philosophical works;

and thirty works on smṛtis. Some of his outstanding works are the following:

Kṛtyacintāmaṇi, Śuddhicintāmaṇi, tīrtha-cintāmaṇi, Gayāśraddhapa-ddhati,

Dvaitanirṇaya, Mahādān-nirṇaya, Śrāddhavidhi, Tīrthanirṇaya, Ahanik-

cintāmaṇi, Dvaitacintāmaṇi, Nīticintāmaṇi, Vivādanirṇaya, Śuddhinirṇaya, etc.

These Cintāmaṇis107 deal with daily rites, festivals, etc. whereas his nirṇayas

discuss all the tithis (dates) and their rites.

Misaru Miśra's (15th C. A.C.) Vivāda candra, has been a recognized

authority on Hindu law in Mithilā. He specifically stated that the work

Strīdhana was to be applied to such women's property as was technically so

called by the ancient sages and not to all property that comes to a woman.

Vidyāpati was another important writer on the Smṛti. Some of his important

works in this field are Gaṇgāvākyāvalī, Dānvākyāvali. Varṣākṛtya, Śaivasarva-

svasāra, Durgābhaktitarangiṇī, etc. Gaṇgāvākyāvalī, for example, deals with 104 Miśra, V., Cultural Heritage of Mithilā, p.316. 105 Ibid., p.316. 106 Ibid., p.317. 107 Jha, Parameśwara, Mithilā Tattvavimarśa, pp.118-119. here it is said that he wrote as many

as fortynine books, cf. Vidyāpati Granthāvali, Vol. I and II, KSDS University, Dar. for details.

217

rites and duties to be observed on the banks of the river Gangā.

Dānavākyāvalī, mentions rules governing the giving of gifts. Similarly,

Varṣāritya deals with fast and festivals. Śaivasarvasvasāra deals with the

essence of Śiva worship and Durgābhaktitaraṇgiṇī with Durga worship.

Just as the writers of Mithilā are indebted to 'Kalpataru' (wish-fulfilling-

tree), similarly the writers of Bengal are indebted to the writers of Mithilā.108

The writings of Śrīdatta, Caṇḍeśvara, Vidyāpati, Rudradhara, Vācaspati and

others have been utilized by Raghunandan, the greatest writer of the

nibandhas in Bengal. It should be noted here that the Bengal nibandhakāras

came into conflict with the view of Vācaspati and Vardhamāna.

The study of the dharmaśāstra may, therefore, stand for the study of

Hindu sociology in a broad sense. In the Mithilā digests also we have the

presentation of various social problems and efforts of Mithilā law givers to

solve them. The writers of dharmaśāstras recognized sadācāra (right

behaviour) as one of the authoritative sources of Dharma.109 Traditional usage

and customs were regarded as sources of Dharma.110 The scholars of Mithilā,

like the Smṛti writers of other places, had a great desire to solve the problems

connected with their religion and day to day problems of the society.

Caṇḍeśvara, Vācaspati and Vidyāpati are the best examples of this desire in

the society in Mithilā.

PATRONAGE OF LEARNING AND SCHOLARSHIP

The rulers of Karṇātas Oinawāras and Khandavālas generously

patronized learning. Under the Karṇātas (1097-1325 A.D.), books and

commentaries on different branches of literature were written and compiled.

Padmanābha Datta started his new school of grammar known as supadma. 108 JASB, Vol. XIX (Letters), p.107ff, Art. "Raghunandan's Indebtdness to his predecessors" by

B. Bhattacharya. 109 Yajnāvalkya Smrti, I, p.7. 110 Manu Smṛti, I, p. 118.

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Bhānudatta Miśrā wrote on Rhetorics and Erotics. Ratneśvara commented

upon Sarasvati kanthāvaraṇa of Bhoja and Jyotiriśvara wrote paṅcasāyaka

and Rangaśekhara besides his famous Varṇa Ratnākara. Bhāvadatta's

commentary on the Naiṣadhiyacaritama is yet studied with interest and

delight. Śrikara's commentary on the Amarkoṣa is a remarkable contribution

to Sanskrit literature. Caṇḍeśvara and his family kept the banner of Smṛtic

studies high. The Karṇāta period saw the growth and development of a new

school of logic (Navya-Nyāya), as we have already discussed in this chapter.

The Oinwāras111 were mostly great scholar-rulers of Mithilā, fond of

learning and under them Mithilā attained academic eminence. Ganeśwara

Thākura, third ruler of his dynasty in hierarchy was a great lover of literature

and art. He zealously patronized scholars in his court and thereby kept up the

tradition of his ancestors.112 Literary activities found a great impetus during

the reign of Kirti Simha (A.D. 1402-1410).113 Besides Vidyāpati, Dāmodar

Miśra, the author of Veni Bhushana, also flourished during this time. His

patronage of learning can easily be judged from the Kīrttilatā which

constitutes a living monument to his glory and fame.114

Bhairava Simha's time was also marked with great literary and

intellecutual fervour. Gonu Jha, a matchless humorist and a man of

inexhaustible wits, flourished in about the same period.115 His name has now

passed for a household word in Mithilā and moreover he was a great scholar

of his time.116 The great Maithila philosopher Gangeśa Upādhyāya and

Vardhamāna Upādhyāya, mentioned earlier also flourished.

111 Thākura, U., History of Mithilā, p.290. 112 Miśra, U., Vidyāpati Thākura, p.17. cf. Mitra and Majumdar, Vidyayapti, p.32. 113 JBRS, XL, p.112. 114 Thākura, U., History of Mithilā, p.303. 115 Jha, Parameśwara, op. cit., p.91. 116 Ibid., p.91. The panji records his name among other things as "Mahamahoharikesha

Mahadhurtaraj Gonukah…." Also, Thākura, U., op. cit., pp.304-305.

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Vidyāpati says that King Deva Simha was hounoured among the great

heroes and his name headed the list of them that are full of learning.117 It was

by his order that Vidyāpati wrote Bhūparikramā, mentioned earlier.118

The name of Śivasimha has become proverbial in Mithilā like

Harisimha Deva of Karṇāta dynasty.119 Not only was his wife Lakhimā one of

the few learned women of the then India but she also appears to have been a

good administrator. The court of Shiva Simha was full of scholars like

Vidyāpati, Vācaspati Miśra II, a great digest writer of our period, and others.120

During this period, attention was also given to the Maithili language and

literature. Vidyāpati composed poems in this language and made them very

popular. The reign of Nar Simha Deva121 is also marked by cultural activity.

Vidyāpati in his Durgābhakti Tarangiṇī' has called him a great warrior, a great

giver of gifts and an erudite scholar. Under his patronage Sudhākara wrote

Ratnāvalī, a treatise dealing with astronomy and several other works on

grammar and logic.122

Under Bhairava Simha's patronage Ruchipati wrote Anargharaghava

Tika; Abhinava Vācaspati Miśra the crest jewel among scholars, compiled the

Vyavahāra Cintāmaṇi and other treatise. The great Pakśadhara Miśra wrote

his immortal works Navyanyāyalok, tithicandrikā, etc. We, however, do not

notice the cultural glory created by the Oinawara rulers during the reign of

Lakśmīnātha Simhadeva (A.D. 1530-1527).123

117 Ibid., p.92. Also, refer to Indian Antiquity, XIV. III, "Virekshu manyah sudhiyan varnayo…" 118 Singh, S.N., History of Tirhut, p.71. 119 There is a proverb in Mithilā, viz. "Pokhari Rajokhar aur sabh pokhara

Raja Sive Singh aur Sabha Chhokara"

Cf. Jha, Parameśwara, op. cit., p.93. 120 Ibid., p.112ff. 121 Ibid., p.326. 122 Ibid., p.327. 123 Miśra, V., Cultural Heritage of Mithilā, p.80. There is a controversy regarding the period of

this ruler. For details, U. Thākura’s History of Mithilā, p.336ff.

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The rule of Khandavāla dynasty (c. 1556 A.D. onwards) was also the

golden age of Sanskrit learning in Mithilā. Like the Karṇātas and Oinwāras,

kings of this dynasty patronized learning and art in their court. M.M. Mahesha

Thākura, the founder of this dynasty, was himself one of the brightest literary

gems that illumined the period. His celebrated works are Ālokapradīp, a

commentary on Pakśadhara Miśra's Dāyasāra, Aticāranirṇaya, and Darpaṇa

a commentary on Gangeśa Upādhyāya's Nyāya Cintāmaṇi.124 He also wrote a

history of Akabar's reign in Sanskrit, the original copy of which is now

preserved in India Office, London.125

Maheśa Thākura did not only make principles for deciding Aticāra but

also introduced a system of examination called Dhout vastra Parīkṣā which

has already been discussed in this chapter. This was his great contribution to

the world of Sanskrit learning. He is also said to have met his great

contemporary, the celebrated saint poet Tulasi Das, in Kashi (or Banaras).126

Maheśa Thākura also patronized vernacular literature, i.e. Maithili. He wrote

Gangāstuti in Maithili and the book is still very popular in Mithilā.127

The elder brothers of Maheśa Thākura, namely Tegha Thākura,

Dāmodara Thākura, Megha Thākura, all of whom were designated

Mahāmahōpādhyāyas, were also great scholars. Megha Thākura was a

disciple of Pakśadhara Miśra II, and his work Jalada is a commentary of

Vardhamāna's Līlāwatī Prakāśā.128 Dāmodara Thākura was also a great

scholar of darshana, nyāya, and karmakānda. His works Vivekadīpaka,

Ṣodaśamahā-dānapaddhati and Divya Dīpikā are of great eminence. He was

a court Pandit of Maharāja Sangram Singh of Bastar (Madhya Pradesh).

124 Jha, Parameśwara, Mithilā Tattva Vimarśa, p. 143. cf. S.N. Singh's History of Tirhut, p.235.

Also, Bakshi M. Jha's Mithilā Bhasha Maya Itihas, p.57. 125 Smith, V.A., Akbar the Great Moghal, Oxford, London, p.486. 126 Jha, op. cit., p.2. 127 Ibid., p.152 Bakshi, op. cit., pp.75-76. 128 Mithilā Bharati, Anka-3, Jan-Dec., 1971, Pat., p.69.

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Next in line was Raghudeva Miśra,129 grandson of Achyut Thākura130

who was himself a scholar of eminence. His work Virudāvalī is still very

popular among the scholars of Mithilā. It was by the order of Raghudeva

Miśra that Paraśurāma Jhā copied Vācaspati Miśra's Śuddha Cintāmaṇi,

Vyavahāra Cintāmaṇi, and Dwaita Nirṇaya. The emperor Shahjahan

honoured him with the title of Sarasvati for his poetic and scholarly

accomplishments. Hemangada Thākura, son of Gopāla Thākura, was a great

astrologer of the period.131 His Rahūparāgapanji is still studied and homoured

by the scholars.

Śubhankara Thākura (A.D. 1581-1571) maintained the tradition of his

predecessors and patronized education and learning with great zeal during

the period under review. He himself wrote Tithi Nirṇaya and Śrīhasta

Muktāvalī',132 which are valuable works still appreciated by the scholars of

Mithilā.

Another celebrated scholar king of this dynasty was Raja Sundar

Thākura. It was by his order that Rāma Dāsa wrote Ānanda Vijaya Nātikā in

his praise which was later on published by Maharāja Rameśwara Simha.133

The period of his son, Raja Mahīnātha Thākura was also marked by all round

development. His younger brother Narapati Thākura was also a great patron

of Maithili language and literature along with Sanskrit literature. He also used

to compose in Maithili language. It was on his order that the celebrated poet

Lochana wrote his famous Rāga Tarangiṇī,134 and Naiṣadha Kāvyama.135

129 Bakshi, M.J., Mithilā Bhashamaya Itihas, pp.139-46. Also Jha, P., op .cit., p.155. 130 Ibid., p.69, Bakshi, M.J., op. cit., p.15. 131 The panji literature follows thus "hemangadasa Tanute Panji Rahu Parāgasya" for his

miraculous astrological feat said to have been performed before Emperor Akbar and supported by P. Jha, op. cit., pp.155-56.

132 Jha, Parameśwara, op. cit., p.157. 133 Published by Raj Press, Darbhanga. 134 Rāga Tarangiṇī, ed. Baldeva Miśra, Dar. Also, Maithili Akademi, Pat., for details. 135 Palmleaf MSS, Preserved in Raj Library, Darbhanga.

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Maithili songs and rāgas, known locally as Tirhuti songs, were made very

popular during this period.136

During the reign of Raghava Simgh (A.D. 1703/4-1739-40)137 Krishna

Kavi became a famous poet who has described the battle of Ladari Ghat in

his poems.138 Kavi Narāyaṇa wrote Virudāvalī in his praise and also

composed the Madhuravāniśwara temple inscription.139

However, the most reputed scholar of the period concerned was Pandit

raj Gokul Nath Upādhyāya.140 He was an outstanding writer of his time mainly

because of his revolutionary approach to contemporary problems and their

solutions. Gokulnath wrote his famous book Kunda Kādambarī after the name

of his daughter who died in a tank at an early age. He was a disciple of the

great Umapati Upadhyaya of his village Koilakha.141 Gokulnath had equal

command over darshana, vyakarana, sāhitya, and jyotiṣa.

It should also be noted here that Maithili language and literature

developed rather rapidly and some of the rulers of the royal dynasties took

active interest in development. Like Jyotiriśvara Thākura and Vidyāpati,

several scholars made Maithili language and literature rich and popular. The

most important among them was Amritkar,142 Haripati143, Bhanukavi,144

Gajasimha,145 Rudradhara,146 Kavirāja,147 Bhikhāri Miśra, Viśnupuri,148

136 Jha, Parameśwara, op. cit., Pat., p. 161. cf. Mithilā Bharati, Ank-3, Jan-Dec., p.69. 137 Miśra, V., Cultural Heritage of Mithilā, p.97. 138 Mithilā Bharati, 1971, p.70. 139 R.K. Choudhary's Select Inscription of Bihar, pp.127-29. Also Mithilā Bharati, Ank-3, 1971,

p.69. 140 Jha, Parameśwara, Mithilā Taṭṭva Vimarśa, p.169. "Kundakadambarināma Granthoyāna

Tvakṛtya". 141 Jha, Parameśwara, op. cit., p.171. 142 Miśra, J.K., A History of Maithili Lit., Vol.I, pp.196-98. 143 Ibid., pp.200-201. 144 Ibid., p..201-202. 145 Ibid., pp.202-204. 146 Ibid., p.204.

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Deśbandhu Thākura,149 Yeśodhara Nava Kavi Śekhara, Madhusudana,

Caturbhuja, Govinda, Kaṁsanarayaṇa and several other scholars served

maithili language and literature.

Some of the poets and scholars mentioned above were from areas that

form part of Nepal now.150 Thus, the rulers of Nepal also patronized Maithili

language and literature along with Sanskrit during the period under review.

For example, Vanśmaṇi Jhā's several books in Maithili were written during the

reign of Bhupal Singh and Jyotirmala.151 We also notice that several dramatic

books were also written during this period.

In the realm of Nātakas Raṇadāsa Jhā wrote Ānanda Vijaya Nātaka

between A.D. 1644 and 1671.152 He also wrote Uṣhāharaṇa Nātaka. At a

slightly later period Umāpati Upādhyāya illumined the age with his genius. He

wrote Pārijātaharaṇa Nātaka' which is unrivalled153 in the field concerned.

Lālkavi wrote Gouri Swayambara Nātaka and was a contemporary of

Maharāja Narendra Singh.

It should be noted here that a very significant feature of the period

under review was the growth and development of both Sanskrit and Maithili

literatures side by side without any mutual conflict at the same time. It can be

said that it is only very rarely that literatures in a recessive and a dominant

languages of a community grow simultaneously. So at a time when Sanskrit

was in ascendancy, it was in Mithilā that the vernacular literature also attained

a sort of maturity as should be clear from the foregoing description. Both

Sanskrit and Maithili grew side by side without any antipathy to each other,

147 Ibid., pp.204-205. 148 Ibid., pp.208-209. 149 Ibid., pp.209-210. 150 Ibid. Also Mithilā Bharati, Bhag : 1-4, 1971, p.71. 151 Miśra, J.K., op. cit., pp.253-254. 152 Ibid., p.287ff. 153 Ibid., p.328.

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and though when Sanskrit was written by scholars of Mithilā, Maithili songs

were inserted in response to the popular demands, in the Sanskrit dramas

also. For example Pārijātaharaṇa Nātaka may be cited as a good example of

this feature of the period.154

We notice some of the women scholars of Mithilā played important

part in raising the status of Mithilā in the realm of education and learning. The

most important among them seems Lakhimā, the chief queen of Shiva Simha

(A.D. 1416).155 She was a celebrated scholar of the period. Her verses in

Sanskrit, of which stray pieces are still extant, are greatly honoured by the

scholars of Mithilā. Along with her husband she was a patron of Vidyāpati.

It is said that padārthacandra which is a treatise on Nyāya Vaiśeśika156

was written at the initiative of her guru Misru Miśra, a dharmaśastri, by the

Queen Lakhimā. Numerous legends speaking eloquently of her poetic talents

and unsurpassing wit and humour are yet a matter of keen interest in the

families of Mithilā.

Viśwāsa Devī157 was yet another celebrated woman during the period

under review. Under her patronage, as it is said, Vidyāpati wrote

Śaivasarvaśwara, Parmānbhūtapurāṇasamgraha and Gangāvākyavalī. These

books are replete with the eulogies of the queen. If tradition is to be relied

upon during the reign of Viśwāsa Devī, there was a gathering of 1400

mīmāmsākaras in Mithilā.158

The grand daughter of Vidyāpati, Chandrakalā, was also believed to be

an accomplished woman of our period. She was a great poet and Lochana in

his Rāga Tarangiṇī quotes a poem by her.159

154 Parijātahraṇa Nātaka, ed. Surendra Jha Suman, Darbhanga. 155 Thākura, U., op. cit., p.332. cf. Jha, Parameśwara, op. cit., p.163. 156 Miśra, V., op. cit., p.147. 157 Thākura, U., op. cit., p.324. 158 Choudhary, R.K., op. cit., p.226. 159 Lochankrit Rāgatarangiṇī, Pat., p.XII, Also, Miśra, J.K., op. cit., p.199. Ramdeva Jha holds a

contradictionary view and suggests that it could be Chandrakavi. Cf. Lochankrit RajTarangiṇī, Pat. Intro.

225

However, excepting the above examples, we do not notice other

women of repute in the realm of education and learning. In fact, women's

education on a mass scale was unknown because of several important

factors.

Education was considered less important for women then their opposite

sex.160 The parents were lukewarm towards the education of their daughters.

There was no separate school for girls and they got their primary education in

the school of boys. But as soon as the girls attained puberty they were

prohibited from receiving education along with the boys.

This state of women's education, however, was not only due to the

negligence on the part of the parents and administrators, but also because of

numerous social evils such as the purdah system and the practice of early

marriage as well as seclusion of women within the four walls of the house.161

In fact the purdah system snatched the freedom of movement of women. Due

to this strict social binding, the women enjoyed very little opportunity to

acquire education.

Because of the institution of early marriage, young girls became the

mothers of numerous children at a very early age. Thus their health

deteriorated after marriage and their main business remained to look after the

household duties. So they could not spare time for literary pursuits.162

The economic factors were also no less responsible for the denial of

education to women during the period under review. We have several

examples of highly educated ladies like Lakhimā and Viśwāsa Devī, but we

can get hardly any enlightened women representing a poor family. Thus, the

economic factors163 must have blocked the educational progress of women.

160 Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society, Vol. XIX, 1964, p.119. 161 Law, N.N., Promotion of Learning in India, During Mohammadan Rule, Cal., 1916, pp.204-5. 162 JBRS, Vol. XLII, 1976, p.160. 163 Ibid., p.161.

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MAITHILĪ LANGUAGE AND ITS LITERARY FEATURES

There has been an unbroken continuity of Maithilī language and

literature since its inception in the early medieval period. The earliest

reference to Maithilī or Tirahutiyā is found in Amaduzzi's preface to Beligatti's

Alphabetum Brahmpānicum (published in 1771 A.D.). This contains a list of

Indian languages amongst which there is one Tourutiana i.e. Tirhutiyā. It was

Colebrooke who for the first time called it as Mithelee or Mythili in 1801.164

William Adam who conducted a survey of the state of education in

Bengal and Bihar during 1835-1838, used the word Tirhutiyā for Maithilī as

the language of conversation in Tirhut in his report.165 Buchanan used the

words desh bhasha, Mithilā dialect, etc. for Maithili.166 It was probably George

A. Grierson who first used the word 'Maithili' for the language of the people of

Mithilā in 1882.167

Maithili has its own script which is variously known as Maithili Lipi,

Mithilākśara or Maithilākśara, but popularly it is called 'Tirīhuta'.168 Maithili

seems to have emerged out somewhere in the neighbourhood of tenth-

eleventh century A.D. and has passed through successive stages of

development known as old Maithili (A.D. 900 – 1350), Middle Maithili (A.D.

1350 – 1830) and Modern Maithili (from 1830 A.D. onwards).169 Middle

Maithili, a pan-maithili literary language was most developed form of literary

language.

164 Asiatic Researches, VII, 1801, p.199; cf. Miśra, V., Cultural Heritage of Mithilā, p.162. 165 Basu, Anathnath, ed. Report on the State of Education in Bengal (1835 & 1938) by William

Adam, University of Calcutta, Calcutta, 1941, p.248. 166 Buchanan, Francis, An Account of the District of Purnea in 1809-10, BORS, Patna, 1928,

pp.171-173. 167 Grierson, George A., An Introduction to the Maithili Language of North Bihar Containing A

Grammar, Chrestomathy and Vocabulary, Part II, JASB, Calcutta, 1882, pp.24-29. 168 Miśra, V., op. cit., pp.191-215. 169 Choudhary, Radhakrishna, A Survey of Maithili Literature, Devgarh, 1976, pp.6-7.

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The Maithila Brāhmaṇas and Kāyasthas took the greatest share in

producing the vast bulk of Maithili literature in the past. The works in Maithili

such as Jyotiriśvara's Varṇa Ratnākara, Umāpati's Pārijātaharaṇa and many

more have been already mentioned in this chapter. It was ultimately Vidyāpati

who boldly asserted the sweetness of Desilabayāna170 (native language) and

established its authority over the all-embracing character of Sanskrit.171

The earliest signs of the vernacular forms are illustrated in the works of

Siddhācāryas. While the Prākṛta-Apabhraṁśa-Avahaṭṭa-Laukika language

was gradually gaining ground, neo-classical Sanskrit literature was taking

shape and that is best illustrated in the Gītagovinda of Jayadeva whose

influence on the later writers of Mithilā and Bengal is immense.172

The people of Mithilā appear to have been well-versed in prosody. The

joining of metre with melodies (Rāgas and Rāgiṇīs) is found as early as the

eleventh-twelfth century A.D. in Nānyadeva's (C. 1097-1147 A.D.)

Sarasvatihṛdayā-laṅkārahāraj and in Jayadeva's Gītagovinda. Metre and

melodies are totally absent from the Caryāpadas. Locana's song metres are

regulated by definite Rāgas and Tālas. The existence of a large number of

commentaries on Prākṛta-paiṅgla, written through the centuries in Mithilā by

various commentators, is indicative of the poetic talents and interest in

prosody.173

All forms of literature are represented in Maithili. In the field of poetry,

Maithili is rich in epics (Mahākāvyas) of which there are three different

classes,174 viz. –

170 Kīrttilatā of Vidyāpati, ed. U. Miśra, p. 4.

"Sakkaya Vānī Vahua na bhāvui,

Pāuna bāsko mamma na pabay-desil bayānā saba jana miṭṭhā, tan taisana jampiyo avahaṭṭhā. 171 Choudhary, R.K., Mithilā in the Age of Vidyāpati, p.408. 172 Ibid., p.414. 173 Ibid., p.415. 174 Ibid., p.416.

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(A) (i) translations of the adaptations of the original, for example,

Acyutānanda Datta's Mahābhārata and Raghuvaṁśa; and GauriŚankara

Jha's Meghanādavadha, based on the adaptation of Michael Madhusudan

Datta.

(ii) Independent works following the convention of Sanskrit epics, viz.,

Badrinath Jha's Ekāvalipariṇaya; Raghunandan Dasa's Subhadrāharaṇa and

Tantranath Jha's Kīcakabadha.

(iii) Having the characteristics of epics, e.g., Manabodha's Kṛṣṇajanma,

Chanda Jha's Rāmāyaṇa, Laldāsa's Rāmāyaṇa.

(B) Like the Mahākāvyas, the Khaṇdakāvyas are equally popular in

Maithili. Here also translations and adaptations are seen besides the original

ones. Translations and adaptations of Meghadūta, Ṛtusaṁhara,

Bhartṛharinirvedakāvya, Virahiṇī-Vajrāṅgaṇa and various others are found.

Some of the notable original products in the field of Khaṇḍakāvya are

Gaṅgālaharī and Gaṇeśakhaṇḍa by Laldāsa, Gajagrahoddhāra by

Gunawantalal Das, Vīrabālaka by Raghunandana Das, Satibibhūti by

Riddhinath Jha and Nāradavivāha by Anupa Miśra.

(C) A peculiar type of Sanskrit Kāvya, known Vātāhvāna Kāvya, has

been very popular in Maithili. It is supposed to induce the wind to blow at

particularly hot hours. Both Chanda Jha and Bhana Jha have followed this.

(D) Virudāvalis have been composed by Laldāsa and Riddhinath Jha.

(E) Kobaragīta has been composed by one of the master artists named

Kaśikant Miśra Madhup.

The most important and common type of poetry in Maithili is Tirhuti. It

represents the most popular and successful indigenous lyrical expression of

Tirhut and is the richest of all classes of Maithili songs. All aspects of love

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affairs are unfolded therein. They sing of separation as well as of union. The

Tirhuti has following classificaitons175 -

(i) Baṭagamni – it potrays the nāyika (heroine) in abhisāra (that is,

when she goes to meet her lover). It is sung out in a peculiar melody of which

Vidyāpati in the most successful writer.

(ii) Goālari – It depicts the sports and youthful pranks of Kṛṣṇa in the

company of the Gopis of which Nandipati is the most successful writer.

(iii) Rāsa – It deals with Kṛṣṇa's sportive lilās with Gopis. The most

important writer on Rāsa in Maithili is Sahebramadāsa. The influence of

Brajabhāṣā is perceptible in his writings.

(iv) Māna – It represents a sort of dramatic lyric depicting the

annoyance of the beloved (strimāna) and the request of the lovers to mend

matters and vice-versa (puruṣmāna). Umāpti is the best writer of māna.

Other important forms of Maithili poetry are represented by Samadauni,

Lagni, Chaitābara, Malāra, Yoga, Uchiti, Sohara, Choumāsā and devotional

songs like Nachāri, Maheshvāni, Gosaunikagita and Viṣṇupada.176

(i) Samadauni – On the occasion of the Navarātri, it is sung to bid adieu

to goddess Durgā. It is sung to bid farewell to one's daughter when she is

going to her husband's house after marriage. All important functions end with

the singing of this song, popularly known as Bidai song. Gananātha Jha and

Vindhyānatha Jhā have made important contributions in this field.

(ii) Lagni – It is sung by village womenfolk in the early hours of morning

while grinding grains. The classical type of Lagni embodies four to five

stanzas. Gananātha Jhā has used it as a medium of fine poetry.

175 Ibid., p.417 176 Ibid., pp.418-419.

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(iii) Chaitābara – It represents a class of folk poetry and conveys

emotions of love in the month of Caitra (March-April). It is also known as Caiti.

(iv) Malāra – It is a seasonal song, sung generally in the dry and rainy

seasons, having a distinct rāga.

(v) Yoga – It is sung to bind the bridegroom and the bride, even lover-

beloved, by divine incantations.

(vi) Uchiti – It is sung to convey the courtesy of the host to the

distinguished visitor. The Yoga and Uchiti are the two peculiar classes of

Maithili songs. These two songs have both literary and folk types. The Yoga

goes back to the days of Vidyāpati.

Sohara, Bārahmāsā and Coumāsā are the familiar types of all

vernacular poetry and are found in almost all the languages of Bihar. Sohara

represents the birth songs. Bārahamāsā represents the state of separation

during the course of twelve months; Coumāsā during the course of four

months. These two classes have both literary and folk types. In Mithilā, the

ordinary people have to eke out their livelihood with great difficulty and as

such long separation from the near and dear ones is a common feature.

These songs are the products of such separation and various poets, now

unknown, composed or contributed to the development of these songs.

Nacāri indicates songs representing direct prayer to Śiva. Nacāri and

Maheśvāṇi are often confused and kept in common parlance but the

difference between the two is real and marked. Nachāri refers to the ecstatic

dance of Śiva and is addressed to Manain (Menaka, mother of Gouri). It

represents the life of Śiva and more specially his marriage. Vidyāpati, Lalkavi,

Kanhārāmadās, Chanda Jha and others have composed some of the best

Nacāris and Maheśvāṇis. The Gosaunikagīta is sung in praise of Śakti and

the people have been composing such songs since the days of Vidyāpati.

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The Maithili folk literature is equally important from the literary point of

view. The chief characteristics of maithili folk literature are simplicity,

freshness and the charm of its genre. At rare moments of intuitive experience,

it is at its best and is able to have direct vision into the life of things. The story

of the married life of Śiva, the love episodes of Kṛṣṇa, the story of Bihula,

Puranic legends and gods, other romantic love stories of a like nature, riddle

poetry, didactive and educative lore form the basis of folk literature in Mithilā.

Verses dispensing with the practical wisdom are found in Dākavacanāmṛta.

Jyotiriśvara is well known for his erotic composition. Maithili folk literature has

long romantic tales in verse or in popular ballads. Lorika, Bihula, Salhesa,

Dinabhadri, Satikumari and many others are some of the finest specimens of

Maithili folk literature.

It is in the field of lyrics that Maithili has made the most notable

contribution in the history of modern Indo-Aryan literature. Most lyrics are

meant to be sung. The tradition of lyric, set by the early Caryāpadas and

elaborated and perfected by Jayadeva and Umāpati, reached its pinnacle of

glory in Vidyāpati. The lyrics are suited to mood and emotion with wide and

ulimited range. The chief sources of inspiration are the events and

experiences of everyday life. Needless to say that Sanskrit poetics and erotic

convention provide eternal background to its colour and imagery. Maithili

lyrics are mainly distinguished by their melodies. Bhanita is the most common

feature of the Maithili lyric and some of the Bhanitas contain the name of the

patron whom the poet wishes to oblige or compliment.

The tradition of prose in Maithili is the earliest in the whole of eastern

Indian languages and its best example is found in the Varṇaratnākara of

Jyotiriśvara. His influence is seen on the writing of the later authors of Nepal

and Bengal. It is regrettable that the tradition of finished prose could not be

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carried on longer. The middle Maithili was dominated mainly by the lyrics and

the prose, in modern sense of the term, is really a modern creation.177

In the field of drama, Maithili's contribution is unique. It influenced the

dramatic tradition of Assam, Bengal and Nepal. For a considerable period,

Sanskrit and Prakrit dominated the scene of Maithili drama. In most of the

earlier dramas, speeches are in Sanskrit and Prakrit and Maithili or Sanskrit

verses intersperse the play. Sometimes they are translated into Maithili or the

songs are purely in Maithili. These songs sometimes contain the translation of

the meaning of the preceding Sanskrit verses. We have such an example in

Umāpati's Pārijātaharaṇa.178

EDUCATION AMONG MUSLIMS

The respect towards education and learning has been a permanent

feature in Islamic tradition. There are traditions or Ḥādith ascribing many

things to the Prophet of Islam, both in the form of His sayings and actions,

including the need as well as obligation, to acquire knowledge for acting and

thinking in upright ways. One of the traditions says that a father can confer

upon his child no more valuable gift than a good education.179

There was no state department of education and the entire system of

education was built up and run on a purely voluntary basis. There were

considerable educational activities in the traditional Hindu and Muslim system

of learning in centres like Darbhanga, Muzaffarpur, Maner, Bihansharif, etc.180

The various Sufi Khānqāhs both in the south and north Bihar fostered

the cause of education. A Muslim child learned at home and Maktabs reading,

reciting and memorizing the Qurān, learning the rules of grammar and

177 Ibid., p.420. 178 Ibid., p.421. 179 Askari, S.H., Islam and Muslims in Medieval Bihar, Khuda Baksha Oriental Public Library,

Patna, 2nd Edn., 1998, p.121. 180 Lal, Bihari 'Fitrat', Ainā-i-Tirhut (in Urdu), Matba Bahar Kashmir, Lucknow, 1883, pp.93-114.

233

speech, some ethical or moral maxims, a few traditions and lives of saints.

Those who entered in Madarasās attached to or situated near the mosques,

carried on their higher studies. In early times people, Hindus or Muslims,

thought it wrong to take pay for teaching. This was carried to extremes by

Muslims in regard to the Qurān and religion. Though the devout were in

favour of gratuitious religious instruction, there is evidence, of salary being

paid to the teachers.181

The few literary glimpses of social and religious life and of education in

its social bearing that we can catch from the works of mystic Sūfis called

Malfūzāt and Maktūbāt and of the Smṛti writers and also the prose works and

versified effusions of some contemporary poets, show that education was

thought then, as in ancient times, as a panacea for all evils and as a means of

improving the moral and physical conditions of a fairly considerable section of

population who formed the basis of the social pyramid.182

The two main pillars of Muslim education were the Maktab and the

Madrasa. The Maktab was the elementary school. The traditional age for the

commencement of the Maktab state is 5 years 4 months 4 days, but actually

when a child was 5 to 7 years old his education began, some times at home

of rich parents and more often in Maktab housed in small thatched mud-

buildings. As they had first to learn the Qurān, practice Qirāt (recitation) and

memorize it, combining it with instructive religious precepts and usages, and

read lives of godly people the mosque was not a fit place as school for all

classes of children, lest they might defile its floor and wall. They might be

taught near a mosque or a shrine of some saints. The boys had first to learn

the Qurān and the rules of grammar and speech, and also rudimentary rules

of arithmetic. When taken either to a Khānqāh (as in that of Biharsharif) under

the great Firdausī saint, Sharafu-ud-din Manerī, as we learn from his Malfūd

181 Aksari, S.H., op. cit., p.123. 182 Ibid., p.125.

234

Madan-ul-Mānī or to a Maktab, the child was first made to commence learning

to read with the phrase Bismillāh.183

Sounds of vowels and consonants, first separately and then combined,

were uttered distinctly by the teacher to indicate just pronunciation. Letters of

alphabet were written on a piece of paper or a wooden tablet or board called

Takhtī for the child to be copied. The boy was made to put his fingers on each

individual letter and imitate teacher in pronouncing and reading them

correctly. The elementary exercises for the beginners consisted of acquisition

of the knowledge of alphabet, continuance of combination of letters, divisions

into syllables, recitation of a few hemistiches or distiched repetition of that

which had been read before, writing with reed pens on a piece of paper or on

a wooden tablet. They learnt the words and passage of Qurān by rote,

memorized them by repeating them again and again.184

An obvious feature of the system of elementary education followed in

those days has been referred to in Manāqibul Asfiyā and Madan-ul-Māni. The

students in the primary stage had to memorise the texts of some prescribed

treatise including short lexicons and books of synonyms, so as to enable them

to store up a copious vocabulary in the mind.185

The early curriculum, besides the Qurān, appears to have consisted of

grammar and some amount of poetry, traditions, Arithmetic and calligraphy.

The study of science like astronomy, mathematics, algebra, geometry,

geography, history, medicine, philosophy, scholastic theology, in fact various

branches of Maqūlāt and Manqūlāt, that is rational and traditional subjects,

were pushed forward when the young scholar had nearly attained adulthood,

when they ceased to attend the Maktab and went to the Madrasa. Generally,

higher education extended to the age of 20 or even more. In medieval times

183 Ibid., p.127. 184 Ibid., pp.127-128. 185 Ibid., p.128.

235

sons of the better-to-do people had to be prepared for public offices, and also,

therefore, they were trained in the art of war. Difficulties of the time and the

exigencies of the situation demanded that they should learn riding, swimming

and wielding the sword and arrow.186

Muslim educational institutions in medieval Bihar, as elsewhere, were

of several grades ranging from elaborate Colleges known as Madrasas of

Jāmia (so-called because they were attached to Masjid-i-Jāmi or

congregational mosques). Some Madrasas were equipped with libraries of

hand-written books named as Kitāb Khāna and boarding-houses. Elementary

schools were called Maktab or Kuttāb, which meant a place for writing or a

school-house where, besides the recital and memorization of the Qurān, and

Tajwīd and Qirāt (art of reading) lessons were given in rudimentary

knowledge of Islam for the discharge of religious duties, and also in grammar

and glossary-writing, simple computation or elementary arithmetic. Side by

side, went on the study of books of ethics and literature, such as Pand Nāma

of Aṭṭār, Gulistān, Bostān of Sadī, allegorical story books of Nakhshabī and

selections from the works of Firdausi, Ḥāfiẓ, Niẓāmī and Amir Khusrau, and

the art of letter-writing or Mulāṭfa was learnt in Bihar through the Maktūbāt of

Firdausī Sūfis, Sharafu'd Din Manerī and of Muẓaffar Shams Balkhī. The boys

received some professional training also. Higher studies in Madrasas

originally included that of the theological subjects, such as Ḥadīth (tradition)

Fiqh and Uṣūl (jurisprudence), Tafsīr (exegesis or commentaries), science of

Ansāb and Rijāl (scrutiny of genealogy and biography of the traditionists). The

field of learning and investigation became wider and the prevailing curriculum

came to embrace both religious and secular subjects, such as the

grammatical themes of Etymology, Syntax (Sarf-o-Naḥw) and rhetoric (Mānī-

186 Ibid., p.129.

236

o-Bayān) logic, principles of Islamic law, philosophy, scholastic theology,

poetry, politics, medicine and music.187

Thus, the school system of the Muslims prevalent during the period

under review, required that every child after learning his alphabets and

vocabulary, should read the Holy Quran under a Muqri, i.e. one who knew

how to read it. Next, the student had to read literature, romance, history and

ethics. He made himself conversant with such works as Pandnāmāh,

Amudnāmāh, Gulistān, Bostān, Jamiul Qawānin, Ruqqat Amānullah Hussaini,

Bāhardānesh-Sikandranāmāh and so on. Those who stopped at this stage

were given the title of Munśi. But others who continued further were called

Maulvi, Maulānā or Fazil, befitting the standard and nature of learning that

they had acquired. Those who studied Arabic had to read, in addition, works

on the life and teaching of the Prophet Muhammad, and commentaries on

The Quran, Aqaid, Tasawwuf, Logic, Philosophy and Ilm-e-Kalam.188

Bihari Lal 'Fitrat' (A.D. 1883), the author of Ainā-i-Tirhut writes that the

learning of Persian, Arabic and Urdu was confined to Muslims. There were

forty-five such scholars in Darbhanga.189 The name of Mulla Abul Hasan has

been mentioned by the author190 who was in the court of Aurangzeb.

187 Ibid., p.130. 188 Diwakar, R.R., Bihar Through the Ages, pp.435-436. 189 Lal, Bihari, 'Fitrat', op. cit., pp.93-114. 190 Ibid., p.93.