Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Chapter Seven

Lecture Slides

By Glenn MeyerTrinity University

Introduction: Thinking, Language and IntelligenceBasic Terms

Cognitionmental activities

involved in acquiring, retaining

and using knowledge

Thinkingmanipulation of

mental representations to

draw inferences and conclusions

Mental imagerepresentation of objects or events

that are not present

The Building Blocks of ThoughtMental Imagery and ConceptsMental Images

• Mental images usually refer to visual “pictures.”

• However, people can also form mental representations that involve senses other than vision.

• People seem to manipulate mental images in the same way that they manipulate their visual images of actual objects.

• This is demonstrated in tasks involving mentally scanning and rotating an image.

Thinking often involves the

manipulation of two forms of mental representations:

mental images and concepts.

ConceptsMental category of objects or ideas

based on shared properties

Using concepts makes it easier to:Communicate with othersRemember informationLearn new information

• Concept of “food” might include anything from a sardine to a rutabaga

• Formal concept — mental category formed by learning rules

Example: a substance can be categorized as a solid, liquid, or gas

• Natural concept — mental category formed by everyday experience

Natural concepts have “fuzzy” boundaries and are not always sharply defined

• Prototype: the best, or most typical, example of a particular concept

• Exemplars: individual instances

• Same brain areas are activated in vision and imagery

• Brain-imaging techniques indicate that when we look at a face or imagine one, the fusiform facial area (FFA) is activated.

• When we look at pictures of a place or imagine one, the parahippocampal place area (PPA) is activated.

Seeing Faces and Places in the Mind’s Eye

Solving Problems and Making DecisionsProblem-Solving Strategies

Trial and ErrorTrying a variety of solutions and eliminating those that don’t work

Heuristics

Following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions

Example: trying someone’s birthday as the password to their account rather than trying random combinations of numbers

Algorithm

Using a specific rule, procedure, or method (such as a mathematical formula) that inevitably produces the correct solution

Example: Degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit (F = C × 9/5 + 32)

Useful heuristics:

• Breaking a problem into a series of subgoals

• Working backward

Key to Successful Problem-Solving

Insight and Intuition

Insight

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Sudden realization of how a problem can be solved

Intuition

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Coming to a conclusion or making a judgment without conscious awareness of the thought processes involved

• Guiding stage — you perceive a pattern in information, but not consciously

• Integrative stage — a representation of pattern becomes conscious, usually in form of a hunch or hypothesis

Obstacles to Solving ProblemsThinking Outside the Box

• Functional fixedness: tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual or customary way

• Mental set: tendency to persist in solving problems with solutions that have worked in the past

Click on each graphic to see the solution.

Different cognitive strategies are used

when making decisions, depending on the type and number of options

available to us.

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Single-feature model

make a decision by focusing on only one

feature

Additive model

systematically evaluate the

important features of each alternative

Elimination by aspects model

rate choices based on features;

eliminate those that do not meet the desired criteria, despite other

desirable characteristics

Decision-Making Strategies

Estimating the Probability of Events —Decisions Involving Uncertainty

The Availability Heuristic

• Judge probability of an event by how easily you can recall previous occurrences of that event

• Most people will overestimate deaths from natural disasters because disasters are frequently shown on TV

• Most people will underestimate deaths from asthma because those deaths don’t make local news

• The less accurately our memory of an event reflects the actual frequency of the event, the less accurate our estimate of event’s likelihood will be

The Representativeness Heuristic

Can produce faulty estimates if1. Possible variations from the prototype are

not considered2. The approximate number of prototypes that

actually exist are not considered

The likelihood of an event is estimated by comparing

how similar it is to the prototype of the event

Research suggests

• The availability heuristic is more likely to be used when people rely on information held in their long-term memory to determine the likelihood of events occurring.

• The representativeness heuristic is more likely to be used when people compare different variables to make predictions.

• Occurs when people accept only the evidence that conforms to their belief, rejecting or ignoring any evidence that does not

Obstacle 1: The Belief-Bias Effect… click here

• Tendency to search for information or evidence that confirms a belief, while making little or no effort to search for information that might disprove belief

Obstacle 2: Confirmation Bias… click here

• Tendency to remember uncommon events that seem to confirm our beliefs and to forget events that disconfirm our beliefs

Obstacle 3: The Fallacy of Positive Instances… click here

• Tendency to overestimate the rarity of events

Obstacle 4: The Overestimation Effect… click here

The Persistence of Unwarranted Beliefs

Contradictory evidence can actually strengthen a person’s

established beliefs. Why?

Language and Thought —Characteristics of Language

The purpose of language is to communicate—to express

meaningful information in a way that can be understood

by others.

Characteristics

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Language is a system for combining arbitrary

symbols to produce an

infinite number of meaningful statements Generativity

language is creative, or

generative; itcan generate an infinite number

of new and different phrases and sentences

Displacement

language can communicate meaningfully about ideas, objects, and

activities that are not physically

present

The Effect of Language on PerceptionWhorfian Hypothesis

• Whorf (1956) — language determines the very structure of thoughts and perceptions

• Whorfian hypothesis also called the linguistic relativity hypothesis

• Whorf’s strong contention that language determinesperception and structure of thought has not been supported

• Language use, however, has been found to influence particular concepts, as in mathematics

Animal Communication and Cognition

Animals communicate with one another, but are they capable of mastering language?

• Bonobos, dolphins, and parrots can respond to spoken commands and questions but not nearly as well as humans

• Birds and elephants can demonstrate cooperation, social status, and complex memories of the past

• Researchers are interested in the specific cognitive capabilities that have evolved in different species to help them best adapt to their ecological niche

Measuring Intelligence

Intelligence:

• Global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment

• Reflected in effective, rational, and goal-directed behavior

The Development of Intelligence Tests and Cognition

Alfred Binet (1857–1911)

• Devised a series of tests to measure different mental abilities for the French government

• Focused on elementary mental abilities, such as memory, attention, and the ability to understand similarities and differences

• Goal was to help identify “slow” children who could benefit from special help

• Invented concept of mental age based on the average age at which questions were answered correctly

• An “advanced” 7-year-old might have a mental age of 9, while a “slow” 7-year-old might demonstrate a mental age of 5

Lewis Terman and the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales

• Developed the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales at Stanford University

• Revision of Binet’s test

• Developed the concept of IQ:

IQ formula = MA/CA × 100

Example: A bright child of a chronological age (CA) of 8 scores at a mental age (MA) of 12 for an IQ of 150.

12/8 x 100 = 150

World War I and Group Intelligence Testing

• Army needed to develop mass testing option for millions of recruits

• Two versions:

Army Alpha

test was

administered in

writing.

Army Beta test was

administered orally to

recruits and draftees

who could not read.

May have led to overuse of tests and discrimination

David Wechsler and the Wechsler Intelligence Scales

• Dissatisfaction with Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales led to the development of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). Its several components included:

• Verbal score: Scores on subtests of vocabulary, comprehension, and knowledge of general information

• Performance score: Largely nonverbal subtests: identifying missing parts in incomplete pictures, arranging pictures to tell a story, arranging blocks to match a given pattern

• Calculated IQ by comparing an individual’s score with scores of others in same general age group

• Developed for kids: the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI)

Standardization

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• Administration of a test to a large, representative sample of people under uniform conditions for the purpose of establishing norms

Norms

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• Typically closely follow a pattern of individual differences called anormal curve, or normal distribution

Validity

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• Ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

• Does test correlate with other measures of same construct?

• School achievement?• IQ tests (i.e., Stanford-

Binet and Wechsler) correlate highly

• BUT, they were designed to test what you learn in school.

• Prestigious positions?• On-the-job performance

and other work-related variables?

Achievement test: Test designed to measure a person’s

level of knowledge, skill, or accomplishment in a particular area

Aptitude test: test designed to assess a

person’s capacity to benefit from education or training

Principles of Test Construction

Reliability

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• Ability of a test to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions

StandardizationThe Normal Curve of Distribution of IQ ScoresThe distribution of IQ scores on the WAIS-III in the general population tends to follow a bell-shaped normal curve, with the average score defined as 100. Notice that 68 percent of the scores fall within the “normal” IQ range of 85 to 115. Ninety-five percent of the general population score between 70 and 130, while only one-tenth of 1 percent score lower than 55 or higher than 145.

The Nature of IntelligencePsychologists do not agree about the basic

nature of intelligence, including whether it is a single, general ability, and whether it includes skills and talents, as well as mental aptitude.

Charles Spearman

Intelligence is a General Ability

g factor, or general intelligence

General intelligence: factor that is responsible for a person’s overall performance on tests of mental ability

Louis L. Thurstone

Intelligence is a Cluster of Abilities

Seven different “primary mental abilities” Each a relatively independent element of intelligence

Examples: verbal comprehension, numerical ability, reasoning, and perceptual speed

Howard Gardner

Multiple Intelligences

Multiple mental abilities are independent of one another and cannot be accurately reflected in a single measure of intelligence

Robert Sternberg

Three Forms of Intelligence

Proposed a different conception of successful intelligenceSuccessful intelligence involves three distinct types:Analytic intelligence—mental processes used in learning how to solve problemsCreative intelligence—the ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledgePractical intelligence—the ability to adapt to the environment (street smarts)

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Charles Spearman’s theory of intelligence

Louis L. Thurstone’s theory of intelligence

Howard Gardner’s theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg’s Theory of Intelligence

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example

The Roles of Genetics and Environment in Determining Intelligence

Question:Are differences between people due to environmental or genetic differences?

A: Both genes and environment contribute to intelligence, but the relationship is complex.

“The nature-versus-nurture debate is now informed by current research on molecular biology that moves the question from which factor is more important to how and when expression of the human genome is triggered and maintained. The basic behavior genetics issue has become how environment influences gene expression.”

Bernard Brown (1999)

“We need to appreciate that all human behavior is based on biology and, hence, will involve some degree of genetic influence. But, equally, all social behavior is bound to be affected by social context and, hence, will involve an important environmental influence.”

Michael Rutter (1997)

Twin StudiesIdentical twins

share exactly the same genes.

Fraternal twins develop from two different

fertilized eggs.

• Identical twins raised together have very similar IQ scores.

• Identical twins raised in separate homes have IQs that are slightly less similar than identical twins raised together, indicating the effect of different environments.

• Fraternal twins raised together have IQs that are less similar than identical twins raised together, but they show more similarity in IQ scores than nontwin siblings raised together.

Heredity and Environment

Heritability

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• Degree to which variation in trait stems from genetic, rather than environmental, differences among individuals

• Currently accepted heritability estimate is about 50% for the general population

Environment

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Degree to which variation is due to environmental, rather than genetic, differences.

Group Differences in IQ Scores

• Average IQ scores can differ between identifiable racial and ethnic groups.

• Asian children may score higher than European American children in middle school.

• The difference in scores is probably caused by a difference in attitude and pressure toward achievement.

Differences Within Groups Versus Differences Between Groups

An agricultural example

• Each cornfield planted from same package of genetically diverse seeds

• One field is quite fertile, the other is not

• Within each field, the differences are due to genetics

• Between each field, the differences are due to environment (fertility)

• Same point can be extended to the issue of average IQ differences between racial groups

More variation in IQ scores within a

particular group than between groups

Differences Within Groups Versus Differences Between Groups

• Unless the environmental conditions of two racial groups are virtually identical, it is impossible to estimate the overall genetic differences between the two groups.

• Other evidence for the importance of the environment in determining IQ scores:

• Improvement in average IQ scores has occurred in several cultures and countries during the past few generations

• 14 nations have shown significant gains in average IQ scores in just one generation

• Average IQ score in the United States has also steadily increased over the past century

• Such changes in a population can be accounted for only by environmental changes

More variation in IQ scores within a

particular group than between groups

Cross-Cultural Studies of Group Discrimination and IQ Differences• Tests reflect the culture in which

they are developed; cultural factors also influence test-taking behavior (culture bias)

• Burakumin of Japan are not racially different from other Japanese, but have suffered from generations of discrimination; their average IQ scores are about10 to 15 points below those of mainstream Japanese

• In many other cultures, a similar gap in IQ scores exists between the discriminated-against minority and the dominant group; cross-cultural studies show that the average IQ scores of groups that are subject to social discrimination are often lower than average score of the socially dominant group even if no racial differences exist

Reasons for Group IQ Differences

Processes:

• Fear that you might confirm stereotype, which creates psychological stress, self-doubt, and anxiety

• Physiological arousal and distracting thoughts interfere with concentration, memory, and problem-solving abilities

• Individuals who are most highly motivated to perform well are the ones most likely to be affected by stereotype threat

• Being aware of how stereotype threat can affect your performance helps minimize its negative effects

Stereotype Threat –Claude Steele

A psychological predicament in which you fear that you will be evaluated in terms of a negative stereotype about a group to which you belong; creates anxiety and self-doubt and can lower performance in a particular domain that is important to you

Example: When reminded of their racial identity, white men did worse on a math test when they thought they were competing with Asian men (Aronson & others, 1999)

Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased?

• Standardized intelligence tests may reflect white, middle-class cultural knowledge and values.

• Minority-group members may do poorly on the tests not because of lower intelligence, but because of unfamiliarity with the white, middle-class culture.

• It is generally recognized that it is virtually impossible to design a test that is completely culture-free.

• Cultural differences may also be involved in test-taking behavior.

• Cultural factors as motivation, attitudes toward test taking, and previous experiences with tests can affect performance and scores on tests.