294

Chapter –VI

Conclusions

6.1 Introduction

The present study of CM and CS in Indian English Speech was

undertaken with the intention to investigate the socio-cultural and the linguistic

factors that make CM and CS inevitable in Indian English. The sociolinguists

treat the interference of L1 into L2 as the important characteristic of the

plurilingual settings, which reflects the socio-cultural dynamics of the society.

The data used for this investigation is the Spoken Texts from the International

Corpus of English- Indian Component (ICE-IND). The corpus is compiled by

using the international norms essential for such language studies. There is a

common structure for all components of International Corpus of English, using

the same criteria for text selection and the same frame time. The design of ICE

ensures the compatibility of various national and regional varieties with one

another. The level of standardization also ensures the use of Corpus for the direct

comparative studies of the varieties of English throughout the world.

The three hundred spoken texts out of five hundred are chosen for this

study. However, to compare the frequency of CM and CS occurrences in Spoken

Texts with Written Texts, the two hundred Written Texts have also been used.

As discussed in Chapter III, the analysis of the code-mixed and the code-

switched instances is based on the socio-cultural and linguistic factors and the

contexts of the situations. All the L1 interferences in the data are classified, in

accordance with definitions discussed elaborately.

The analysis of the code-mixed instances provides the Indian socio-

cultural register of the code-mixed words, the semantic components in the Indian

context, the frequency, the sociolinguistic and pragmatic impressions of the

occurrences and also the striking grammar peculiarities, if noticed. The analysis

of the code-switched instances presents the immediate contexts of the situations

in which the switches occur, their wider social setting, the English versions of

295

the code-switched utterances and the sociolinguistic and the pragmatic factors

involved in the CS utterances.

As pointed out earlier, the code-mixed words are classified as per the

feature of their register. It may also be observed here that some of the code-

mixed words belong to more than one „register‟ feature. For example, the word

acharya, though listed in the register of Categories of People, does possess the

core properties such as +Sanskrit, +religious, +culture. Similarly, the word

satvik, though listed under Sanskrit head, occurs in Food Terms referring to

satvik diet. A number of examples in our data have such fuzzy boundaries.

However, for the sake of convenience, such cases are listed in one of the register

categories, irrespective of their multi-register property.

6.2 Research Findings

This modest attempt at studying CM and CS in IE Speech in the light of

the ICE-IND data reveals that there are various socio-cultural and pragmatic

factors peculiar to Indian society that make CM/CS inevitable. The analysis of

3407 CM and CS instances exhibits the usage of CM and CS belonging to 24

main registers, 55 sub-registers, 12 regional Indian languages and 6 religions. It

also investigates more than 20 different pragmatic (situational) reasons that

determine the occurrences of CM/CS. Moreover, it refers to a number of social

settings from 15 speech categories. This analysis and assessment of CM and CS

in IE speech from the sociolinguistic point of view establishes that IE is a widely

recognized standard non-native variety of English and CM and CS are

characteristic features of Indian English, not deviations.

6.2.1 Observations in Relation to Hypothetical Assumptions:

1) The study supports our primary assumption that as a non-native variety,

Indian English reveals the interference of L1 in the preference for CM/CS. Our

investigation shows that 245 texts out of 300 in the spoken category of our data

exhibit CM and CS occurrences. It means that 82% spoken situations demand

CM/CS. The speech category-wise percentage of the texts with CM/CS and the

texts without CM/CS is given in the Bar Diagram I.

296

Bar Diagram I

Further, the texts with CM/CS have been classified Subcategory-wise, as

illustrated in the following Table.

Table - 9 Subcategory-wise % of the Texts with CM/CS

From this Table, it appears that 100% text situations in Telephone

Conversation (i.e. Distanced Conversation), Legal Cross- Examination, Legal

Presentations and Broadcast News demand of CM and CS. The lowest demand,

Sr,

No

Text % with

CM/CS

% without

CM/CS

Dialogue -Private

1 Direct Conversations

92.2 7.8

2 Distanced Conversations

100 0

Dialogue -Public

3 Class Lessons

55 45

4 Broadcast Discussions

70 30

5 Broadcast Interviews

90 10

6 Parliamentary Debates

90 10

7 Legal Cross-examination

100 0

8 Business Transactions

80 20

Monologue -Unscripted

9 Spontaneous Commentaries

55 45

10 Unscripted Speeches

76.7 23.3

11 Demonstrations

70 30

12 Legal Presentations

100 0

Monologue -Scripted

13 Broadcast News

100 0

14 Broadcast Talks

65 35

15 Speeches (not Broadcast)

70 30

Total percentage 82 % 18%

297

i.e. 55%, is in Spontaneous Commentaries and Class Lessons. The remaining

sub-categories range differently in between these two extremes.

2) Our analysis of 2160 code-mixed words into 24 Indian registers and

1247 code-switched instances into 48 situations and 5 types of Discourse

Markers fully supports the assumption that CM and CS in Indian English speech

are essentially the register and the situation bound phenomena. That is to say, the

Indian speakers of English mix the register-bound words and switch to the

mother tongue when the topic and situation demand. From the Bar Diagram I, it

appears that Indian speakers of English use CM and CS strategies mostly in

Private Conversations; 93% situations demand CM/CS. The demand of CM/CS

in Public Conversation is 76.25%, in Unscripted Monologues 72.85% and in

Scripted Monologues 80%.

3) As mentioned earlier, though our study concentrates on 300 Spoken

Texts of the data, we have referred also to the CM and the CS occurrences in

200 Written Texts for the sake of comparison. The Table- 10 given below shows

that the Spoken Texts with CM/CS are 245 and the Written Texts with CM/CS

are 120. It means, 82% Spoken Texts/Situations demand CM/CS and 60%

Written Texts/Situations demand CM/CS. Thus, for the Indian English speaker,

the chances of CM/CS situations are more in the spoken category than in the

Written one.

Table - 10 Distribution of Texts with CM/CS in Spoken and Written Categories

Spoken Written

Text

Categor

y

Number

of Texts

With

CM/CS Text

Category Number

of Texts

With

CM/CS

S1A 100 93 W1A 20 9

S1B 80 61 W1B 30 25

S2A 70 51 W2A 40 11

S2B 50 40 W2B 40 17

TOTAL 300 245 W2C 20 19

Spoken Texts with CM/CS 82%

Written Texts with CM/CS 60%

W2D 20 15

W2E 10 9

W2F 20 15

TOTAL 200 120

298

4) Our analysis reveals that there are as many as 24 main registers and 55

sub-registers in which the code-mixed words have been classified. These

registers are the socio-cultural domains of the Indian society (Appendix A and

B). This register-wise classification of the code-mixed items supports the

assumption that the Code Mixing in IE speech is more register-bound.

5) Our analysis of the code-switched Discourse Markers supports the

assumption that the Indian speakers of English while expressing feelings and

emotional responses switch to their mother tongues. In our data, we have

located total 1044 Discourse Markers. The following Bar Diagram II shows the

distribution of Discourse Markers frequencies in semantic components:

Bar Diagram II

6) Our observations about Code Switching support the assumption that the

Indian speakers of English practise the strategic ways of switching to the mother

tongue. This practice is more pragmatic and situationally determined. Table- 7 in

Chapter V shows various pragmatic contexts in which CS is used.

Our investigation in CM and CS in Indian English Speech, thus, supports

our hypotheses to a great extent.

6.2.2 Sociolinguistic Elements:

There are a number of peculiar sociolinguistic elements observed in the

analysis of CM and CS instances.

The research findings are presented in two parts. They are: 1) Specific

Observation on Code Mixing and 2) Specific Observations on Code Switching.

We record them in the following sub-sections.

299

6.2.2.1 Specific Observations on Code Mixing in Indian English Speech

The observations on Code Mixing include the Sociolinguistic Context and

the Pragmatic Context of CM in Indian English Speech.

6.2.2.1.1 Sociolinguistic Context of Code Mixing:

The observations under the Sociolinguistic Context comprise Register-

bound Expressions, Regional Indian Languages and Religions referred to in CM.

6.2.2.1.1.1 Register-bound Expressions:

Our analysis of the code-mixed instances reveals that all code-mixed

words/expressions are peculiar to certain Indian social registers and they are

either difficult to translate or do not have proper equivalents in English. This

makes the Indians mix the words as they are. For Instance: crores, lakhs

(Numerical Terms); acres, bigha (Terms of Measurement); baijo,didi, akka,

mama(Kinship term); salwar, saree , ghagara (Dress Terms); bindi,mangalsutra

(Terms of wearing object); mujara, namaskar(Terms of Manners of greeting);

Gudi Padawa, Ramjan Idd, Makar Sankranti (Festival Terms), gunda,

panchanama, rampuri koyata (Criminal Terms); chapatti, bhakari (Food Terms-

Bread); Rasgulla,Gulabjam, Jilebi (Food Terms-Sweets); kadai,handi (Food

Terms-Kitchenware); Jawari chawal, chana dal (Food Terms- Grains and

Pulses); Biryani, khima, kabab (Food Terms- Non-veg. Dishes); Wadangi ,hilsa,

zinga (Food Terms-Fish); haladi, masala, ghee (Food Terms-Spice/Oil); Alu,

palak methe (Food Terms- Vegetables); angethi, choola,gobar gas (Food Terms-

Oven); Pan, tambakhu (Terms of Consuming, Edible); idli, samosa, dahi balle,

pav bhaji (Food Terms- Spicy Dishses ); bhujiya, papad (Food Terms-

Rajasthani Dishes); rikshawalah, paper walah, pandit, rishis, adivasis, shimpi,

Jamindar, dai, aaya (Terms for Categories of People ); Ganapati, Laxmi,Vishnu

(Religious Terms–Deities); sadhu, sanyasi, bhataji (Religious Terms –

Perosonale); mandir, math, masjid,basti (Religious Terms–Temple);

chaturthi,namavi (Religious Terms –Days of Hindu Calendar); pooja, prasad,

kumkum tilak, mantra (Religious Terms –Worship) ; haveli, shishmahal, aspatal

(Terms for Buildings ); varandah, pyol (Terms for parts of House), nagar,

puram, maidan (Terms for Parts of Town); Shaniwarwada, Teenmurti,

300

Shilanyas (Terms for Specific Places); Lamhe, Damini, Junun (Title Terms –

Movie); Kafan, Gaban, Mahabharata (Title Terms- Literary Works); Amrit

Puraskar, Jagataruni, (Title Terms-Awards); Sahdja, Pancham, Nishad, ragas

(Terms of Music); Tadasan, Vajrasan (Terms of Exercise–Yoga); karate, Judo,

Salami (Terms of Exercise– Judo); Rajmata, Sardarji, deviji, sahib (Honorific

titles); Shri , Shrimati, parampujya (Honorific Terms: Common); kendriya,

taluka , kheda (Terms in Govt. Administration); ayurved, unani (Terms for

Health Services); satvik ,rajasik (Sanskrit Terms-Attitude); vidya, sanskriti

(Sanskrit Terms– Philosophy); auchitya, dwani, anuman (Sanskrit Terms–

Indian Criticism); swastik, ankush, chakra (Sanskrit Terms –Ancient Coins);

abhinaya, nritya,natya, wachika (Sanskrit Terms–Dance Performance ), ke, ki,

to, lekin ( Structure Words); ahimsa, satyagraha, charakha (Terms of Gandhian

Philosophy).

The following Bar Diagram III shows the register-wise Frequencies of the code-

mixed words.

:

Bar Diagram III

301

6.2.2.1.1.2 Regional Indian Languages in CM:

It has been observed that the popular tendency among the Indian users is

to mix words in English with words from the regional languages. The

code-mixed regional languages used in our data are:

1) Hindi – Hindi is the national official language of India. It is also an L1

in many regional parts of the North India. In our data, most of the

mixed words belong to the Hindi language. For example: Alu ka

paratha (S2A-54#36), mausi (S1A-006#126).

2) Sanskrit - Acharya (S2B-016#138),shishya (S2A-027#16)

3) Marathi – Tumcha awaz (S1A-096#233), Somvari ya (S1A-097#118)

4) Kannada-ille (S1A-058#64)

5) Gujrathi –Tipari (S1A-093#61), ghagra (S1A-049#33)

6) Rajashtani –khammagani (S1A-008#189)

7) Tamil – puratchia ( S1B-044#120)

8) Urdu- Ramjan Idd (S1A-003#178)

9) Bengali –Rasagulla (S1A-008#88)

10) Marwadi –kachori (S2A-054#63)

11) Kerala- Mundu (S1A-025#160)

12) Punjabi - chole bhature (S2A-054#40)

6.2.2.1.1.3 Religions Referred to in CM:

As it is quite natural, Indian religions are quite often referred to in the

Indian English Speech texts in our data. There are references to the idols/deities,

worship-centres, festivals, religious practices, as illustrated below.

1) Hindu- Ganpati (S1A-062#188), Laxmi pooja (S1A-065#188)

2) Muslim – mazar (S1A-012#273)

3) Sikh –Gurudwara (S2B-016#122), Shabat kirtan (S2B-016#123)

4) Jain – basti (S1A-063#88)

5) Gujrati- dandiya(S1A-093#3)

6) Boudhha - Bodhi vriksha (S2A-043#122)

302

6.2.2.1.2 Pragmatic Context of Code Mixing

6.2.2.1.2.1 Rhetorical Use of Code-mixed Words:

It is also discovered from the analysis that Indian speakers of English mix

native expressions to get the rhetorical effect necessary for the pragmatic results.

For instance:

1) The Marathi word „pankha’ is used as the translation of English word

„fan‟. However, the context suggests the meaning of „fan‟ as an admirer

of somebody. („a fan of Madhuri Dixit‟, in the context). It is a mixing

intended for punning upon the word „fan‟, as in :

: Because Madhuri yaar….

I'm … a great fan of hers you know…

:Yeah .. pankha .re...

<ICE-IND:S1A-038#49:1:A>

2) The word „azagars’ is used to compare the lethargic way of sleeping, as

in:

And at the same time son and father-in-law

are sleeping in deep slumber as if two azgars

are sleeping.

<ICE-IND:S1A-006#118:1:A>

3) The word „adeshraj’ is used to convey the dictatorship-like

administration of the political leaders, in the example :

No, in Maharashtra what they say that there

is Adeshraj, uhm , and as when something

comes from above , it could not be challenged

whether it is rational or irrational , accept it

and act upon it.

<ICE-IND:S1A-013#106:1:A>

4) The word „patao’ is hybridized form of Hindi verb „patawana‟ which

means to persuade. It is used stylistically in:

Patao … or some such things, …. <ICE-IND:S1A-080#28:1:A>

5) The word „varches’ is the rhythmic reduplication of the word „purchase‟.

It is used in the example :

Or we can ask them to, you know uh.. uh..

some arrangements to be made , they can

<ICE-IND:S1B-075#51:1:B>

303

do that for example , all the , certificates

have to be given by the university , so for

purchase varchase they should be shifted

up, so many thing should be done .

6) The basic meaning of the word „kalakriti’ is a presentation of Fine Arts in

an object form. However, it is used here to describe a marvelous

presentation of a swimmer in swimming competition. In fact, in the

context, the commentator does not get proper word for this kind of

Chinese swimming. As he stumbles for the word, the co-commentator

helps him by saying Chinese „ Kalakriti’, as in the example :

: This is the Chinese… uh

Kalakriti ..

: Korean fall back…

<ICE-IND:S2A-010#80:1:A>

7) The word „nirjeev’ is used again for punning upon the word „aajeev‟.

„aajeev sadasya‟ means a life member. In the context, the life members

referred to are inactive. The speaker says that the members are not

„aajeev‟ but the „a-jeev‟ members . „a-jeev‟ in Hindi means dead or

nirjeev. The „inactive life member‟ is referred to as dead. It is used in the

example :

: Now the word is ‘aajeev sevak’ , they said

ajeev sevak, ajeev means nirjeev …..

<ICE-IND:S2A-035#21:1:A>

8) The basic meaning of „sambar dabba’ is the container where all the spice-

ingredients required for the curry preparation are kept together in small

different cups. It is a kitchenware term. It is one of the essential kitchen

ware in every Indian family. However, it is used here to compare the

untrained employee handling various departments. The word is used in :

: Otherwise it will be like , sambar daba .. <ICE-IND:S1B-008#240:1:A>

: In one daba only , all things are kept –

no- that way only one person only

handling all the things that means there

is no excellence…..

304

9) In general, „dada’ is a respectful term of address for the elder brother in

Indian culture. It is also used to address any elderly person of the age of

the elder brother. In most of the Indian families, the elder son is also

addressed not by name but as dada. However, the instances in our data

communicate the other negative shade of meaning. Dada is a rowdy of a

particular area who creates terror in the residential colonies through

harassment as in :

6.2.2.1.2.2 Code-mixed Words with Semantic Extension:

It is observed that some code-mixed words are used with an extended

meaning in Indian English. It may cause contextual ambiguity for the non-Indian

English speakers.

For instance:

1) The word „kaku’ in the following example has the extended meaning as

„a lady who provides meals to hostel students‟:

No, I do eat.. I went to Kaku's place. <ICE-IND:S1A-096#313:3:A>

2) The meaning of the code-mixed word kaka in the following example is

not the „real uncle‟ but a familiar elder person of father‟s age:

: Who am I?

: Patil kaka …..

<ICE-IND:S1A-096#229:3:A>

3) The code-mixed word didi in the following example is used as respectful

address term to a lady demonstrator of yoga classes. In Indian culture, a

girl who is of an elder sister‟s age is addressed as didi:

How much are you charging didi for the

yoga?

<ICE-IND:S1A-43#198:1:B>

4) The word „ gadbad’ is used as an expression of doubt in the example :

Because, there is sort of gadbad …. <ICE-IND:S1A-083#124:1:A>

The basic meaning of „gadbad‟ is „hurry‟. However, it is not used here in

this sense.

: No it means it in dada 's house there.

I haven't..

<ICE-IND:S1A-096#356:3:A>

305

5) Hafta is an Indian term for the installment of payment. However, in our

data, this term connotes the meaning related to taking bribe in installment

for not initiating police action against the law breakers. The police visit to

the liquor den for drinking or for collecting (bribe) hafta is the point

raised in the cross-examination as in:

: Whether the police used to visit the the liquor

den during this period for drinking or for uh..

hafta orsomething.

<ICE-IND:S1B-064#22:1:B>

6) Mela is a public gathering or a meet on particular occasions, i.e.

religious, commercial, cultural or sports gatherings. In rural traditions,

melas or village fairs are still of great importance. However, in our data,

mela is figuratively referred to as a big gathering, as in the traditional

mela, where writers, poets, reporters were present in big number:

: Hindi writers poets patrakars so many

people. I met in Delhi .

: It was like a mela .

<ICE-IND:S1B-048#123:1:B>

6.2.2.2 Specific Observations on Code Switching in Indian English Speech

6.2.2.2.1 Social Settings of Speech Categories:

We have classified all the instances of the Code-switched clauses,

sentences and Discourse Markers into Speech Categories, i.e. CS and Discourse

Marker instances that occur in Private Dialogues, in Public Dialogues, in

Unscripted Monologue and in Scripted Monologues. The following Bar Diagram

IV shows frequencies of CS instances in per 100 texts for these categories:

Bar Diagram IV

306

The highest frequency of CS occurances in Private Dialogue is 959 and

the lowest in Scripted Monologue is 14; the frequency in Public Dialogue is 289

and in Unscripted Monologue it is 71. The texts in Speech Categories are the

discourses. Each discourse deals with one situation. The situations are linked

with social settings that belong to Indian culture. The situations or texts are

further divided into subc-categories. These sub-categories, in a way, represent

the different social settings in India. The following Bar Diagram shows the

frequencies of sentential CS in the sub-categories of social settings.

Bar Diagram V

From this analysis it is evident that the sentential CS occurs more in

Indian Broadcast Interviews (640%), Distanced Conversation (460%) and Legal

Cross Examinations (200%). CS has less frequency in Indian Broadcast

Discussion (95%), Spontaneous Commentaries (45%) and Indian Class Lessons

(15%) . In our data, CS does not occur in social settings such as Scripted

Speeches and Business Transactions.

Similarly, regarding Discourse Markers, as the following Bar Diagram

VI shows, the Indian speakers of English use the code-switched response

markers more in Private Convesation (898) than public Conversation (154). In

Unscripted Monologue, they are used less (33), whereas in Scripted Monologue

they are hardly used.

307

Bar Diagram VI

6.2.2.2.2 Pragmatic Context of Code Switching

The analysis of the sentential CS instances offeres the context of the

situation for each CS instance. From this analyis, it becomes clear that the

ocurances of CS in IE speech are pragmatically and situationally determined.

The reasons for CS vary from one situation to the other. Our investigation has

discovered 20 pragmatic reasons for CS occurances. They are: 1) Informal

acceptance, 2) Intimate and close relationships, 3) Hesitation, 4) Informal

requests, 5) Personal remarks, 6) Being ill-equipped with the required

terminology, 7) Indian manners, 8) Demand of the topic, 9) Quotations, 10)

Viewers‟ specifications, 11) Accommodating Hindi viewers, 12) Direct

Reporting, 13) Citation, 14) Maintaining rapport with viewers, 15) Maintaining

the court procedure, 16) Informal habitual style, 17) Common practice of the

bilinguals, 18) Quotation as a demand of the topic, 19) Citation for emphasis and

20) Reiteration. The important thing about the Monologues is that the immediate

contexts or speech topics in which switches occur are based on the wider Indian

contexts. The situation-wise detailed description of CS instances is given in

Table -7 in Chapter V. The Table records the pragmatic reasons for switching

in the Public Dialogues as different from those for switching in the Private

Dialogues. The variations in the reasons, it is observed, are due to the wider

context of the Indian social setting and the immediate context of CS in the

situation.

Similarly, the nature of the pragmatic reasons for CS in Unscripted

Monologues is different from that in the Scripted ones. Unlike in Dialogues, in

308

the Monologues, the immediate contexts or speech topics in which switches

occur are based on the wider Indian contexts; in other words, the switches occur

because of the wider context of the topic and not because of the immediate

context as in the Dialogues. Thus, the pragmatic reasons of CS are determined

by the topic of speech, its relation with the wider Indian socio-cultural setting

and the immediate context.

The striking pragmatic uses of CS in our data are as follows:

6.2.2.2.2.1 Procedure-bound CS :

In our data, there is one discourse that takes place in the Highcourt (S1B-

61) . In this discourse, one code-switched Marathi sentence is repeated six times

for six different pragmatic reasons.

The discourse is a Legal Cross-examination of a murder case. A person is

murdered by using the revolver. However, it is told in the Highcourt that the

revolver worked by accident and not with an intention and the bullet did not hurt

anybody. In cross-hearing, the advocate asks the accused whether he heard

something when the revolver triggered. The accused replies that he heard

somebody crying with pain, saying „mala lagali re’ (S1B-61-254). (It (the

bullet) hit me) (Switch 1). Then, the advocate requests the judge to pay attention

to this expression, and he repeats the same sentence (Switch 2). The steno-typist

notes down the expression and while writing murmurs (maybe in slow voice as

the punctuation marks in the text show) the same sentence „mala lagali re’

(Switch 3). When the typist notes down, the advocate again repeats the same

sentence maybe to dictate to the typist (Switch 4). Then the advocate wants to

get it confirmed whether the sentence was uttered in Marathi or in Hindi. So

again, the advaocate repeats the sentence and asks the accused about the

langauge (Switch 5). In order to respond to advocate‟s query, the accused again

repeats the sentenence „mala lagali re’ (Switch 6). Thus, one sentence is

switched six times for six different pragamtic reasons. As these switches reflect

the Indian court procedure, we have named this kind of switching as

„Preocedure-bound CS‟.

309

6.2.2.2.2.2 CS for Addressee Specification:

The analysis of CS in data makes it possible to locate the situations in

which CS occurs to specify the addresses. For instance: 1) The anchor switches

to Hindi in Broadcast Discussion on Epidemic Disease of Plague, as in:

2) The switch to Hindi in Broadcast Discussion on Health Care in India, as in:

3) The switch to Hindi in Broadcast Interview with the Bengali writer

Mahashweta Devi, as in :

6.2.2.2.2.3 CS for Quotation/Citation :

There are examples in our data which indicate that the Indian speakers of

English switch to other language for quotation/citation. For instance:

1) A switch in Private Dialogue, as in:

: If she wants to do it she will do

otherwise, nahi .

: Yeah, all, not to man ki rani..

<ICE-IND:S1A-098#300:1:A>

2) Quotation to strengthen the point, as in the example below, in T.V.

Broadcast Discussion on Population :

: To aap ke kahne ka matlab hai ke, matlab jo

khet ka chuha hai woh usse phailta hai it's not

ke aadmi aadmi se plague phailta hai .

<ICE-IND:S1B-029#109:1:A>

: We're going to do mor…

: Yeh nai government ki niti hai ke

jyada se jyada rural areas mein

resources banao.

<ICE-IND:S1B-041#77:1:B>

: Wherever one is,, he must consider it

as his or her battlefield jo jidher hai

wohi unke liye unaka ranakshetra hai .

<ICE-IND:S1B-048#87:1:B>

: That reminds me of the famous verse by Galib

“ hum ne mana ke tagaful na karoge lekin ,

khak ho jayenge hum tum ko khabar honetak ”

<ICE-IND:S1B-028#151:1:B>

310

3) Citation of a song in the Broadcast Interview with Cinema Artiste as in:

4) Citation for emphasizing the point, as in example below, in a Lecture on a

Teaching Variety of English, as in:

6.2.2.2.2.4 CS for Demand of the Topic:

We also get in our data the instances of CS as the demand of the topic of

the conversation. For instance:

1) A switch to Sanskrit in a speech on „Teaching Classics‟, as in:

2) Exemplification in Marathi as a demand of the topic on Demonstration in

Language laboratory, as in:

4) A switch to Sanskrit, as in :

5) A switch to Marathi proverb in a Class Lesson on Translation, as in :

: Like that so many films I acted..

: Yeah the song that was picturised on you

bol gori bol tera kaun piya that was a

very famous song.

<ICE-IND:S1B-043#35:1:A>

: You see yega yega veethabai maze

pandariche aai , Vitthal , is suppose to be a

mother , and so yega yega veethabai .

<ICE-IND:S2A-035#87:1:A>

: This inevitably reminded me of the

statement from the Katho Upanishad

Satya mevap madhya pakshatye sasya

mev tasya mev ajayte punha ...

<ICE-IND:S2A-025#81:1:A>

: See what is the difference between the so

called shwa vowel there kara ,kar, karto

kar ,karto

<ICE-IND:S2A-053#101:1:A>

: Gandhiji.. uh being devoutly religious uh

belief believed that ultimately goodness always

triumphs over evil Satyamev Jayate .

<ICE-IND:S2B-025#61:1:A>

: If you translated a phrase such as Kakhet

kalasa and gavala valasa.

<ICE-IND:S1B-009#119:1:A>

311

6.2.2.2.2.5 CS for Narration :

CS is also used for narrating the incident. In our data, there is a discourse

which deals with the narration of the incident that occurred in Cinema theatre

and how the boys were teasing the speaker and her friend repeatedly. The

narrated remark is :

It‟s interesting how the same utterance, if repeated over times, bears

different meaning. Here, with every repetition, the tone changes from

displeasure, mild reproof to indignation, anger.

6.2.2.2.2.6 CS for Direct Reporting :

In our data, CS occurs in Broadcast News dealing with the warning to

arrest the religious leaders. The reaction of the leader is directly reported by

switching to Hindi:

6.2.2.2.2.7 CS to Express Intimacy and Informality :

Our investigation has located a number of instances of CS that are used to

express intimacy and informality.

For instance:

: I felt so irritating you know he kept on

turning and saying accha aram se haan.

aram se….

<ICE-IND:S1A-048#298:1:B>

: Mr Vajpai said this during the Ishwaramate

celebrations of the Satya Sai Bal Vikas in New

Delhi yesterday

: Ye kaisa lok tantra hai ….

<ICE-IND:S2B-001#126:2:A>

: Theek hai na .

: Otherwise it will be too expensive

for you.

<ICE-IND:S1A-003#83:1:A>

: Ah.. beti ya to .. you just say… beti.. <ICE-IND:S1A-038#260:1:A>

: Uh , what else how are you ?

:Oh ..otherwise theek hai then uh

..uhm you know ...

<ICE-IND:S1A-091#348:1:C>

312

6.2.2.2.2.8 CS for Reiteration/Message Qualification:

1) CS is used as reiteration in Broadcast Interview with the Director General of

All India Radio, as in:

2) CS is used to qualify the message in the Legal Cross-examination, as in:

6.2.2.2.2.9 CS for Echoing Own Thought :

The data has one instance of CS in which switching is employed to express

the thought at the time of speaking. It is very much like an „aside‟ in a drama.

The expression is:

6.2.3.2.2.10 CS for Viewers’ Accommodation:

1) CS strategy is also used to accommodate the viewers in a T.V. Broadcast

Discussion on Analysis of General Election, as in:

: Pichhle sal All India Radio ne ye abhiyan kiya

jisse jis karyakram ko aap ne Radio Date ka nam

diya hai Date standing for uh ..what what's the

actual name for ….

: Uh , Radio Date Date ,drug .. alcohol , tobacco

education

<ICE-IND:S1B-049#62:1:A>

: I put it to you that the three .. uh the

three Persons, mentioned that uh

assailants, also assaulted that unknown

person

: I put it to you kai sangaicha tumhala

whether it is true or false ?

<ICE-IND:S1B-067#151:1:A>

: And I said , let me glance through it …said,

aap ki bacchi bhi padthi hai so but my

daughter was in , BA two or three at that time

, so she will be of in need of some of them .

<ICE-IND:S1A-078#42:1:A>

: H K L Bhagat is defeated and George Farnandis

win

: Is karyakram ke mukhya samachar is prakar

<ICE-IND:S1B-032#14:1:B>

313

2) It is used in Broadcast Discussion on „Aging and Life Expectancy‟, as in:

6.2.3 Weightage of CM and CS in Speech Categories

The Frequency of CM and CS occurrences in Speech Categories of our

data is presented below in Bar Diagram VII.

Bar Diagram VII

As the Diagram demonstrates, the Scripted Monologue is such a Speech

Category in which the highest frequency of CM and the lowest frequency of CS

occur. On the contrary, the position is reversed in Private Dialogue, where the

highest frequency of CS and, though not the lowest, the lower frequency of CM

occur. In Unscripted Monologue, the position is the same as in Scripted

Monologue, i.e. higher frequency in CM and lower in CS. In Public Dialogue,

however, CM is more than CS. Frequency of CM in Monologue is greater than

Dialogue whereas frequency of CS in Monologue is lesser than Dialogue. From

hain. Congress-I .. wa ..uske sahyogi dal do sau

paintees seetein jeetne ki oor.

: Kisi bhi samaj ki kisi bhi desh ki arthik

vyavasta jo hai uspar kya prabhav padta hai is

uh prashna ka ke siway koi uh chara nahi tha

is baat se ye jyada taur par financial problem jo

hain yeh dominate karengi yeh debates .

: I , I means … mean … I'm .. little

reluctant to refer to it as a problem.

<ICE-IND:S1B-035#98:1:A>

314

this Diagram, from the point of view of the frequency of occurrences of CM and

CS, we can only say that the pattern of CM and CS occurrences is not

maintained in these Speech Categories.

6.2.4 Major Conclusions

CM and CS in IE Speech are not the deviations from the native English

form, but the distinct features of a non-native variety.

The behaviour of Code Mixing and Code Switching in Indian English

Speech is sociolinguistically and pragmatically determined.

The lack of equivalent English words for typical Indian expression

necessitates the speaker to mix Indian words.

Code Switching device is used in Indian English speech as per the

demand of topic, and as per the immediate and the wider contexts of the

situations.

The code-mixed words in IE Speech are the integral part of the Indian

socio-cultural and linguistic setting.

The unavailability of equivalent English words causes CM and not CS. In

CS, the Indian speaker of English switches to Indian language

strategically and pragmatically, even though the equivalent parallel

English language system is available.

Indian English speakers most frequently use the code-switched response

markers such as –haan, accha,yaar, na, nahi in Direct Conversation and

Telephone Conversation, whereas the code-switched clauses are used

more in Public Dialogue and Unscripted Monologue.

Indian Speakers of English most frequently mix words belonging to the

categories- Food Terms, Honorific Titles (shri, shrimati), Numerical

Terms (crore, lakh), Terms in Government Administration , Dress

Terms and Religious Terms.

In Indian English Speech, the number of Indian languages used in Code

Mixing is more than the number of languages used in Code Switching.

315

The study, thus, establishes Indian English as a widely recognized standard non-

native variety of English and CM/CS are the characteristics of this variety.

6.3 Pedagogical Implications and Possible Further Studies

Our investigation of CM and CS in Indian English Speech as recorded in

ICE-IND is, perhaps, the first full scale and comprehensive corpus study of the

sociolinguistic and the pragmatic features and the frequency of CM and CS in

Indian English Speech. The observations arrived at in this study are important,

since CM and CS occur in 82% Indian speech situations. From the pedagogical

point of view, these observations may play important role in the formation of the

syllabus for different courses in Spoken English, Functional English, and

English for General Purpose and Remedial Teaching.

For this investigative study, the researcher has concentrated on the

Spoken Texts. However, the Written Texts also have been used for the

comparative assessment of the frequency count. In the Written data, CM and CS

occur in 60% situations/texts. The studies available on CM/CS written data deal

mostly with the syntactic aspects of IE. The detailed CM/CS studies based on the

ICE-IND Written Texts need to be carried out from the sociolinguistic and

pragmatic points of view for the sake of better insights into the Indian English

usage. Research in both spoken and written texts may also be undertaken with

regard to the other components of International Corpus of Indian English.

One of the salient features of the World Englishes is their code-mixed

vocabulary. Kachru (1983:188) observes, “The variety–oriented dictionaries of

English are, therefore, important in order to study the linguistic manifestation of

English in these new contexts”. The research studies in this direction are of great

significance. The researcher would like to contribute further towards „the

variety-oriented dictionary‟ of Indian English.