chapter3 biological processes
TRANSCRIPT
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Biological Processes
Chapter 3pp. 74-121
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Biological Aspects of Psychology
• How does the nervous system communicate internally?
• How does the brain initiate and coordinate behaviour?
• How does the body regulate growth and other internal functions?
• How do we adapt, store, and transmit the genetic code?
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• Neuroscience– An interdisciplinary field of study directed at understanding the brain and its relations to behaviour
• Central Nervous System– The brain and the spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System– The network of nerves that link the central nervous system with the rest of the body
Neuroscience
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The Nervous System
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Fig. 2.20
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Anatomy of a Neuron
1.Dendrites2.Soma3.Axon4.Nodes of Ranvier5.Terminal buttons6.Synapse
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Axons and Dendrites
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Communication
Neurons1.Sensory neurons2.Interneurons3.Motor neurons
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Afferent and Efferent Signals
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Glial Cells(Example: Astrocytes)
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“Message” Within a Neuron: Electrical
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“Messages” Between Neurons: Chemical
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The Composition of Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids
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Neuronal Communication: Resting Potential
Polarization: Negative sign indicates that the inside is negative in comparison to the outside
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Neuronal Communication: Resting Potential
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Fig. 2.25
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Myelin Sheath and Nodes of Ranvier
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Propagation in Unmyelinated and Myelinated Axons
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Generating Action Potentials
• Change in potential, primarily because of messages from other neurons
• Excitatory messages– Depolarization: Cell loses the negative charge
• Inhibitory messages– Hyperpolarization: Cell becomes more negatively charged
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Neurotransmitters
• When action potential reaches the end of the axon, it triggers vesicles (sacs) in the terminal buttons to release chemicals called neurotransmitters
• These activate receptors in the postsynaptic membrane
• May be excitatory or inhibitory
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Fig. 2.30
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Example Neurotransmitters
• Acetylcholine– Involved in triggering muscles to contract
• Dopamine– Inhibitory effects; dampens and “smoothes out” neural messages
• Serotonin– Involved in sleep and dreaming
• Gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA)– Involved in regulating anxiety
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Drugs and the Brain
• Agonists– Mimic the action of neurotransmitters– Example: Nicotine and acetylcholine
• Antagonists– Block the action of neurotransmitters– Example: Curare and acetylcholine
• Neuromodulators– Increase or decrease effectiveness of other neurotransmitters
– Example: Endorphins
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The Communication Network: Reflexes
• Reflex–A largely automatic body movement
–Controlled by a simple network of sensory neurons, interneurons in the spinal cord, and motor neurons
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A Simple Reflex Pathway
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Central and Peripheral Nervous System
• Central Nervous System–Brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral Nervous System–Somatic–Autonomic1. Sympathetic2. Parasympathetic
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Central and Peripheral Nervous System
• Automatic system– Nerves that control the more automatic needs of the body, such as heart rate
• Sympathetic system– The division of the automatic nervous system that helps the body respond to emergencies
• Parasympathetic system– The division of the autonomic nervous system that helps the body calm down
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Brain Damage
• Studying brain damage is one of the oldest methods for investigating brain function
• To establish structure-function relationship, necessary to observe in a controlled way effects of systematic and localized remove of tissue
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Lesion
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Recording Electrodes Surgically Implanted in a Rat’s Brain
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Talking and Listening to the Brain
• Transcrancial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
• Electroencephalograph (EEG)• Event-related potentials (ERP)• Computerized tomography (CT)• Position emission tomography (PET)
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
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Evoked Potentials
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Transcranial Magentic Stimulation (TMS)
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CT Scans
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PET Scans Show Patterns of Brain Activation
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Will Imaging Technologies Allow Us to “Read” People’s Minds?
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Brain Structures
1.Hindbrain
2.Midbrain
3.Forebrain
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Hindbrain and Midbrain
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Hindbrain and Midbrain
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Forebrain
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The Cerebral Cortex
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The Case of Phineas Gage
• Illustrates effects of damage to the cerebral cortex
• Railroad construction accident, 1848
• Iron rod driven through skull• Frontal lobe damage• Gage survived• Personality changes
– Unpredictable– Crude
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Hemispheric Lateralization
• In general, left side of cortex handles information from the right side of body/space, and vice versa– With vision, each half of each eye sends information to different side of the brain
– Information does eventually go to both hemispheres•Corpus callosum transfers information across hemispheres
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Visual Processing inThe Two Hemispheres
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The hemispheres Can Be Separated
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Hemispheric Specialization
• Right hemisphere– Spatial tasks, emotions
• Left hemisphere– Verbal tasks
• Is there any such thing as being “left brained” or “right brained?”– Not according to well-designed studies– Hemispheres normally share information, work together
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Endocrine System: Regulating Growth and Internal Functions
• Endocrine system
• Hormones– Like nervous system, a means of communication
– Unlike nervous system, relatively slow, longer-lasting messages
– Coordinate with nervous system
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The Endocrine System
http://www.clinica-verde.com/pages/conditions-treated/endocrine-system.php
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Flight or Fight Response
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Gender, Hormones, and Psychology
• Before birth, hormones are released by pituitary gland and initiate developments in reproductive anatomy, determining sex organs
• Evidence exists that male and female brains differ somewhat anatomically, although such differences are often exaggerated
• Difficult to separate effects of biology (nature) from the ongoing influences of the environment (nurture)
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Natural Selection
• Natural Selection– Differential production and survival of offspring by species members with advantageous traits
• Traits are inherited via genes
• Traits can be psychological as well as physical– More likely to be passed to offspring if they aid in finding a mate, increase chance of survival
• Evolutionary Adaptations: Traits that enhance survival, fitness
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How Genes Work
• Chromosomes: Strips of DNA– Half come from mother; half from father
• Genes: Segments of chromosomes that influence particular characteristicsExamples: height, hair colour
• Dominant genes may mask recessive ones
• Genes may mutate (spontaneously change)
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How Genes Translate into Traits
• Phenotype– What you can observe about the trait– Example: A person’s weight
• Phenotype influenced by– Genotype (genes)– Environment
• So “final product” usually influenced heredity AND environment
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Genes and Behaviour
1. Family Studies
2. Adoption Studies
3. Twin Studies
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Evolutionary Adaptations and Human Behaviour
• Environment of Evolutionary Adaptedness (EEA)– The environment, or environments, in which a species’ evolutionary adaptations were selected