CHAPTER VII

C O N C L U S I O N

I n a n underdeveloped or developing economy, agr icu l ture i s

the most important economic act ivi ty . Despite the concerted indus-

t r ia l isa t ion tha t has taken place in the Ind ian economy Since 1951.

agr icu l ture continues to enjoy a position of pre-eminence. Though

i t s re la t ive importance vis-a-vis the i ndus t r i a l sector h a s gone

down a l i t t l e , agr icul ture , even today, is the backbone of our

economy. To what extent the Ind ian economy depends on agr icul-

ture can be understood by looking to the role i t p lays in our

economic l ife. Agriculture i n Ind ia is of crucial importance froln

d i f fe ren t stand points. It accounts for a l a rge p a r t of our

nat ional income; it is the most important sector from the point of

view of employment. Further the ag r i cu l tu ra l sector h a s a n

important influence on indus t r ia l i sa t ion and i t s role i n our foreign

t r a d e i s also significant.

The economy of Ind ia is predominantly agr icul ture oriented.

The majority of the Indian workers a r e the agr icu l tura l labourers

who constitute the major segment of the r u r a l work force. Though

a s ignif icant number of women a r e found among these agr icu l tura l

labourers the i r contribution to the r u r a l economy h a s not yet been

assessed correctly.

While men plough and do some other par t icu la r agr icu l tura l

operations, the female ag r i cu l tu ra l l abourers a r e employed la rge ly

to perform such agr icu l tura l operations a s sowing, t ransp lan t ing ,

weeding, harvest ing, winnowing and threshing. This segregation i s

followed by the discrimination i n the matter of payment of wages.

Though the Equal Remuneration Act was enacted i n 1976, the female

ag r i cu l tu ra l l abourers a r e s t i l l pa id l e s s t han the i r male colleagues

for equal work. They a r e denied equa l wages only because they

a r e women. Because they desperately need some job, they do not

hesitate to work a t lower wages under h a r s h conditions. They slog

alongside their men the whole day and then look a f t e r the house

and children too, with no help forthcoming from the male members

of the family. Most of these labourers l i e a t the lowest rung of

the socio-economic ladder . They work for wages because of the

economic necessity to supplement the family income. The so-called

Development Programmes launched by the Government have failed to

ameliorate their position.

Concrete information per ta in ing to the roots or degree of

discrimination or exploitation of these women is not avai lable . Also,

the impact of the Development Programmes on their l ives has not

been studied exhaustively. No ser ious s tudy has so f a r been

undertaken to get to the core of' t he problem and cr i t ical ly examine

the s ta tus of these women. The present study with some of i t s

limitations, has modestly attempted to look into the question i n the

overal l context of the exis t ing a g r a r i a n relations and endeavoured

to fill in , to some extent, the exis t ing gaps i n the ava i lab le

l i t e ra ture on the subject.

I n Palghat d i s t r ic t , near ly two hundred and forty female

agr icu l tura l labourers , have been interviewed to assess the si tuation

prevai l ing there. The secondary d a t a h a s been collected from the

var ious l i b ra r i e s s i tuated, throughout the country. Some eminent

social scientists , well versed i n the subject of s tudy, have been

consulted for gett ing the i r opinions on cer ta in aspects of t he

subject. I n the l igh t of t h i s investigation and consultation, the

question of the female ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers h a s been analysed

drawing some general isat ions and the conclusions from the sample

s tudy.

Several definit ions of the term "agr icu l tura l labourer" have

been given from time to time but a l l those definitions, with l i t t l e

difference, accept broadly the pr inciple t h a t a n ag r i cu l tu ra l

labourer i s one who is engaged i n agr icu l ture on wage employment

e i ther casual ly or permanently.

The agr icu l tura l l abourers , i n general , can be classified

into two categories:- ( i ) the landless ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers , and

(ii) the small cul t ivators whose main source of income i s wage

employment and not the i r small holdings. The landless labourers ,

i n t u rn can be c lass i f ied into two sub-categories:- ( a ) permanent

labourers attached to a cul t ivat ing household, and ( b ) ca sua l

labourers . And, the small cul t ivators can be divided into three

sub-groups - cul t ivators , s h a r e croppers and lease holders.

The f a l l of cottage indus t r ies , handicraf ts and the other

subs id ia ry occupations resulted i n the decline of the v i l l age

economy which, i n t u rn , made a l a r g e number of v i l l agers , including

women, depend entirely upon the agr icu l tura l operations ava i lab le

to them al ternat ively. The factors l ike the l a rge s ize of the

family, indebtedness and pauperisat ion compel women to go out of

the house and do the back-breaking jobs besides working l i ke the

unpaid se rvants to men a t home where the i r work i s never measured

i n the economic terms. A s they a r e unskil led l ike many of their

male colleagues, they a r e na tu ra l ly a t t rac ted towards t h i s most

unorganised sector of agr icu l ture , perform some or the other

agr icu l tura l operation tha t does not need any sk i l l , and experience

the sufferings of unemployment dur ing the s lack season,

under-employment and discriminatory wages. Thus, landlessness,

t ha t makes them labour on o the r ' s l a n d s and suf fe r , appears to be

the root-cause of a l l the i r problems.

The classification of the r u r a l women on the bas i s of their

relation to the means of production helps us to identify the s t a tu s

of a woman i n general and of a female agr icu l tura l labourer i n

par t icu la r .

The majority of r u r a l women eke out the i r livelihood by

working a s mere wage labourers i n the agr icu l tura l farms. Easter

Boserup compares them with the African women who a r e supposed to

support themselves and the i r families. They a r e generally attached

to some l and lo rd ' s family along with the i r men folk. These

families do not own any land and l ive i n thatched huts. They a r e

followed by the women whose families hold t iny b i t s of d ry l and .

Poor i r r igat ion faci l i t ies , lack of cattle-wealth and other resources

impair them i n cul t ivat ing the i r l a n d . Generally, the women of the

Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward Castes come under

these two categories known a s t he landless and the near landless

agr icu l tura l labourers .

The women of the l a s t two categories, who constitute the

major women - work force i n r u r a l Ind ia , occupy the lowest

positions in the caste-class h ie ra rchy . The capaci ty to do some

work i s the only possession they have to rely upon. Lack of

ski l ls , wide shif ts i n the occupation, seasonal na ture of the

agr icu l tura l work, discriminating wages, the submissive na tu re of

the immigrant-labourers, and the unacknowledged and burden-some

work these women do a t house - a r e the common factors t h a t affect

the development of these women.

Ind ia cannot be considered a s under a single mode of

production. It may, however, be convenient to say tha t it i s a

pre-capi ta l is t , socio-economic formation offering a new kind of mixed

mode of production, The c lass formation i n t h i s mode of production

also does not seem to be ind ica t ing a clear-cut polarization and ,

hence, a multiplicity of c lasses co-exist a l ign ing with one another.

Though the rich peasantry take the s ide of the poor peasantry and

the landless labour c lass i n the i r f igh t aga ins t the feudal landlord

c lass , they, a t times, a l i gn themselves with the feuda l landlord

c lass to suppress the poor c lasses . Thus, they exploit the poor

peasant ry and the agr icu l tura l l abourers who na tu ra l ly fight

aga ins t them while f ight ing the s t a t e t h a t claims i tself to be welfare

s ta te on one s ide and comes to the rescue of the land-owning

classes on the other side.

I n th i s overal l s i tuat ion of the Ind ian society, women a r e

placed i n a very precar ious position. They have become the

ta rge ts of exploitation a t every level. Since the emergence of the

slave-owned societies, the women ei ther became a s lave and served - the dominate sections of the society or was given the secondary role

. ! i n the society. She became a p a r t of the pr iva te ownership of the

means of production, and was made to be subservient t o men who

happened to be her fa ther , brother , husband, or her master, i . e . ,

the owner of a property. This position continued to be the same

basical ly . Hence the exploitative a g r a r i a n re la t ions could easi ly

put the female ag r i cu l tu ra l l abourers i n a position where they were

made to believe tha t men and women were born with their

well-defined roles to p lay , and t h a t neither the segregation of the

agr icu l tura l labourers on the bas i s of sex nor the policy of

discriminatory wages is something unna tu ra l or abnormal. But the

female agr icu l tura l labourers , whose s t rength has increased

enormously over the years , have come to real ize the grea t

potentiali t ies they have, the s ignif icant contribution they make to

the agr icu l tura l economy of the country and the need for the

abolition of the policy of sexua l discrimination. They a r e on the

path of understanding the warran t of waging a two-fold war - aga ins t the male domination a t home and in the society on one

front , and aga ins t the exploitative and oppressive classes on the

other f ront . I t i s the necessity of the women's association with the

oppressed sections of the males on the second front t h a t questions

the mode of studying or solving the problems of the female

agr icu l tura l labourers separately - i .e . , not as a p a r t of the

problem of the l iberation of the toil ing masses t ha t include the

male and female agr icu l tura l l abourers . In attempting to study

exclusively the f a t e of the female agr icu l tura l labourers and to

assess their contribution to the r u r a l economy, the researcher h a s

aimed a t unfolding i n his own way and within h i s limitations, the

untold ravages of the system on them while debating the above

question tha t looks l ike a contradiction. The researcher has made

a n attempt to look a t the main problem of the welfare of the

agr icu l tura l labourers f r o m the angle of the emancipation of the

female agr icu l tura l labourers . The heterogeneous character of the

Ind ian economy and the uneven ra tes of development t ha t have had

vary ing degrees of impact on the different segments of the labour-

force also have underlined the need for the estimation of the

different segments separa te ly , t ak ing into account the important

factors tha t include sex, category of workers, ru ra l or u rban

residence and region. Hence the present study on the female

ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers of the r u r a l a r eas .

The ana lys i s of the socio-economic conditions of the agr icul-

t u r a l labour households h a s revealed t h a t the agr icu l tua l

labourers , especially the female agr icu l tura l labourers , have not

witnessed any r ad i ca l change in their l i f e styles over the years .

The majority of the ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers do not possess

any productive source through which they can derive some income.

Hence, they completely depend upon the i r wages. Lack of sk i l l s

and poverty compel them to go into service i n the i r young age i . e . ,

even before they a t ta in the age of 1 2 . Even the children and old

members of the family a r e compelled to contribute their mite for

susta ining the family. Yet they cannot buy good food with the

meagre wages they ea rn . Their hut-l ike dwelling places or

di lapidated one-roomed houses have inadequate accommodation and

poor venti lat ion.

More than 90% of the female labourers a r e deprived of the

f r u i t s of education because they have been earning something for

their family. Now, most of the ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers i n Palghat

District a r e l i t e ra te enough to read and write i n the i r mother

tongue. The g i r l s a r e made to a s s i s t the i r paren ts a t home and a t

the work-spot. Thus, t he pa r t i a l i t y in . the treatment of the males

and females begins a t a n e a r l y age and it grows to discriminate

women a t home, a t the work-spot and i n the society.

The economic condition of the female labourers . i s fu r ther

deteriorated, with the i r men's addiction to alcohol and smoking.

I n the drunken s ta te men beat them for no faul t of the i r s . The

helpless s i tuat ion, i n one way, plunged them into indebtedness.

Meagre wages, lack of work opportunities dur ing the s lack season

and the dowry systems a r e some of the other factors t ha t make them

a rise loans a t exhorbitant r a t e s of interest . The banks a r e not A

found extending help to them. Pledging of a r t ic les for ra i s ing

loans from the money lender i s also widely prevalent . A l l the I

members of the l oanee t s family almost --- slaGe for the loan-giver. As

the borrowed amount i s usua l ly spent on unproductive items l ike

food, l iquor and marr iages , r a the r t han on productive items, th i s

resul ts i n the i r perpetual bondage to the landlord. Thus, the

socio-economic condition under which these female agr icu l tura l

labourers l ive have continued to be t rad i t iona l , exploitative and

anti-women i n character . These conditions impede the i r development - --- - - - and go on lowering the i r socio-economic s t a tu s day by day . Simply

by improving their job opportunit ies by increasing the i r wages,

the i r problems cannot be solved. llence the i r domestic si tuation and

their problems at the work-spot have been studied i n de ta i l before

cr i t ical ly examining the development programmes launched by the

government for the i r emancipation.

Their domestic, child-bearing and child-rearing functions

a r e considered a s unproductive because these a r e non-remunerative.

The work a t home i s considered to be exclusively t h a t of women

though they work i n the f ie lds also. They too have come to accept

their dua l roles without opposition since time immemorial and th i s

trend has been noticed i n the present sample of the female

agr icu l tura l labourers also. The super ior i ty feeling of .the mal%

members of the family often prevents them from assis t ing the i r

women in the dcmestic work. The burden of the women becomes

heavier on the festive days . They go for working in the fields

even during the period of the i r pregnancy because the i r s is a

hand-to-mouth existence. Though the Maternity Benefit Act was

enacted giving the working women the constitutional sa feguards .

regulations were never implemented. . Many of them leave the i r

i n f an t s uncared for a t home while they go outside for work. And

these in fan t s grow up to become the se rvants of the landlords and

earn something for the family sunk i n poverty and indebtedness.

The female children work more and yet a r e treated by their parents

a s a l i ab i l i ty . Though they help the i r mothers in discharging

their household duties and work i n the fields too, they a r e looked

down upon by the i r paren ts who a r e a f r a id of the dowry to be

offered a t the time of the i r marr iage.

The employment in the ag r i cu l tu ra l f ield h a s not changed

the s t a tu s of the women who continue to su f f e r and remain fixed i n

the t rad i t iona l framework of a subservient wife or a dependent

mother i n the male-dominated society. The factors l ike the

seasonal na ture of employment i n agr icu l ture , preference of men

over women, lack of sk i l l s , landlessness , migration, and

discriminatory wage contributed considerably to the depressive work

s i tuat ion of t he ag r i cu l tu ra l l abourers i n general and of the female

agr icu l tura l labourers i n par t icu la r . The growth of technology, the

provision of the i r r iga t ion faci l i t ies and introduction of new

commercial crops i n agr icu l ture have not improved the basic

life-styles of the agr icu l tura l labourers , and the discrimination a t

work and i n the payment of wages continued to remain unchanged.

Even when women do the work which usual ly men do, they

a r e not paid on a p a r with men. The system of dai ly payment of

wages i n cash or i n kind dur ing the harvest ing season depend upon

the mercy of the employer. The method of payment made i n kind i s

highly exploitative i n charac te r . Advances taken from the

landlords resu l t i n deductions i n t he i r wages and s tarvat ion for

some days. Poverty, drought and famine force the female labourers

to shif t to new places of work, facing many hardships . The

emergence of nuclear families created new problems for them i n the

absence of creches and community canteens.

The var ious socio-economic problems t h a t the female 8 , ~,.%l, - '

agr icu l tura l labourers force i n the i r da i ly l ives have never

a t t racted the attention of the policy-makers whose prime interest

a lways appears to be what i s vaguely cal led r u r a l development of

which scientific unders tanding appea r s to be lacking. This can

easi ly be seen by s tudying the Development Programmes launched by

the Government from time to time i n t he name of r u r a l development.

Though the issue of r u r a l development became the focus of

the public policies made under the f ive year plans , it was only

a f t e r the f i r s t two p l ans were draf ted and implemented tha t an

attempt was made, by launching some development programmes, to

solve the problem of r u r a l unemployment tha t ind>ectly might have ,. helped to ameliorate, to some extent , t he pathetic si tuation of the

agr icu l tura l labourers , and it was only a f t e r the passage of forty

s ix long years since independence t h a t the development of women

including the female ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers appeared to have

at t racted the attention of policy-makers when a separa te section on

the development of women was included i n the sixth plan (1980-85).

Now in the Eighth Five Year Plan some Development Programmes

were drafted and w i l l be implemented to solve the problem of r u r a l

unemployment including the pathet ic s i tuat ion of the female

agr icu l tura l labourers . Neither concrete e f fo r t s were made nor

subs tan t ia l amounts were allotted to improve the economic position

of the male and female ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers . The impact of new

technology benefitted the rich farmers only, the gap between the

poor and the rich fu r the r widened and the agr icu l tura l labourers i n

general and the female ag r i cu l tu ra l l abourers i n par t icu la r a r e le f t

f a r behind.

In cer ta in p a r t s of Palghat District especially i n

Mannarghat ta luk the si tuation i s different. I n several places the

paddy f ie lds a r e changed for cul t ivat ing banana and other crops.

This w i l l s t i l l reduce the employment r a t e s of female labourers in

t h a t region. This w i l l effect t he employment potential and

consequently affect t he economic position of the agr icu l tura l

labourers especially the female labourers who w i l l be f i r s t to be

denied work when the employment si tuation becomes bad. Obviously

old workers also become the worst suf fe re rs i n th i s s i tuat ion.

Their condition becomes more dis t ress ing when even the younger

ones i n the family w i l l have to remain without work for severa l

weeks and when s lender sav ings base of the family gets eroded

wihtout any chance o r replenishment un t i l t he next harvest .

The Development Programmes and schemes l ike the Rural

Works Programme, The Rural Manpower Programme, The Crash Scheme

for Rural Employment, and the Pilot Intensive Rural Employment

Programme, launched i n the beginning were not successful i n

henefit t ing the r u r a l masses. The food for work programme, which

was launched, l a t e r , mainly to generate addi t ional employment and

provide community assets to strengthen the r u r a l in f ras t ruc ture ,

was also a fa i lu re because of the fac tors l ike lack of co-ordination

between the executive officials and malpractices of the contractors

and executives. The Employment Guarantee Scheme was only experi-

mental in nature and could not cover many of the vi l lages

including the sample vi l lages . Though the National Rural

Employment Programme (NREP) benefitted the r u r a l poor t o some

extent , it had i t s own defects. While most of the allotted money

under th i s programme was spent on mater ia l and not on wages i n

some places, contractors were engaged aga ins t the rules i n some

other places, and consequently the employment avenues generated

under the programme were insignif icant .

Though the District Rural Development Agency ( D R D A ) was

meant to extend f inanc ia l ass is tance to agr icu l tura l labourers among

others, i t s cluster approach did not enable i t to cover many

vi l lages and only insignif icant number of the agr icu l tura l labourers

were benefitted out of the tota l t a rge t . The Integrated Rural

Development Programme (IRDP) , which was implemented through

DRDA, and , which benefitted the r u r a l poor to a l a rge extent, could

not benefit the agr icu l tura l l abourers who were f a r below the

poverty l ine .

Though women consti tute half of the population, it h a s

la te ly been realized tha t the process of development would be

incomplete without the act ive par t ic ipat ion of women i n i t , and the

need of participation of women has also recently been fe l t very

much whenever a change i s necessitated i n t he society. But the

Mahila Mandal Programme, wherein the Government has for the f i r s t

time attempted to involve the r u r a l women i n the development

programmes, l ike a l l other previous programmes, has fa i led to

improve their position because it h a s vague objectives and meagre

f inanc ia l support . Development of the r u r a l a r e a s has been one of

the abiding concerns of the successive Five Year Plans . The

i n i t i a l s t ra tegy of r u r a l development focused attention on insti tutio-

n a l reforms. The emphasis i n t he l a t e r s t ra tegy of r u r a l

development has been on a r e a approach.

Rural development i s a wider concept and it includes the

development of a number of act ivi t ies , the more important among

these being a s follows:-

1. Generation of employment opportunit ies.

2. Minimum wages to t he r u r a l workers.

3 . Provision of essent ia l goods and services especially for the

weaker section of the r u r a l society.

4 . Abotition of the bonded labour .

5 . Promotion of var ious a r t s and c ra f t s .

Development of act ivi t ies a l l ied to agr icu l ture such as poultry,

piggery, f isher ies , da i ry , etc.

Development of agro-based and small industr ies .

Development of r u r a l t ranspor t .

Rural electrif ication.

Provision of health and medical fac i l i t i es .

Soil and water conservation.

Forestry development.

Development of minor, medium and major i r r igat ion projects.

General and technical education.

Development of s torage and marketing.

Development of f inanc ia l ins t i tut ions .

Development of t r i b a l and hi l ly a r e a s etc.

Jawahar Rojgar Yojana.

Programmes of Rural Development:

After Independence, the Government h a s launched var ious

schemes for the development of r u r a l a r eas . The major programmes

in i t i a ted so f a r a r e as follows:-

Introduction of the Panchayat i Raj System to provide a democratic

administrative set-up a t the r u r a l level.

Community Development Programme (CDP) to provide su i tab le

in f ras t ruc ture for extension work.

Intensive Agriculture Area Programme (IAAP) to br ing progressive

. increase i n the production of the main crops i n selected a r e a by

an intensive and co-ordinated use of var ious a id s to production.

Intensive Agriculture District Programme ( I A D P ) to br ing spectacular

increase i n the agr icu l tura l productivity by developing a package

of practices and using modern technology.

Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA) to identify e l igible small

farmers and provide them a l l t he bas ic facil i t ies such a s l and ,

vrater, credit storage, t ransporta t ion etc . , to have a t l ea s t a

subsistence l iving.

Marginal Farmers and Agriculture Labour Agency (MFAL) to

formulate economic programmes for the upl i f t of marginal farmers

and agr icu l tura l l abour .

Command Area Development Programme (CADP) for making a n optimum

ut i l isa t ion of exist ing i r r iga t ion potential .

Crash Scheme for Rural Employment (CSRE) to create employment

opportunities for r u r a l labour .

Agro-Service Centers to provide employment to t ra ined entrepreneurs

and supply of inputs to the farmers a t reasonable prices.

The Direct Development Programme (nnP) to incroase the productivity

and employment opportunities for the inhabi tan ts of desert a r e a s

through optimum ut i l isa t ion of physical , human, l ive stock and

other resources.

Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) for the development of a r e a s

having e r r a t i c r a i n fa l l .

H i l l Area Development Programme (HADPI to remove regional

dispar i t ies and to evolve a su i t ab l e pat tern of development of

backward a reas .

National Rural Employment Programme (NREP) to generate addi t ional

ga in fu l employment for unemployed and under-employed persons in

r u r a l a reas .

Rural Landless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) . This

programme was launched on August 15, 1983. In RLEGP, the

Government w i l l provide a job for a t leas t one person i n every r u r a l

family.

Special Livestock Production Programme (SLPP) to provide grea te r

employment opportunities to t he weaker sections of t he r u r a l

society.

Tr ibal Development Agency (TDA) to foster the economic development

of the t r i b a l people so as to br ing them within the main-stream of

development effort of the country.

Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) to provide services l ike nutri t ion

for the children and expectant and nourishing mothers, r u r a l

health,. r u r a l roads, r u r a l e lectr i f icat ion, r u r a l water supply,

housing for the landless ag r i cu l tu ra l labourer , elementary education

etc .

Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) was launched for

the up l i f t of t a rge t group comprising small and marginal farmers,

agr icu l tura l labourers and r u r a l a r t i s ans , etc.

Jawahar Rojgar Yojana (JRY) was launched on April 20, 1989, the

Government announced a massive r u r a l job scheme called Jawahar

Rojgar Yojana (JRY). The JRY aims a t benefitting about 44 million

poor r u r a l families. It is expected to provide employment to

a t leas t one member of each poor r u r a l for 50 to 100 days a year .

Thirty percent (30%) of the employment would be reserved for

women. Every Village Panchayat would receive between Rs.80.000

and Rs. 1.00 lakh a year for t h i s programme.

The var ious programmes in i t i a ted during the plan ~ e r i o d for

r u r a l development have achieved limited success. No doubt the

agr icu l tura l production and farm ~ r o d u c t i v i t y have increased and

addi t ional employment opportunit ies have been created, but the

r u r a l sector s t i l l remains underdeveloped. About 40% of the r u r a l

population l ives below the poverty l ine and many r u r a l a r e a s do

not have the provision of bas ic needs of l i fe . Landless

ag r i cu l tu ra l labourers , a r t i s ans , etc. , s t i l l remain a neglected lot.

The pressure of population mounting on l and is result ing into

unemployment and disguised unemployment.

I n br ie f , the scheme for r u r a l development have still to go

a long way to accomplish the task of the welfare of the r u r a l

society.

Mahatma Gandhi holds t he view t h a t the salvation of Ind ia

depends upon the sacrifice and enlightenment of her women. 1

Gandhiji advocated equal i ty of sexes. ' I am uncompromising i n the

matter of women's r ights . I n my opinion, she should labour under

no lega l disabi l i ty not suffered by men. I should t r ea t the

1. Nirmal Kumar Bose, Selections from Gandhi. N . P . H . Ahmedabad, 1948, p.241.

daughters and sons on a footing of perfect equa l i ty ' .* Rules of

5ocial conduct would have to be framed mutually by men and

women. The nat ional is t s tage i n the development of woman's

personali ty brought to l igh t two ant i thet ic elements which needed to

be reconciled:- the suffer ing and the asser t ive . These were

inherent i n the e thic of women's r i g h t s and of non-violent, non-co-

operation. Could they be completely reconciled i n the constructive

work of society? Both were act ive i n the minds of those who

participated i n the decisive decades of modern Indian history.

When independence was f ina l ly achieved they were suggested a s a

s tandard for fu ture nat ional act ivi ty . As Shrimati Sarojini Naidu

said to the nation on August 15, 1947, "Let us work for justice, for

equi ty , for human r igh ts but no pr ivi leges; for human duties; but

no prerogatives ' . 3

No man in India has done more than Gandhiji i n recent

times for the elevation of women and the occupation by them of

their r ightful place i n domestic and public l ife. A passionate

lover of humanity, a n implacable foe of injustice in whatever form

or sphere, i t i s s m a l l wonder t h a t Gandhiji espoused the woman's

cause from a very ear ly time. Throughout his long l i f e of service,

he preached forcefully aga ins t the wrongs done to women i n the

name of law, t radi t ion and even religion. He has spoken out

2 . M . K . Gandhi, Young Ind ia , Oct. 17, 1929.

3. Indian Formation, Sept. 1, 1947, p.108.

fear less ly aga ins t enforced widowhood purdha, the dedication of

g i r l s to temples, prostitution, ea r ly marr iage, dowry system, the

economic bondage and material s lavery of women. 4

Gandhijf championed the cause of women. He considered

woman a s "the incarnat ion of ahitis;. ~ h i m s s means inf ini te love,

which aga in means in f in i te capaci ty f o r suffer ing. Who but woman,

the mother of man, shows th i s capaci ty i n the la rges t measure? ... l e t her forget she ever was or can be the object of man ' s l u s t .

And she w i l l occupy he r proud position by the s ide of man a s h i s

mother, maker and si lent l eader . I t i s given to her to teach the

a r t of peace to the warning world thirs t ing for t ha t nectar . 5

I I Gandhiji, in short , considered women a s the personification of

self-sacrifice".

We may conclude t h a t a l l the so-called Development

Programmes, Anti-~'overty programmes, the programmes sponsored by

the different development agencies, Societies, Mahila Mandals

appear to have just not proved the purchasing capaci ty of the

small peasantry and middle peasant ry without s ignif icant ly helping

the r u r a l masses i n general and the female agr icu l tura l labourers

in par t icu la r . This s i tuat ion makes one suspect t ha t something h a s

been going wrong a t the top level where the policies a r e formulated

4 . Socio-Ethical and Legal Aspects of Dowry, in Vivekananda Kendra Pa t r ika , August 1973, pp .78-79.

5. M.K. Gandhi, Harijan, Feb. 2 4 , 1940.

ra ther than a t the place where they a r e implemented in the shape

of the above mentioned programmes. The defective policies had

their counter-effects and a r e found to have helped the aff luent

sections of the society to r a i s e their s t a tu s making use of the

loopholes noticed i n the different programmes implemented from time

to time, and thereby widening the gap between the landed gentry

and the landless labourers .

The ever increasing d ispar i t i es and the fa i lu re of almost

a l l the so-called Development Programmes appear to have

necessitated the self-organising of the r u r a l masses, for asser t ing

their correct share in the ag r i cu l tu ra l economy to which they have

been contributing s ignif icant ly . Their ignorance of the make-up of

the present set-up, and their fa i lu re in the i r attempts to solve

their di f ferent problems i n different ways without understanding the

root-cause of a l l their problems - appea r to have forced them to

come under the influence of an association of the agr icu l tura l

labourers in Kerala. The Socio-economic si tuation tak ing into

account their domestic s i tuat ion and work si tuation reveals t h a t

even the i r mental capaci t ies a r e mercilessly crumbled and crushed.

I t i s propagated time and aga in over the years t h a t the

s ta te introduces r ad i ca l changes i n the l i fe conditions of men and

women i n the society through i t s expanding organisations and

implementations of var ious Development Programmes. A l l such

programmes from the Community Development Programme onwards to

the la tes t programmes have created new administrative s t ructures ,

though these programmes t rue to the sp i r i t and nature of the s ta te ,

could ra i se some hopes among the "dependent class" including

women, they, i n practice helped the dominant classes of the society

defeating the very purpose for which they were introduced.

Demanding equa l opportunit ies and equal wages, the female

agr icu l tura l labourers in Ind ia . l ike the other working women in

their own country and other countries - both the cap i ta l i s t and

precapi ta l is t countries - a r e tu rn ing to the example of socialist

countries where we do not find the problem of unemployment bu t ,

ins tead , f ind a steady growth of employment and a subs tan t ia l r i se

i n the s tandard of l iv ing , and where the agr icu l tura l labourers a r e

found enjoying the same r igh ts a s the workers engaged in the

national economy.

Having found t h a t the several resolutions and declarations

and laws made by the Government and var ious so-called

Development Agencies a r e not leading to social progress and social

justice, the workers in Ind ia have come to understand tha t the ev i l

of exploitation, which permits a few people to exist a t the expense

of the majority of people, is to be completely exposed, at tacked and

but t o a n end to real ize the objective of organising people on the

nevr incalculably higher type of social relations. They have come

to realize tha t their resolute and persistent struggle under the

banner of the democratic forces alone can accomplish this . The

si tuation demands act ive par t ic ipat ion of women along with men i n

a l l the social activit ies, and the i r joint action alone can be

effective in achieving the common goals of a l l the working people

including the goal of the development of the female agr icu l tura l

labourers . The rea l problem seems to l i e a t the top level where

policies a r e ~ ~ ..-. formulated . r a the r t han a t the place where they a r e

implemented. I t i s also due to the frequent sh i f t s made in the . .

policies t ha t no concrete resu l t s a r e achieved.

Findings:

Women differ from men i n their problems and needs a t a l l

ages and more par t icu la r ly dur ing old age. They l ive longer than

men and hence widowhood, with a l l its social and economic

disadvantages i s faced by a l a rge group a t th i s age; they a r e not

recognised a s breadwinners of the family and hence even dur ing

youth their needs a r e neglected to marginal i ty . So when old age

comes, they a r e left high and d ry .

In many developing countries, there i s no organised social

security system for agr icu l tura l workers, so when they a r e made

physically unproductive by health and age, they have nothing to

f a l l back upon. When th i s happens to women the principle of

marginali ty increases the magnitude of the problem.

Even during their productive yea r s women get less number

of work in agr icul ture t han men, hence the i r capacity even to meet

da i ly needs, l e t alone save for the r a iny day i s highly circumscri-

bed.

Agricultural labour force i n Ind ia i s dominated by members

from the scheduled castes whose women suffer from the double

handicap of belonging to the weaker sex a s well a s to the socially

weakest c lass .

Women workers i n agr icu l ture constitute 43% of the tota l

women workers i n the country (The corresponding percent for men i s

23).

79% of the r u r a l labour households belong to the backward

classes including SC/ST. While near ly 30% of the agr icu l tura l

labour house holds belong to SC/ST, only 13% of the other r u r a l

labour households belong to SC/ST. This shows tha t SC/ST

labourers a r e more predominant i n agr icu l tura l sector than i n

non-agricul tural sector.

The average size of wet l and possessed by Agricultural

Labour households i s very small compared to t ha t of d ry land .

About 34% of the population in the r u r a l labour households

consist of children below the age of 15 a s aga ins t 35% i n 1981

census. About 60% of the population is i n the age group of 15-59

and the remaining 6% i n the age group above 60.

I n the case of ag r i cu l tu ra l labour households Wynad

dis t r ic t leads other dis t r ic ts where the annua l income i s Rs.6,189/=.

Rut the lowest annual income of agr icu l tura l labour households seen

In Palghat dis t r ic t i s Rs.3.775/= . 6

'. Report of the survey in socio-economic condition of Agricultural 1,abours i n Kerala, 1983-84, Bureau of Economics and ~ ta t i s t i c s .

More than 3/4th of the amount of loan outstanding a r e

interest group 8-13%. 14-19% and i n the interest free group.

Most of the r u r a l labour households (80%) have separa te

kitchens i n the i r houses, but bathroom, l a t r i ne and electrici ty a r e

not ava i lab le i n majority of r u r a l l abour households.

Majority of r u r a l l abourers have houses with mud f loors .

Rural labourers mainly use unburnt br icks for the construct-

ion of the i r houses. The roof of houses of r u r a l labourers i s

mainly with palm leaves.

W e find t h a t the da i ly wages of agr icu l tura l labourer is

R s . 40/= for men and Rs.30/= for women which i s implemented only

i n Alleppey (especially i n Kuttanad, which i s a strong agr icu l tura l

labour hold) but i s not found i n any other pa r t of Kerala.

including i n Palghat which is the worst affected.

SUGGESTIONS

After conducting a survey amongst the r u r a l women

labourers i n Palghat d i s t r ic t we can conclude t h a t they do not have

the basic amenities of l i fe . They lack proper sani ta t ion faci l i t ies

which a r e most important, a s without these, there a r e chances of

epidemics of var ious harmful diseases l i ke cholera, typhoid etc.

Another factor is t h a t they do not have electrici ty which i s equal ly

serious a s the Government i n the i r var ious p lans have suggested

rural electrif ication a s one of t he most foremost schemes. Thirdly

there a r e no schools nearby to educate their children, so t h a t most

of them a r e seen along with the i r mothers on the work spots. A S

eradicat ion of l i teracy happens to be one of the measures taken up

by the government, i t is a must to have a t l eas t nursery schools

and creches for their chi ldren which should be set up ei ther by the

Government or by social organisations.

Fourthly, dur ing pregnancy there a r e no bas ic faci l i t ies

ava i lab le to r u r a l women local ly , they have to t rudge a long way

i n search of sui table hospi ta ls for there post-natal and an tena ta l

care .

They should also be taught about the saving schemes, so

t h a t they can save a l i t t l e i f not much, out of their wages which

would be useful to them l a t e r on i n l i f e .

As these women r u r a l labourers a r e prone to accidents and

injur ies . they should be covered by Insurance schemes, so t ha t i f

they ei ther loose their l ives or get seriously injured, their families

a r e not i n a n y way affected by this .

After the delivery of he r chi ld , she i s unable to work a s

an agr icu l tura l labourer a s she h a s to look af ter the child and

hence she h a s no income dur ing the f i r s t three months. I t would

be helpful i f the government p r e p a r e s a scheme to enable her to

get a t leas t 30 days of wages a s th i s would na tura l ly decrease the

r a t e of in fan t mortality which is considerably high in th i s section

*

of labourers ; with the resul t t h a t the number of women labourers in

tha t age group i s dwindling according to the cases ava i lab le

(according to the 91 census repor t ) .

The joint/extended family has been found to be the primary

place where the old women agr icu l tura l worker has found herself

most comfortable i n terms of economic, health and emotional

support . However, the t rends in social development could indicate

t ha t the joint/extended families a r e on the i r way out. Increasingly

the old women w i l l have to find a n asylum i n the nuclear family or

w i l l have to s tay alone. I n both cases , she w i l l require adequate

income to support herself . The son/grandson, who i s himself an

agr icu l tura l worker, w i l l have to maintain his own family on his

slender income hence the old desti tute women should be given

pension irrespective of having a son or grandson except when the

son or grandson is affluent.

A t present only one member (husband or wife) i s e l igible

for pension. I n a male dominated society where women a r e pushed

to marginal i ty . and inv is ib i l i ty i t i s the male who gets the pension

and the female passively permits th i s . The ra t ionale for giving

pension to only one member i s not plausible , especially when the

pension amount (Rs. 70/= per month) i s inadequate to meet the

expenses of even one person. When the male gets it, he, i n most

cases , spends i t on himself. When the woman get) it she normally

spends a t leas t a pa r t of i t on the family, we would therefore

suggest t ha t the agr icu l tura l workers pension should be given to

both, man and wife. We came to the conclusion t h a t pension w a s

able to give Some amount of morale boost to the old women and th i s

thus should not be denied to her simply because her husband

enjoys the pension.

The pension amount is very small and inadequate and needs

urgent upward revision. We a r e unable to suggest the quantum of

the revised pension but the revision should effect the sp i r a l l i ng

cost of l iv ing and the high cost of modern medicare on the one

hand and on the other, the needs of the old i n t h i s f ield.

The payment of pension should be regula r and the old

should get it every month. A t present , there i s no regula r i ty and

one cannot even expect when it w i l l be received. Our study found

t h a t there a r e no r egu la r receipts of pension.

At present though medicare tor the poor is f r ee i n

government hospi ta ls , t h i s i s only i n name. Almost a l l d rugs

needed for treatment have to be purchased by the pat ient from

outside the hospital . This pu ts heavy s t r a in on the old women who

suffer on several counts. The old (both men and women) a r e put

on a lower order of p r io r i ty i n treatment by both doctors and

kinsmen. Even among the old, women have lower pr ior i ty in

treatment compared to men. When the family resources a r e s lender ,

t h i s pr inciple works with added s t rength. W e a r e not ab le to

suggest any way out of t h i s socia l practice but it i s necessary

t h a t society should be conscious to t h i s ev i l phenomenon.

I n the hospitals, there is no ger ia t r ic section a t present, - I n view of the f ac t t h a t the proportion of the old i n the population

i s increasing, i t i s necessary t h a t each major hospital should have

a ger ia t r ic section with doctors t ra ined i n ger ia t r ic treatment and

with a ger ia t r ic ward and adequate supply of ger ia t r ic medicine.

The agr icu l tura l workers Provident Fund which now exis t s

only in cer ta in a r e a s of the s t a t e , should be extended to a l l p a r t s

of the s ta te so a s to enable agr icu l tura l workers to re t i re with

some savings, the size of which determined both the level of

satisfaction (direct re la t ionship) and the level of anxiety regard ing

the future ( Inverse re la t ionship) sav ings give her s ta tus i n the

family a n d reduce her dependence on others. I t also makes the old

members more acceptable to the kin a s the f inancial burden on her

Labour account i s reduced. But recently, the Agriculture/ - Welfare Fund

Sc'lcme (AWFS), which was introduced with a contribution from the

f armer ' s income h a s not been successfully implemented by the

government, and therefore h a s been a fa i lure .

Final ly , a number of programmes of social security should

be devised to be implemented dur ing the effective period of

employment of the worker. Social security for the old should s t a r t

from the time of entry to work. I t w i l l be optimal if the social

security systems s t a r t with the commencement of one 's working l i fe

so t ha t it w i l l be continuous and cumulative when one re t i res from

i t .

~ ~ ~ t h ~ ~ point to note i s t h a t from the point of view equi ty*

workers in agr icul ture , should be t reated on p a r with workers i n

industry a s most of the problems and needs of both groups a r e

ident ical . Hence, agr icu l tura l workers should be given a l l the

benefits t ha t a r e now enjoyed by the indus t r ia l workers - minimum

wage, insurance aga ins t sickness and accidents a s well a s aga ins t

unemployment, inva l id i ty and survivors benefits , maternity benefits

i n case of women, and the l ike . This w i l l eliminate the need for

special benefits i n old age. Needless to s ta te t h a t the

discrimination aga ins t women t h a t is bui l t into many of the

statutory benef i ts should be eliminated.

Social security should form p a r t of a to ta l security to cover

a l l r u r a l workers. The uniqueness of agr icu l tura l workers i s t ha t

they form the majority of the r u r a l l abour force and women form

the la rges t portion i n them. The invis ibi l i ty and marginali ty of

women i n every field of l i fe would ca l l for special protection for

them in any programme of social security to ensure gender justice.

Minimum wages for these labourers should be fixed by law

and adequate provision be made for the i r enforcement. The poor

labourers , because of their l a r g e supply a r e not in a position to

barga in for reasonable rewards for their hard work. They a r e

scattered and very weak vis-a-vis l and owners. It i s therefore,

necessary tha t the government not only f ix minimum wages but also

provides for i t s enforcement.

Land made ava i lab le under reclamation and surp lus land

acquired through the policy of ceil ing should be dis t r ibuted among

them. This w i l l not only r a i s e the i r income and economic level.

but w i l l also improve their social s ta tus . I t i s necessary also

t h a t these people with t iny pieces of l a n d , form themselves into

co-operatives. Further , necessary production inputs should be made

ava i lab le to them for efficient farming.

The study indicates t h a t i l l i t e racy , unemployment, lack of

basic amenities l ike non-availabil i ty of drinking water, housing

etc. continue to be the major problems of the r u r a l labourers , many

of whom belong to SC/ST and other backward classes. The other

important highlight of th i s study is t h a t agr icu l tura l labourers a r e

shif t ing away from the agr icu l tura l occupation due to var ious

reasons l ike less a t t rac t ive remuneration, ardous work, lack of

adequate job s ta tus etc. Another aspect noted i n this study is

tha t the r u r a l labourers a r e becoming more and more conscious

about the usefulness of the var ious f inanc ia l assistance offered by

the banks and co-operative societies and consequently their

dependence on money lenders h a s decreased as a resul t of the

var ious welfare schemes and l a n d reforms. .-.

Lastly the main aspect i s poverty. As they form a l a rge

pa r t of our population, i t is a must to see t ha t they a r e well

looked a f t e r so t h a t they can look forward to a br ight future ahead

of them.

Rural development, a s a slogan, came to the fore only i n

Gandhi j i ' s time. Gandhiji w a s a p rac t ica l ideal is t who proclaimed

for the first time tha t Ind ia was a country of v i l l ages and

consequently, the r e a l development of her vil lages. , Most of the

leaders , who preceded him, had ei ther a n urban eli te base or a

semi-feudal b i a s or a religious base. Gandhiji, spoke i n c lear

terms about the importance of Indian vi l lage. "To serve our

vi l lage is to es tabl ish Swaraj. Everything else is but a n idle

dream". He fur ther s ta ted , "if the v i l l age perishes, Ind ia too w i l l

gar ish. I t w i l l no more be Ind ia . Her own mission i n the world

w i l l get lost". According to him, "We have to make a choice

between India ' of the vi l lages t h a t a r e a s ancient a s herself and

Ind ia of the cit ies which a r e a creation of foreign domination.

Today, the c i t ies dominate and d r a i n the vi l lages , so t h a t they a r e

crumbling to ru in . 7

My Khadi mentality te l ls me t h a t ci t ies must subserve

vi l lages when tha t domination goes. Exploitation of vi l lages is

itself organised violence; w e w i l l have to give the vi l lages the i r

proper place". Gandhiji w a s the first pract ical economist who

diagnosed the human sufferings i n our country and suggested

pragmatic remedies, which were however, not given a f a i r t r i a l by

Indian Planners.

7. Prof. L.C. Thanu, Journal of Gandhian Studies, Oct. 1985, p.13, University of Allahabad.

Theoretically, Gandhian approach to r u r a l development may

be labelled a s idea l i s t . I t g ives primacy to moral values over

material conditions.* Man g a i n s supremacy.

Gandhiji envisioned the establishment of a new civil ization

called Ram Rajya. He says ; "I do not mean Hindu Raj. I mean by

Ram Raj, Divine Raj or Kingdom of God on ear th" . Ram Rajya

represents the "Sovereignty of the people based on normal

a ~ t h o r i t y " . ~ Poli t ically t r ans l a t ed , Ram Rajya i s perfect democracy

in which, inequali t ies based on possession and non-possession,

colour, race or creed or sex, vanish. I n i t , l and and s t a t e belong

to the people, justice i s prompt, and cheap and therefore, there i s

freedom of worship, and of speech and the press - a l l th i s because

of t he reign of the self imposed law of moral rgst ra int . Such a

s t a t e must be based on t ru th and non-violence and must consist of

prosperous, happy and self-contained vi l lages and v i l lage

communities". lo There w i l l be no exploitation of the poor by the

r ich , of the masses by the c lasses , of the vi l lages by the towns

and of the weaker by the s t ronger .

Gandhiji firmly believed t h a t r u r a l Ind ia i s r e a l Ind ia and

t h a t r u r a l development alone - n o t indus t r ia l i sa t ion- can solve the

county 's problems of unemployment and poverty. Hence, his plea

8 . Ghan Shyam Shah and H.R . Chaturvedi, "Gandhian Approach to Rural Development", 1983, p .31.

9. Sreeman, Narayan, "Relevance of Gandhian Economics, 1970, p.87.

10. Ibid .

for decentralisation and agro-based indus t r ies . He advocated

increased production and production was for use and not for a

market. He stood for production by masses as aga ins t mass

production. Swadeshi was a key concept i n h i s philosophy. He

favoured t r a d e only in surpluses . H i s emphasis was more upon

co-operation and inter-depence t h a n upon competition. Human -. --. .

values were to dominate over economic values. 11

"India l ives i n her vi l lages . . . When I succeed in

r idding the vi l lages of the i r poverty, I have won Swaraj" - Mahatma Gandhi.

11. K . Arunachalam, "Gandhian Approach to Rural Development", 1981. pp.11,12.