chapter vi valuing a multiplicity of views - uabcsbiblio.uabcs.mx/html/libros/pdf/1/c6.pdf ·...

�0

Chapter VIValuing a Multiplicity of Views:

How to Tap Informal Networksto See the (W)hole

Patrice DunckleyMindful Connections, USA

Suzanne Roff-WexlerCompass Point Consulting, USA

Copyright © 2009, IGI Global, distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

absTraCT

This chapter provides perspective and practical techniques that individuals and organizations can use to maximize knowledge transfer efforts. It illustrates the importance of using informal sources of information sharing to create a complete picture. The authors assert that using the traditional formal channels of transfer can leave holes when attempting to share the whole. Overall, the chapter offers practical, easily executable solutions that individuals can apply and that leaders can teach to fill the gaps that often go unnoticed. Influenced by sense making, storytelling, psychology, and visual mapping, the authors offer tools and provide coaching for using the tools, contained in text boxes throughout the chapter. The intent is to both introduce concepts and make them straightforward for the reader to implement.

inTrodUCTion

This is a story all of us have heard or experienced in some form. A young professional takes a job at a Fortune 300 company. For our story, it is a diversity and inclusion professional who takes a job at a company with a 30 year legacy of practic-ing inclusion. The organization has an inspiring

story to share which has received much press for its accomplishments. On her first day of work, our young professional found a timeline of progress in diversity. It provided beneficial information that helped to shape the future plans of the company, but the essential or core information came from the 27-year non-exempt veteran who had witnessed it all. This person’s informal story behind the ink

��

Valuing a Multiplicity of Views

and paper provided valuable context that would help shape the success of newly implemented initiatives. Learning the nature of the business and the drivers of business success put the picture into 3-D and allowed a more complete story to emerge. Effective future program execution was largely fueled by that story. Clearly, tapping in-formal networks to gather a multiplicity of views made a significant difference in the trajectory of the young professional new to the organization. This chapter provides the reader with tools to continue the story.

Organizational memory (the body of data, in-formation and knowledge relevant to an individual organization’s existence) can be understood as a sociotechnical system. Our observation is that organizational documentation (including written policies, email, publicity, and employee surveys) is physically or electronically stored in the com-plex context of people, physical space, and other technologies. This interrelationship of people and technology makes up a sociotechnical system.

As a system, organizational memory is wit-nessed by many points of view that converge into a complete story. An individual witness cannot tell the story in a way that complete learning can take place. Documentation tells one story; the project or process manager involved tells another part; the leader has their story; the workers have theirs…add in customers, suppliers, the press, the current business climate and the possible points of view are endless.

Perception of the present is related to previ-ous experience (and its memory conscious or unconscious). We selectively remember what fits a current schema. When we have no experience, i.e., memory that fits, we attempt to fill the hole to create a whole. While an “elegant” solution, it leads to a potential distortion. We assert that this is also true of organizational memory. Clearly a distortion of the past impacts present and future understanding. Gathering a multiplicity of views indirectly and through informal networks may lessen the distortion.

It all makes sense, but now we are making things complicated. We find the idea of sense-making useful here (Kurtz & Snowden, 2003). David Snowden of the Cognitive Edge defines sense-making as how we make sense of the world so that we can act in it. It is an approach drawing from insights from the cognitive sciences and the science of complex adaptive systems. Knowing that we have to write our knowledge bases as if someone were looking at our organization for the first time is one thing but having to capture multiple points of view and organize them into a cohesive story seems complex and daunting.

Visual referencing is more prevalent in con-temporary culture. Social networking online tools such as LinkedIn and Facebook; contextual and graphical search engine sites such as Silobreaker which shows the networks and relationships around a topic; and applied organizational con-sulting tools coming from academic settings. In particular, social network mapping is an applied tool to provide a visualization of the interaction of people and information. While a mind map, with its potential for brainstorming, depicts word ideas in a non-linear format, a social network map provides a tool to indicate informal network connections at various levels. Our minds alone cannot hold the complexity of this picture without a manual or computer-generated map. Given that picture, the beholder begins to make sense of the data. In this sense-making effort, opportunities emerge to be pursued toward organizational goals. This chapter provides best practice ideas and tools to create a knowledge system map which will help to identify the sources of the knowledge needed to capture a more complete picture of organizational culture.

inforMal neTworKs forsUCCess

Information is often gathered through formal channels following organizational roles and

��


responsibilities. Expert change agents now un-derstand that the memorable story is located in the informal channels, meaning spontaneous connections and interactions, and usually contains details that make the difference between success and stagnation or spinning wheels.

When a leader takes on a new role, the focus is often on the tasks assigned and the deliverables expected. What is often overlooked is that all of these happen by, with and through professional re-lationships. Such relationships come in formal and informal structures and both are social in nature. When we are discussing organizational networks, we will be referring to both an organization’s formal social structure and the informal social structure that individuals choose to build based on values such as affiliation, comfort, usefulness, mutual learning, etc.

In a new situation, the formal channels are evi-dent: organizational charts, introductions to criti-cal players, job descriptions, project plans, mission statements, visions and more. There is so much cascading information that it is counter-intuitive to believe it may be incomplete. We sort through the data, piecing it together in a way that make sense to us and ready to move enthusiastically forward unaware that the picture we have may not be the picture we need. What we actually need is discovered in informal, unwritten or overlooked channels of communication where information is shared. These channels are people connecting and communicating across affiliations: friend-

ships, collaborations, interests, demographic commonalities, geography, and tenure….just to name a few. The formal channels begin to pale in comparison to the color and vibrancy of the informal networks at work.

The ways people connect with others (chan-nels) are in many ways universal to all new situ-ations, but it is important to look for those that may be culturally significant to the organization. For example, in some organizations, tenure can be an important affiliation for valuable information sharing. Being new to an organization may cre-ate the need for a sponsor with sufficient tenure to provide the social capital needed to be given entry to the information flow.

Coaching Action Item: Notice the affiliations in your new situation that seem to be primary. List them and assess those which you can navigate alone and those, which you should gain the trust of a sponsor.

When seeking information it is important to look for all of the possible sources to view the whole and for the places where holes exist in the information that is shared. It takes time and focus to determine what defines the whole and see the holes that need to be filled, but through asking questions and natural curiosity, an open-ness to exploring what is not known can be ac-complished.

Look HereMy view

View 2

View 3

Figure 1. Views 2 and 3 provide different perspectives and a more complete picture

��


The whole and hole create a dialectic tension, that is, a contradiction of ideas that serves as the determining factor in their interaction. It is this dialectic interaction that makes it critical to seek both the whole and hole where each is needed to define the other. Stated another way, how do you know holes without some sense of a whole? Conversely, how can we know a whole without some sense of holes? Where there is one, there is the other. This duality is a key to learning. It is a predictable learning action to seek out what we don’t know. As we become more familiar and comfortable with not knowing, we can begin to seek out the things we don’t know that we should know.

You may recall the Johari Window (Luft & Ingram, 1955) training exercise where four quad-rants represent communication and relationship traits. Invented in the 1950’s, the Johari Window became a model for mapping personality aware-ness. It is a psychological tool to better understand what you and others recognize about you (arenas), what you but not others recognize about you (fa-çade), what others but not you recognize (blind spots), and what neither you nor others recognize about you (unknown). The Johari Window can be used as an exercise to identify the holes in your self-understanding. It is based on a 2 by 2 quad-rant that maps how we are known or not known to ourselves and to others. Imagine the quadrant

with the top half marked as Known to Self and Not Known to Self. The side half is marked as Known to Others and Not Known to Others. You begin by selecting several personality qualities that describe you and then mapping them on the quadrants. Others who know you select qualities about you and map them on the quadrants. What emerges is a more complete perspective on a person based on a better understanding of what we do and do not show to others.

Coaching Action Item: Draw the quadrant and select several adjectives that describe you. Place the words that describe you where they belong in the quadrant. Ask people you know to do the same. Begin to notice what you do and do not show others about your personality. No one can have complete self-understanding or know someone else completely. While we may strive for a whole, at best we find a multiplicity of views by filling in the holes of how we perceive ourselves and are perceived by others. As you review the quadrants related to yourself, consider how this concept translates to organizational understanding and knowledge.

The dilemma is found in the tension between what we know and what we do not. Often we will rely on others to show us what we do not know,

Known to Others

Not Known to Others

Known to Self Not Known to Self

Figure 2. The Johari Window

��


but this is rarely a complete picture. One thing that gets in the way is the difficulty to remember what it is like not to know things and explain them in a way that a person unfamiliar with them can follow. We often leave holes in our explanations simply from being so familiar with our own knowledge. As learners, it is an equally difficult task to see the holes since we rely so heavily on the knowledge transfer process. Gaps in knowl-edge transfer are normal human processes, and knowing this helps us to listen for them as we are sharing and/or taking in information.

Coaching Action Item: Listen to yourself the next time you explain something and notice information that seems obvious to you. Consider whether you need to explain at the level of the novice listener rather than at your level of understanding.

Being able to listen for the whole and the holes takes personal practice in listening and the skill of assessing when you see a “complete enough picture.” The thing that brings the needed picture into focus is context. The same information can be interpreted many different ways depending upon the context we put around it. We have all heard the adage that there are three sides to every story: mine, yours and the truth. The truth requires more context than we can determine on our own. It requires a multiplicity of views.

The good news is that a multiplicity of views is available to us. Information is available for the asking. Everyone around us has a perspective on the same situation. Often in new situations only a small portion of the views are tapped as we learn. It is essential that we employ the skills of listening, observation, and curiosity to our learning process. We must also vary the sources of our learning. This is where understanding the dynamics of in-formal networks is invaluable. While the reasons a network forms will vary, need and affiliation are among the most common.

THe eleMenTs of inforMal neTworKs

Informal networks are difficult to recognize when entering a new situation. Often the members do not even think of themselves as part of a social network. Nonetheless, formal and informal con-nections exist and can be mapped. The language of informal networks is an emerging lexicon that has a wide vocabulary. Rob Cross of the University of Virginia’s Network Roundtable (identifies those who are central connectors, those who broker relationships, those who are peripheral people and those who block the flow of information. An extensive resource for these ideas is the Network Roundtable website (http://www.thenetwork-roundtable.org). He sees them all as important parts of an informal organizational network with specific roles and responsibilities that help to facilitate the flow of information.

This language, and more like it that is be-ing developed by others, is bringing an age old process into focus as a strategic advantage on an organizational level. Individuals can use this same information to their own strategic advantage when entering a new situation to gather the multiplicity of views needed to see the whole and the hole.

Central connectors are the keepers of infor-mation because of their rank, tenure, power, ex-pertise, political position or skill at observation. They know what you need to know, but often do not remember what it is like not to know and sometimes leave unintentional (we hope) gaps in their information. These are the people who can experience the difficulty of explaining what they know in a way that is clear to those who do not have the same level of understanding. Often the questions we ask central connectors are critical to gathering their complete view.

Brokers are comfortable with diversity. They have relationships across organizational silos, age, tenure, organization, culture, gender, etc… They serve as liaisons and are able to introduce, invite and initiate relationships to find what they

��


need. These are the people who foster innovation and collaboration. In some organizations, brokers operate out in the open; in other organizations they work below the surface. They are often sponsors across social capital affiliations.

In evaluating the players in a network, it is important to apply questions that allow a multi-plicity of views. In Rob Cross’ work he shows that peripheral people may appear to be unimportant to the network at first glance, but knowing why they are on the outskirts is the key to an accurate assessment of their value to the information flow. Cultural misfits and disconnected contributors can often provide a view of the organization that others are unwilling to voice but is still essential to future success. Remember the boy who cried out that the Emperor was naked? Niche experts can bring focus to a view that is unique.

When we look at people, position and per-formance in a simplistic way, we can miss the value they add. Poor performers can be a result of subjectivity or indicate a talent that is not needed in the organization. Artful questions will get at the heart of these situations so that the informa-tion you need can be culled from the edge of the network. This reminds us of how complexity

theorists often pay attention to changes occurring at the boundary (“edge”) of the system. It is at this edge of chaos where innovation and creativity may occur. So to, peripheral people may hold critical information to view a (w)hole. Only exploration will show us the value.

Since each of these “nodes” in a network view the organization from a different perspective, only their collective sharing fills in the details of an accurate picture. Not only is it essential to gather view points from many, it is also important to listen to their answers and for the information that might lead to the next essential question or probe.

Coaching Action Item: Create a sketch of the informal networks you have observed. Ask your-self who connects others, who do people go to for information, who is needed to accomplish critical tasks, who seems isolated from any network, what levels (departments, areas, geographies, etc…) of the organization are tapped most often for your role, which of these seem untapped? Next assess which areas of the network you have gathered information from and which are still to be mined. You should come back to this sketch periodically

Big Cheese

BC’s Admin

Mail Carrier

You Sales & Mktg

Supply Chain

R & D

You are managing your boss and relying o n her for all your i nformation. Some nodes are well connected, but only the mail carrier witnesses the whole.

Figure 3. The Network of Nodes

��


to add to it and look for additional opportunities for learning.

elements of Comfort

The lubricant that makes a network of informa-tion flow includes comfort, trust and openness. Interpersonal issues that block the flow include fear, power concerns, familiarity, and other dis-comforts. Flow and blocking factors are present in any situation that involves people; it is normal and common. Remembering that human beings are all at various stages of comfort and emotional intelligence will help you in learning from both formal and informal networks. People share more when they are comfortable than they do when they are uncomfortable. Each of us must begin by managing our own comforts and discomforts and build skills that will enable increased com-fort in others. There are certain things that most people respond well to in human interactions. They like to be listened to; dislike being judged; admire humility and enjoy the respect of being valued for their knowledge. Building skills that foster these feelings will go a long way to gather-ing the information that will build the whole and expose the holes.

Creating Comfort

Listening has two dimensions: listening to and listening for. Explicit words provide what must be listened to; tones, inflections, pauses, delivery and silence are listened for. Vital information is found in practicing both at the same time. Again the issue is context. Listening to words provides raw information. Listening for fills in context and provides a glimpse of what might be unsaid or understated and essential for seeing the whole and the holes. As we practice both, questions we should be asking begin to unfold as we read the moment.

Coaching Action Item: When listening, feel free to jot down a question that comes to mind so that you might remove it as a distraction to your listening. No one will mind if you refer to your notes later and ask the question at the appropriate time.

While listening, it is also important to make observations. Observations are different than conclusions and judgments. They are things we see or intuit without assigning any meaning or taking any action. If you are unfamiliar with this process, it will take practice to obtain the skill. Begin practicing on small things outside of your new situation and then transfer the skill after you have become competent. Observations without judgment help you to identify questions or state-ments that keep a dialogue open and comfortable. People respond well to observations and poorly to judgments and conclusions.

Coaching Action Item: Driving often provides wonderful opportunities for practicing observa-tion and suspending judgment. If you listen to what goes through your mind about other driv-ers, you may find yourself assigning meaning to their actions or even using colorful language to describe the content of other drivers’ character. If someone cuts in front of you without turning on their signal, you may call them an insulting name, but the only fact you have is that they cut you off. If they do it many times, you can then begin to observe that they are a danger to other drivers, but still will not know the content of their character. Take note throughout your day of how often your mind jumps from observing an action to judging. Next begin to practice naming the observation and suspending the judgment by listing the many possibilities that explain the observation. The more possible explanations, the more obvious it is that you would need to ask many questions to determine which were accurate.

A useful concept is the Fundamental Attribu-tion Error (Ross, 1977) which suggests that we

��


tend to attribute positive events to qualities in ourselves but only to luck in others. Conversely, if something bad happens, we view that as bad luck for us but as a character flaw in someone else. Begin to notice how you attribute others’ behavior either to their own personality qualities or to external circumstances.

The skill of practicing humility and honoring the knowledge of others complement each other. Even if you have a PhD in the subject you are as-signed to execute, have been with an organization for many years and are in a new assignment, or have known the person you are learning from for years, you can usually learn something new. Remembering to be open to being a learner rather than having to demonstrate expertise allows you to show humility and revere the knowledge of others. It is obvious in our actions as well as our words, so be sure they match and demonstrate authenticity.

There are concepts from the discipline of psychology that can be extremely helpful in ob-taining the outcome of learning that we desire. Complexity theory is one of them, it teaches us how to notice all aspects of a complex situation are important, helps us find the whole and the hole. Initial conditions, those small behaviors that unpredictably impact the outcome of a system, help to put ourselves into a space that will make it possible to contribute to a comfortable exchange of ideas. This phenomenon “sensitivity to initial conditions,” discovered by Lorenz (1963), has been labeled the Butterfly Effect because it suggests that a butterfly, that beats its wings in Tokyo today, can transform a storm system next month in New York. Acknowledged to have some validity, initial conditions are factored into weather prediction. In a human system, this means that even a small initial behavior, engaging in a spontaneous hello, can have unpredictable results. For example, you go to a new restaurant only to discover they do not have your reservation and then you sit down to a table that is only partially set. Suppose you are a restaurant critic and you write a harsh review

which leads to a loss of potential patrons. In this example, a few incidences of inattention to details lead to an unexpected but significant outcome.

Initial conditions make predictability in orga-nizational behavior imperfect, given that small changes can impact actions. For example, even a strong intention to informally network with a co-worker at a critical time can be affected by other work demands, absenteeism, transportation problems, or a bad headache. Anyone trying to manage a new employee’s first impression of a workplace recognizes that it cannot be controlled with any accuracy. Conditions such as a personal crisis can influence a supervisor’s motivation or availability to help onboard someone into the system of networks.

Coaching Action Item: Become aware of where you are right now. Recall what conditions, in-tentional or accidental, that brought you to the point of reading these words in terms of time and space. Now think about your networks. How would a smile or friendly eye contact impact your entry into a new connection? Remember that a seemingly small event can impact the sharing of knowledge and the deepening of your networks. Try to discover how initial conditions can set a human system into motion.

Knowledge sHaring THroUgH sTorY

Every culture shares its history and learn-ing through anecdotes and stories. Prehistoric people probably initiated this behavior around a fire. Storytelling as information sharing leads to knowledge sharing. We view knowledge as information in context. The context is subject to multiple psychological dimensions related to how we know what we know, how we share what we know, and how we forget, repress, and recall emotional and cognitive material. Stories are a natural way of communicating memorable,

��


emotional, and powerful learning particularly in an informal network. Office gossip, founding stories, and anecdotes about a successful project or pitch are narrative examples in the service of sharing knowledge about the organization. Formal stories are often prepared by HR or marketing professionals in the service of presenting the “whole” story in a positive light. They include the rag to riches stories of a leader, stories of the social consciousness of an organization, as well as stories of the founders.

Corporate brands, including logos and slogans, create consumer reactions about a product or ser-vice. The brand serves as a collection of images and ideas that create associations and expectations. Formal stories can contribute to the employment brand of an organization, that is, its desirability, and attract new employees and customers. But formal stories provide an incomplete picture with holes. Informal stories, on the other hand, can begin to complete the picture by providing alternative perspectives that are not formally recognized or known. It is important to gather a multiplicity of views to gain a fuller sense of the organization. Seek out more informal information or anecdotes to fill in the holes.

Coaching Action Item: Identify the formal sto-ries in your organization, favorite sports team, or community. Ask yourself what is missing from these accounts. Begin to mine for informal stories through conversations and anecdotes that can fill in the holes in your understanding. Compare the formal story itself to the one you have after you have supplemented it with informal stories. Think about how to listen to and share informal stories to discover a multiplicity of views.

Tools for loCaTing aMUlTiPliCiTY of Views

This part of the chapter will discuss how we locate leaders, regardless of title or tenure. It will also

describe how organizations can share anecdotes and stories about how leaders do what they do, how they solve problems, and how they contribute to innovation. Here we introduce anecdote circles; organizational and social network analysis; and self-coaching guidelines. anecdote Circles

A useful technique to get at the stories is a facilitation process known as anecdote circles. Guidelines can be found at the websites for the Cognitive Edge, Anecdote, and The Gurteen Knowledge Website (http://www.cognitive-edge.com; http://anecdote.com.au; http://www.gurteen.com ). An anecdote circle, in contrast to a focus group that seeks opinion, is used to elicit naturally occurring stories (anecdotes) and to gain insight into emergent, unplanned themes. Anecdote circles allow for spontaneous sharing that is free of expectation and therefore a more authentic expression of a selected topic. When used in organizations, an anecdote circle leads to discovery because the topic is indirect to what is actually trying to be understood. For example, the facilitator wants to discover how employees experience a rapid change in executive leadership. Asking directly will lead to politically correct opinions that hide underlying sentiments. Conversely, eliciting anecdotes about the best and worst workplace surprise can potentially yield rich insights. Once the anecdotes are collected in the facilitator’s memory or transcription, there is an opportunity to make sense of the data regarding the change in leadership.

organizational and social network analysis

We note a growing interest in software applica-tions of organizational network analysis as well as social network analysis (Anklam, 2007; Cross, 2004). These tools generate a visual map of rela-tionships among participants who may fill out a

��


questionnaire. They are useful tools to discover the connections among people and how they exchange tangible and intangible information and resources. But as tools, they are primarily of benefit when they generate questions, insight, and action. We believe they offer the potential to see the hole and the whole in multiplicity of relation-ships both inside and outside and organization. There are strong opportunities for organizational consultants to partner with organization to reap the benefits of these tools.

self-Coaching guidelines

Throughout this chapter we have provided a vari-ety of coaching tips that can be used immediately as action items for building the skill needed to see the hole and uncover the whole. Here we go deeper with guidelines that you can put into practice and adapt to your needs.

Using Questions and observations to Create an organizational network sketch

Earlier we suggested you create a sketch that would show who serves as connecting, brokering, blocking and peripheral nodes in the interactions between people. Flushing out the sketch can be a great way to put the mechanics of tapping networks into action. The essential elements are to ask, watch and learn to find information and context. Use the sketch to identify the areas, people and subjects that should be explored:

• Ask people who they go to for information when they need it and why.

• Watch to see who is being tapped for infor-mation by others.

• Assess the sketch and analyze interactions on a number of levels: people as nodes, environments of sharing, silos that create peripheries and/or block information flow, geographies that are helped or hindered by

time or technology differences, and any other affiliation that identifies layers of informa-tion complexities.

• Identify where there might be holes of information to explore and wholes you can create by sharing.

• Assess which areas you have a direct con-nection to use the network to learn and which will require a broker.

• Identify the brokers and connectors; set up a time to meet with each of them; consider the questions you might ask ahead of time. When choosing your questions consider those that uncover information, those that create leads for more and those that encour-age a dialogue. Listen for questions that might arise from the dialogue.

Every interaction with people is an opportunity to learn. Being mindful about your opportunity to learn allows you to create “deliberate hap-penstances” throughout your day. Deliberate happenstances are times when you choose to ask, watch or learn without a special appointment or formal setting. It is an inner experience that you use to learn to listen for important information, be aware of observations and behaviors and gather clues as to the context in which you find yourself. Sometimes just using an informal situation, such as time in line or at a lunch table to ask a question or to test an observation can give us a chance to learn something important or solve a problem. Be observant to see where the best physical spaces are for deliberate happenstances to be initiated. It will likely be necessary to find many spaces to ensure you are mining the whole.

There is also an opportunity to deliberately decide what type of node you are going to be. First, create your own network sketch to figure out your role in the personal and professional informal networks you are a part of. Determine whether you are a connector, broker, blocker or peripheral node. Assess whether your typical status as a node will serve the goals of the in-

�0


formation flow needed to create the whole. Add to your skills and action plans to ensure that the information flow you need can be attained from your position as a node.

ConClUsion

The Johari Window described earlier is a good tool to begin with in terms of knowledge sharing and network building. By identifying how you perceive your networks and how they perceive you begin to turn holes of contextual informa-tion into a new kind of knowledge or wisdom. We believe that it is only through an immersion into a multiplicity of views that the story begins to write itself. In organizations, that means you are in a more beneficial position to take advantage of opportunities that increase the connections within your growing networks. The more you use techniques which provide a multiplicity of views, the better poised you are to create strategic plans, manage change, create solutions and navigate complexity. We predict the outcome will be a prosperous future for your organization created by honoring the past and fully engaging the present moment’s potential.

referenCes

Anklam, P. (2007). Net Work: A practical guide to creating and sustaining networks at work and in the world of work. Burlington, MA: Elsevier.

Cross, R., & Parker, A., (2004). The hidden power of social networks: How work really gets done in organizations. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Kurtz, C., & Snowden, D., (2003). The new dy-namics of strategy: Sense making in a complex complicated world. IBM Systems Journal, 42(3), 462-483.

Lorenz, E. N. (1963). Deterministic nonperiodic flow. Journal of Atmospheric Science, 20(2), 130-141.

Luft, J., & Ingram, H. (1955). The Johari Window: A graphic model for interpersonal awareness. Proceedings of the Western Training Laboratory in Group Development. Los Angeles: University of California.

Ross, L. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in ex-perimental social psychology, 10, 173–220. New York: Academic Press.

chapter vi valuing a multiplicity of views - uabcsbiblio.uabcs.mx/html/libros/pdf/1/c6.pdf ·...

Documents