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Chapter Three:
Classical Greece and the
Hellenistic Period
Culture and Values, 6th Ed.Cunningham and Reich
The Classical IdealClassical period (479-323 B.C.E.)
– AKA Golden Age of Greece – unparalleled richness in artistic & intellectual achievement
Contributions of “pioneers”– Diverse subjects: drama, medicine, math,
painting, sculpture, government
Search for order and control– “Nothing too much” – perfect balance in
life; everything in proportion, nothing in excess
The Classical IdealGreek cultural life no longer dominated
by Athens– Individual artists followed their own
personal visions
Value of human potential, capability– Individuals can achieve order by
understanding human actions and motives
Central principle of Classical Ideal: existence can be ordered and controlled
The Classical Ideal
Parthenon honor human achievement and Athens as much as to honor goddess Athena
Athenians existed in a world of tension and violence– Tragic inability to put into practice
their own noble ideas and live in peace with other Greeks
– Led to Peloponnesian War– Greek search for order is significant
AthensPolitical and cultural center of
Greece during first half of Classical period– Most powerful people in the Greek
world
Exemplar of human achievement– Defeat of Persians (479 B.C.E. )
Athens
Democratic Government– First established in late 6th century– Male citizens were required to
participate in government• Ecclesia – General Assembly • Boule – directing council• Magistracies – individual • Also eligible to serve on juries
AthensDelian League – defensive
organization of Greek city-states– Guard against future attacks– Money collected was kept on the
politically neutral island, Delos– Suspicions arose the Athens was
looking to strengthen its power rather than protect all of Greece
– Funds were moved to Athens, and some was used to pay for Athenian building projects, including the Parthenon
Athens– Peloponnesian War (431- 404 B.C.E.)
• League members warred against the Athenians (Thebes, Sparta, Corinth)
– Spartans led an alliance against Athens
Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War– Describes course of the war
• Accurate and impartial
– Not meant to entertain, but to search out truth
– Died before its completion
AthensPericles – Athenian leader
– Hero of History of Peloponnesian War– Began his career after transfer of
Delian League funds– Constructed Acropolis during few
remaining years of peace• Made the glory of Athens visible
– Pericles died in 429 B.C.E.– No successor could be found who was
capable of winning respect and support
Athens
404 B.C.E. – Athens surrendered unconditionally to Spartans and their allies.
Drama Festivals of DionysusTheater = was a religious ritual
– Evolved from choral hymns sung in honor of the god Dionysus
– Theaters were regarded as sacred ground; participation in religious ritual
Surviving plays were performed at one of two annual festival sacred to Dionysus before an audience of the entire city’s population.
Drama Festivals of DionysusAuthors submitted 4 plays:3 Tragedies (trilogy) + Satyr Play
– Satyr play – lighthearted play; comedy– Plots – often drawn from mythology
• Dealt with relationship between human and divine
– Actors and props• Wore masks, elaborate costumes, and
raised shoes
Drama Festivals of Dionysus
– Function of Chorus• Forms a group centrally involved in the
action• Represents the point of view of the
spectator• Divided action into separate episodes by
singing lyric odes
Surviving texts of the plays represent only a small part of the total experience of the original performances– Music, action, choreography missing
Drama Festivals of DionysusAthenian Tragic Dramatists – differing
world views of the authors illustrate changing fate of 5th-century Athens
Aeschylus• Earliest of the playwrights (525-456 B.C.E.)
– Works show:• Optimistic philosophy/themes• Deep awareness of human weakness• Dangers of power• In the end, right will triumph• Process of being able to recognize what is
right is painful
Drama Festivals of Dionysus
Aeschylus– Orestia trilogy: Agamemnon, The
Libation Bearers, The Eumenides• Won 1st prize in festival of 458 B.C.E. at
Athens• Subject of the trilogy: Growth of
civilization represented by the gradual transition from primitive law (vendetta -blood for blood) to rational society of civilized human beings
Drama Festivals of Dionysus
Agamemnon – King Agamemnon led Greeks to victory at Troy and returns home to Argos. He killed (sacrificed) his daughter Iphigenia to have an easy passage through a war campaign. His wife, Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus murder him when he returns. – She murders him for two reasons:
• 1. Vengeance for her daughter’s death• 2. Replace Agamemnon with Aegisthus
Drama Festivals of Dionysus
Libation Bearers – Orestes, Agamemnon’s exiled son, returns to Argos to avenge his father’s death by killing his mother. – Primitive law of vendetta requires him
to act even though this act will transfer guilt to him
– The Furies drive him mad and force him from his home
Drama Festivals of Dionysus
The Eumenides – (The Kindly Ones)– Violence can only be brought to an
end by the power of reason and persuasion
Orestes comes to Athens and stands trial for the murder of his mother. Athena presides over the trial. The Furies demand condemnation, but Apollo defends Orestes and he is acquitted.
Drama Festivals of DionysusSophocles
– Most prosperous and successful of the three dramatists
– Plays express less positive vision of life than that of Aeschylus
– Explores and develops individual characters rather than expound on a point of view
– Combines an awareness of tragic consequences of individual mistakes with a belief in the collective ability and dignity of the human race
Drama Festivals of DionysusWrote Antigone, & Oedipus the KingAntigone - Antigone’s brother, Polynices
attacks his home city of Thebes and is killed. His uncle Creon, king of Thebes, forbids anyone to give him proper burial. Antigone disobeys, claiming that her religious and family obligations are more important than the state. Antigone, Antigone’s fiancee (Creon’s son), and Creon’s wife all commit suicide.
Drama Festivals of DionysusAntigone
– Creon’s stubbornness and bad judgement result in tragedy for him and Antigone
– Sophocles emphasizes how much lies outside human control; destiny or gods control what happens
– We should respect and revere forces we cannot see or understand
– Makes him the most traditional religious tragedian
Drama Festivals of DionysusOedipus the King – Oedipus is doomed or
fated before his birth to marry his mother and kill his father. He attempts to avoid his fate, and finally discovers that he has failed. – Aristotle says that the downfall of a tragic
figure is the result of hamartia (character flaw)
– Oedipus’ pride and stubbornness is his flaw.
– Flaws in character overcome his good points and destroy him.
Drama Festivals of DionysusEuripides
– Expresses weariness and disillusion of war-torn years at the end of the fifth century
– Concern for realism, and rationality– Determination to expose social,
political, and religious injustices– Did not regard the gods as worthy of
respect and worship• Charged with impiety
Drama Festivals of Dionysus– Exhibits profound sympathy and
understanding for the problems of women who live in male-dominated society
– Deepest hatred reserved for war its senseless misery
– The Suppliant Women – Mothers beg Theseus, ruler of Athens, to recover the bodies of 7 chiefs killed in war
• Reminded of the grief of wives and mothers , and war that was happening
– Expressed wide range of emotions
[Image 3.5]
The ancient theater at Delphi
Aristophanes (450-385 B.C.E.)
Athenian comic poet– Greatest comic poet of 5th century
B.C.E.
Combines political satire and fantasy– The Birds – Two Athenians leave to find
a better place to live. Join with birds and build Cloudcuckooland in midair. Cuts off communication between gods and humans. Zeus hands over authority to the birds.
Aristophanes (450-385 B.C.E.)
– Lysistrata – deals with how to prevent war
– Women refused to make love with their husbands until peace was negotiated between Athens and Sparta. Women also seize the Acropolis. Men make peace.
The Fall of Athens
Athens was removed as dominating force in Greece and no successor arose.
Philip of Macedon (359 B.C.E. )– Northern kingdom of Macedon exerted
unifying influence.– Macedonian Empire
• 338 B.C.E., Battle of Chaeronaea• Defeated Athenian and Theban forces and
unified all the cities of Greece, with the exception of Sparta
The Fall of Athens
Alexander the Great – Philip’s son– Carried out the plans of his father after
his assassination in 336 B.C.E.– Enlarged the empire and destroyed
the Persian empire
Philosophy in the Late Classical Period
SocratesIn 399 B.C.E., he was found guilty of impiety and
leading youth to question authority; he was executed
Socratic Ideas:– Fate of the individual– Questioning traditional values
Socrates wrote nothing, and did not start a school– We know about his ideas from the writing of his
disciples
Philosophy in the Late Classical PeriodTaught in public places and private
gatherings; questioning & testing ideas– Unlike Sophists, he did not take money
for teaching or start a school
After his trial and sentencing, his friends urged him to escape from prison.– Strength of his own morality and
reverence for the laws stopped him.
Philosophy in the Late Classical PeriodXenophon – Greek historian
– Account of life and teachings of Socrates
– Apology, Symposium, Memorabilia
Philosophy in the Late Classical PeriodPlato
– Dialogues – claim to record the teaching of Socrates
– Socratic Problem – questions how much of the work is historical truth or Plato’s own ideas/inventions.
• Early works preserve Socrates’ views and methods, but later works may use Socrates as the spokesman for Plato’s ideas
Philosophy in the Late Classical Period
Plato– Disciple of Socrates
• Apology – describes Socrates’ last days• Crito – explanation for why Socrates
refused to escape from prison • Phaedo – last days discussing death and
immortality with friends• Plato left Athens and traveled
Philosophy in the Late Classical Period
– Returned to Athens in 387 B.C.E.– Established The Academy – first
permanent institution in Western civilization devoted to education and research
• Forerunner of universities
Philosophy in the Late Classical Period– Academy – Curriculum
• Mathematics, law, and political theory
• Purpose was to produce experts for the service of the state
• Plato taught and died in Athens, 347 B.C.E.
– Work deals with political theory / ideal society
• Theory of Forms – perfect forms in a higher dimension of existence; phenomena in the world is a pale reflection of the perfect forms
– Careful breeding of children; censorship of music and poetry, abolition of private property
Philosophy in the Late Classical Period
Aristotle– Pupil of Plato, developed his master’s
doctrines, then looked at them critically – Founded The Lyceum – school founded in
competition with the Academy• Cut ties with Plato, introduced rival
philosophy
– Platonist vs. Aristotelian
Philosophy in the Late Classical Period
– Mornings: Aristotle lectured to full-time students
– Afternoons: students study and research in library ; general lecture for public
He wrote on every topic of serious study at the time
Philosophy in the Late Classical Period
– Metaphysics – most complex of Aristotle’s works
• Deals with Plato’s Theory of Forms - forms were actually present in the objects we see around us, not 2 realities
• Nature of God – “Thought thinking itself”
– Physics - elements that compose the universe and the laws by which they operate; physical world ruled by supreme being
– Rhetoric – ideal model of oratory
Philosophy in the Late Classical Period
– Poetics – ideal model of poetry and definition of tragedy
• Formula for tragedy: Tragic hero must be noble; possesses a tragic flaw that leads to a bad end: reversal or fortune or death
• Catharsis – The audience experiences a “cleansing” of the soul through emotional and intellectual relations with this tragic figure
– “Master of those who know.” – great creative and intellectual range
Music in the Classical PeriodPopularity of instrumental music
– No longer mere accompaniment to dramatic performances and poetry
Doctrine of Ethos – music had the power to influence human behavior– Study of music in education – Plato: participation in musical activities
molded character for better or worse• Ban on certain kinds of music with the
“wrong” ethos
Music in the Classical Period– Aristotle: music had more practical value in
the attainment of virtue• Numerical relationships in music allowed the
musician to compose works that imitated highest state of reason and virtue
Pythagorean principals– Octaves – series of 8 notes– Fourths – represents the space between the
lowest note and the fourth note up the octave
– Combination of tetrachords formed a mode
Music in the Classical PeriodHarmony – “Joining together” – in
musical context Greeks used it to describe various kinds of scales
Rhythmic instrumentation: tied to words or dance steps
Musical notation: probably borrowed from the Phoenicians
Fifth Century B.C.E.:
Sculpture and Vase PaintingArtists were concerned with ideas
of balance and orderNew interest in naturalism, realism
– Representing human body in motion– Myron’s (Discobolus) Discus Thrower
(Fig. 3.6)– Realistic treatment of action with
idealized portrayal of the athlete
Fifth Century B.C.E.:
Sculpture and Vase PaintingNew standard of human beauty
– Controlling human form according to proportion, symmetry, and balance
– Riace Bronzes (Fig. 3.7) represent warriors
Fifth Century B.C.E.:
Sculpture and Vase PaintingPolykleitos of Argos, The Canon
Devised a mathematical formula for representing the perfect male body, ideal canon of proportion
Ideal beauty consisted of a precise relationship between the various parts of the body
Doryphoros (Fig. 3.8)Bronze statue that illustrated his theory
Power of human intellect produced ideal beauty
Fifth Century B.C.E.:
Sculpture and Vase PaintingBegan to focus on individual rather
than a generalized ideal– Shift occurred due to the
Peloponnesian War– Artists began to depict emotional
responses of ordinary people to life and death
– Death and mourning became common subjects (Figs. 3.9 & 3.10)
• Scenes on oil flasks used for funerary offerings
Fifth Century B.C.E.:
ArchitectureDesigners were concerned with proportion and interrelationship
of various parts the make up the whole structureTemple of Zeus at Olympia (Fig. 3.11)
– First great artistic achievement after Persian Wars• Begun 470 B.C.E., Finished 456 B.C.E.• Largest Doric temple on mainland Greece
– Proportion and interrelationships• Distances were equal and proportionate • Theme of order
Fifth Century B.C.E.:
ArchitectureSculptures from Olympia express
conviction that justice will triumph and gods will enforce it
Art of second half of 5th century – more concerned with human achievement than divine will.
Fifth Century B.C.E.: Architecture The AcropolisPericles’ building program –
represents supreme expression in visual terms of Classical ideal– Entire program was meant to
perpetuate the memory of Athens’ glorious achievements
– Built with Delian League funds– Phidias– work done under his
direction began in 449 B.C.E.
Fifth Century B.C.E.: Architecture The AcropolisParthenon (Fig. 3.14) – first building
constructed– Temple to Athena (Parthenos)– Combines Doric columns with Ionic
features• Ionic feature: continuous running frieze in
side the outer colonnade• Doric feature: entasis of columns
– Perfection of the architectural execution required mathematical precision
• Tribute to Classical search for order
Fifth Century B.C.E.: Architecture The Acropolis3 techniques of carving
– Pediments – freestanding figures– Frieze – Low relief carvings– Metopes – High relief carvings;
illustrate mythological battles• (Fig. 3.15, 3.16)
Preoccupation with proportion and balance– Ideal beauty represented in realistic
terms
Fifth Century B.C.E.: Architecture The AcropolisPropylaea – entrance to the Acropolis (Fig. 3.18)– Begun in 437 B.C.E. – Doric and Ionic columns are used
Erechtheum – Ionic temple of complex design– Chief technical problem: Entrances on
different levels due to the uneven ground level
– Commemorated a whole series of religious events and honored several different deities
Fifth Century B.C.E.: Architecture The AcropolisElaborate and delicate decorationBest known feature: Porch of the
Maidens or South Porch (caryatids – female statues used in place of
columns) (Fig. 3.19)Conceal the structural functions of a column
behind its form
[Image 3.19]
Porch of the Maidens
Fourth Century B.C.E.:
The Visual ArtsIdealism and herioc characters of
High Classical art were replaced with interest in realism and emotion– Fate of the individual (paralleled
Plato’s ideas)– More emotional facial expressions
• Mood of dreamy tenderness
Three dominant sculptors: Praxiteles, Scopas, Lysippus
Fourth Century B.C.E.: The Visual ArtsPraxiteles
– Immense influence on his contemporaries
– Gentle melancholy – style
Hermes with Infant Dionysus (3.21)Aphrodite of Cyrene (3.22)
– Female body = object of beauty– One of the first attempts in Western art
to introduce the element of sensuality
Hermes with Infant Dionysus
-Praxiteles
Aphrodite of Cyrene
- Praxiteles
Fourth Century B.C.E.:
The Visual ArtsScopas
– Emphasis on emotion and intensity in his artwork
• Pothos (Desire) (Fig. 3.23) – Roman copies
Lysippus– Official portraitist of Alexander the Great– Focused on Individual characteristics,
proportion, large scale works, and concern for realism
• Apoxyomenos (The Scraper) (Fig. 3.24)
Pothos - Scopas
Fourth Century B.C.E.:The Visual Arts
Sanctuaries at Delphi and Olympia were expanded
New cities were laid out at Rhodes, Cnidus, & Priene using Classical principles
Invention of building forms new to Greek architecture, including the tholos (circular building)
Fourth Century B.C.E.:The Visual Arts
– Tholos of the Sanctuary of Athena Pronaia, Delphi(Fig. 3.25)
– Temple of Artemis at Ephesus; most grandiose
End of Classical Greece– Alexander died in the summer of 323
B.C.E.; the division of his empire into separate independent kingdoms spread Greek culture even more widely.
• Even as far away as India (Gandharan)
The Hellenistic Period
Alexander’s general’s inability to agree on a successor led to the division of Macedonian Empire– 4 most important kingdoms that split
off: Syria, Egypt, Pergamum, Macedonia
– Spread of Greek influence• Greek verb “to Hellenize”
Alexandria, Egypt was the greatest of all centers of Greek learning
The Hellenistic Period
The Museum or Temple of the Muses– Planned by King Ptolemy– Library contained everything of
importance written in Greek, up to 700,000 separate works
– Destroyed by fire when Julius Caesar besieged the city in 47 B.C.E.
The Hellenistic PeriodTo maintain importance of Greek
culture (and fend off foreign influence), rulers turned to visual arts– Inspired by Alexander’s spirit of
adventure and experiment, artists began to discover new subjects and invent new techniques
– (Fig. 3.26)
Alexander the Great
The Hellenistic Period
Artistic freedom vs. Classical order– Classical: clarity and balance; order;
calm and restrained• Most of Classical work had been created
for the state
– New style (Hellenistic Art): emotional; expressive; perpetual motion and reality (i.e., riotous confusion)
– Development of realistic portraiture
The Hellenistic Period
New patrons = new artistic roles– Rulers and wealthy businessmen
commissioned works for lavish decoration for cities or adorn private palaces and villas
Architects began to design marketplaces, theaters, scientific and technical buildings– Fig. 3.27 – Lighthouse at Alexandria
The Hellenistic PeriodPergamum – wealthy city ruled by
dynasty of kings known as the Attalids– Layout of the city represents a rejection
of Classical concepts of order and balance (Fig. 3.28)
Altar of Zeus at Pergamum– Chief religious shrine erected by
Eumenes II– (Fig. 3.29) – frieze decoration depicts
battle of gods and giants
The Hellenistic Period
– Altar represents the most complete illustration of the principles and practice of Hellenistic art
• Rich, elaborate, detailed,
Laocoön (fig. 3.30)– freestanding piece of sculpture
The Hellenistic Period
Return to Classic principles – artists and public were weary of the richness and elaboration of Hellenistic style
Roman conquest brought an end to Hellenistic Greece